CHAPTER III.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Research Method/ Design – discuss the specific design used in the study
- Consider your aims and approach
- Choose a type of research design

Consider your aims and approach

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative approach Quantitative approach

 Measure different types of variables and
 Understand subjective experiences,
describe frequencies, averages, and
beliefs, and concepts
correlations
 Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific
 Test hypotheses about relationships
context or culture
between variables
 Explore under-researched problems and
 Test the effectiveness of a new
generate new ideas
treatment, program or product

Choose a type of research design

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to
choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

 Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect

relationships
 Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe
relationships between them.

Type of design Purpose and characteristics

 Used to test causal relationships
 Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its
effect on a dependent variable
Experimental
 Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
 Usually conducted in a controlled environment (e.g., a lab)

Quasi-  Used to test causal relationships

experimental  Similar to experimental design, but without random assignment
 Type of design Purpose and characteristics
 Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups
 Often conducted in a natural environment (higher ecological validity)

 Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related

Correlational  Variables are measured without influencing them

 Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc

Descriptive  Variables are measured without influencing them

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of

2. Population/Respondents- This explains how and where the participants or

subjects are taken.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while
a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations,

texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are
you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative
sample.

Population exampleIf you’re studying the effectiveness of online teaching in the US, it would be
very difficult to get a sample that’s representative of all high school students in the country.

To make the research more manageable, and to draw more precise conclusions, you could focus
on a narrower population—for example, 9th-grade students in low-income areas of New York.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every
individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results
to the population as a whole.
 Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
 Sample is selected using random  Sample selected in a non-random way
methods  Used in both qualitative and quantitative
 Mainly used in quantitative research research
 Allows you to make strong statistical  Easier to achieve, but more risk of
inferences about the population research bias

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless
you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware
of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to
gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

3. Locale of the Study (*Figure 1. Map Showing the Location of the

Research Locale) – this section describes the relevant characteristics of the
place/locale that have something to do with the research.
4. Instrument- the research instrument either questionnaire, test, interview, observation
schedule or rating scale must be described on how it is being designed and used by the
researcher. This instrument will be used to gather data.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by
asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and
interviews.

Questionnaires Interviews
 More common in quantitative research  More common in qualitative research
 May be distributed online, by phone, by  Conducted by researcher in person, by
mail or in person phone or online
 Usually offer closed questions with  Usually allow participants to answer in
limited options their own words
 Consistent data can be collected from  Ideas can be explored in-depth with a
many people smaller group (e.g., focus group)

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics,

behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.
Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make
audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative observation Qualitative observation

 Taking detailed notes and writing rich
 Systematically counting or measuring
descriptions
 Categories and criteria determined in
 All relevant observations can be
advance
recorded

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

Field Examples of data collection methods

Media & Collecting a sample of texts (e.g., speeches, articles, or social media posts)
communication for data on cultural norms and narratives
Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based
Psychology tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional response, or
reaction time
Education Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills
Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood
Physical sciences
pressure, or chemical composition

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some
papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in,
you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example,
datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t
addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much
larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to
measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

Materials / Equipment –Treatment

 5. Data Gathering Procedure- it tells how will you administer the instrument or the
data gathering tools. Narrate in detail all the procedures arranged according to research
problems.
- the manner & sequence by which each experiment or set of observations were done.
Avoid using the “recipe style” when stating the step-by-step procedure. Use the
narrative form in the past tense.
- the exact technical specifications, quantities and source of method of preparation for
all materials used should be given. Specifically, built equipment used in the study
must be described and the description accompanied by a picture

- Plan your data collection procedures

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to
collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need
to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and
validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more
abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning
these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations, which events or actions will you count?

ExampleTo measure student participation in an online course, you could record the number of
times students ask and answer questions.

If you’re using surveys, which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be
offered?

ExampleTo measure teachers’ satisfaction with online learning tools, you could create a
questionnaire with a 5-point rating scale.

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re
interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has
already been established.

6. Treatment of Data- is planning how you’ll analyze the data. & how measurements
were obtained should be described in detail

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis. With statistics,
you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics, you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

 The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
 The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
 The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the
scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics, you can:

 Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.

 Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while
comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs) look for differences in the outcomes of different
groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the
types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

7. Ethical Consideration

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research.
If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics.

 How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
 Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific
location or contacting specific people)?
 Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview
techniques)?
 Will you need ethical approval?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.