MUHAMMAD SAFIULLAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated from Sindh board of Technical Education DC FUNDAMENTALS Trade: DAE .1(Electronics) Chapter: 2

Electrical Essentials & Network

Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them. The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is: together and the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any of the individual resistances. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series their combined resistance, R, is given by: R = R1 + R2 This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + . . . . Rn

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms

Derivation of Series circuit Resistance

R = R1 + R2 + R3 If 3 resistors in series then current is same in all resistors but voltage is different. So, the total voltage will be the sum of 3 voltages in network it is given by, V=V1 + V2 + V3 Where, V1=I*R1 , V2=I*R2 , V3=I*R3 So, I*R=I*R1 + I*R2 + I*R3 R = R1 + R2 + R3

Specific resistance OR Law of Resistance

Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre ( m). It is commonly represented by the Greek letter (rho) .Many resistors and conductors have a uniform cross section with a uniform flow of electric current and are made of one material. So, Resistivity is given by

Where

Resistors connected in Parallel

R is the electrical resistance of material (measured in ohms, ) When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less than any of the individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2: R= R1 R2 R1 + R2 For more than two resistors connected in parallel as 3

is the length of the of material (measured in metres, m) A is the cross-sectional area (measured in square metres, m). The reason resistivity has the dimension units of ohmmetres can be seen by transposing the definition to make resistance The resistance of a given sample will increase with the length, but decrease with greater cross-sectional area.

Derivation of Parallel circuit Resistance:

Conductance
The electrical resistance of an electrical element measures its opposition to the passage of an electric current; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, measuring how easily electricity flows along a certain path The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S). If 3 resistors in parallel then current is different in all resistors but voltage is same. So, the total current will be the sum of 3 currents in network it is given by, I= I1 + I2 + I3 Where, I1=V/R1 , I2=V/R2 , I3=V/R3 , So, V/R=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

Conductivity
Conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal quantity, and measures a material's ability to conduct an electric current. It Is commonly represented by the Greek letter (sigma),. Its SI unit is siemens per metre (Sm1).

Resistors connected in Series

When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to the individual resistances added

MUHAMMAD SAFIULLAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated from Sindh board of Technical Education DC FUNDAMENTALS Trade: DAE .1(Electronics) Chapter: 2

Electrical Essentials & Network

Series-Connected Cells:
Assume that a load requires a power supply of 6 volts and a current capacity of 1/8 ampere. Since a single cell normally supplies a voltage of only 1.5 volts, more than one cell is needed. To obtain the higher voltage, the cells are connected in series as shown in figure.

Electrical power:
The instantaneous electrical power P delivered to a component is given by

Where P (t) is the instantaneous power, measured in watts (joules per second) V (t) is the potential difference (or voltage drop) across the component, measured in volts I (t) is the current through it, measured in amperes If the component is a resistor with time-invariant voltage When connecting cells in series, connect alternate terminals together (- to +, - to +, etc.) Always have two remaining terminals that are used for connection to the load only. Do not connect the two remaining terminals together as this is a short across the battery. In series we Increase the voltage and hence the current. If one cell fails the system fails.

to current ratio, then

Energy:
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical, or other forms. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) or Newton-meter (N * m). The joule is also the SI unit of work.

Parallel-Connected Cells:
Suppose an electrical load requires only 1.5 volts, but will require 1/2 ampere of current. (Assume that a single cell will supply only 1/8 ampere.) To meet this requirement, the cells are connected in parallel, In a parallel connection, all positive cell electrodes are connected to one line, and all negative electrodes are connected to the other. There are four cells, So the total line current is 1/8 x 4, or 1/2 ampere. In this case four cells in parallel have enough capacity to supply a load requiring 1/2 ampere at 1.5 volts.

Color code:
Color coding is used to determine the value of a resistor from the colors of the bands. Each color represents a number according to the following table:

In parallel the voltage remains the same and hence the current. The system will last longer since there is less demand on each cell. If one cell fails the system continues to operate.

Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Color Black Brown Red Orange yellow Green Blue Violet Grey white

Series-Parallel-Connected Cells:
Figure shows a battery network supplying power to a load requiring both a voltage and a current greater than one cell can provide. To provide the required 4.5 volts, groups of three 1.5-volt cells are connected in series. To provide the required 1/2 ampere of current, four series groups are connected in parallel, each supplying 1/8 ampere of current.

The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. For the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4 The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT. This is a violet band, making the second digit 7 The third band is called the MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same way. The multiplier tells you how many zeros you should

MUHAMMAD SAFIULLAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated from Sindh board of Technical Education DC FUNDAMENTALS Trade: DAE .1(Electronics) Chapter: 2

Electrical Essentials & Network

write after the digits you already have. A red band tells you to add 2 zeros. The value of this resistor is therefore 4 7 0 0 ohms, that is, 4 700 . , or 4.7 rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule. The Law implies that, At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node. Or The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.

The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-colored tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the nominal value. Other tolerance colors are: Color Gold Silver Tolerance +5% +10%

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.

The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction. i1 + i4 = i2 + i3 Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's second rule. The Law implies that The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero. Or More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in that loop. Similarly to KCL, it can be stated as:

When you want to read off a resistor value, look for the tolerance band, usually gold, and hold the resistor with the tolerance band at its right hand end. Fixed Resistor

Types of Resistors
Fixed resistors are used to reduce the flow of current. The value of the resistance is fixed and does not change with change in the applied voltage or current flowing through it. Variable resistor An electronic component that is used to vary the amount of current that flows through a circuit and Potentiometers are variable resistors commonly used to control the volume on a radio or music system. Wire-wound resistor A resistor employing as the resistance element a length of high-resistance wire. Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. Carbon composition Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Metal Oxide film Metal-Oxide film resistors resemble Metal film types, but are made of metal oxides such as tin oxide. This results in a higher operating temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film.

The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero. v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

Types of Batteries
Nickel-cadmium battery The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd or NiCad) is a type of rechargeable battery. The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries. NiCd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other rechargeable batteries such as lead/acid batteries. The primary trade-off with NiCd batteries is their higher cost and the use of cadmium.

Resistor troubles
The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit is low compared to other electronic components such as semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to resistors most often occurs due to overheating when the average power delivered to it.

Mercury battery

Kirchhoff's laws
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point

A mercury battery (also called mercuric oxide battery or mercury cell) is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery, a primary cell. Due to the content of mercury, and the resulting environmental concerns, the sale of mercury

MUHAMMAD SAFIULLAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated from Sindh board of Technical Education DC FUNDAMENTALS Trade: DAE .1(Electronics) Chapter: 2

Electrical Essentials & Network

batteries is banned in many countries. Mercury batteries were made in button types for watches, hearing aids, and calculators, and in larger forms for other applications.

Leadacid battery

Lead-acid batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.