HYDRAULICS

ENGINEERING
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be able
to:
• Define Hydraulics Engineering
• Familiarize with the history of hydraulics
• Recall the principles learned in Fluid
Mechanics
• Understand the different terminologies used in
Hydraulics Engineering
HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING
Hydraulics Engineering is a branch of civil
engineering that deals with the study of measure or
control the flow of fluids. It is a sub-discipline of civil
engineering that addresses the control and
management of water resources.
Hydraulics Engineer is an engineer that specializes on
hydraulics engineering. They play a vital role in the
design and functionality of hydraulic structures.
Hydraulic Structures are devices designed to retain,
regulate, or control the flow of water. Hydraulic
structures form part of most major water engineering
schemes, for irrigation, water supply, drainage,
sewage treatment, hydropower, etc.
SHORT HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics is a very ancient science. The Egyptians
and Babylonians constructed canals, both for irrigation and
for defensive purposes. No attempts were made at the time
to understand the laws of fluid motion. The first notable
attempts to rationalize the nature of pressure and flow
patterns were undertaken by the Greeks. The laws of
hydrostatics and buoyancy were enunciated; hydraulic
equipment such as piston pump, water clock and
Archimedes screw pump were designed.
SHORT HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS
The Romans appear to have been more interested in the practical and
constructional aspects of hydraulics than in theorizing. Thus, development continued
slowly until the time of the Renaissance, when men began to publish the results of their
observations. Ideas which emerged then, respecting conservation of mass (continuity
flow), frictional resistance and the velocity of surface waves, are still in use, sometimes
in a more refined form.
Toricelli et al. observed the behavior of water jets. They compared the path
traced by a free jet with projectile theory and related the jet velocity to the square
root of the pressure generating the flow. The Italians were hydraulicians in the original
sense of the word, i.e., they were primarily empiricists. Up to this point, mathematics
was largely confined to the principles of geometry.
In the seventeenth century, Descartes, Pascal, Newton, Boyle, Hooke and
Leibnits laid the foundations of modern mathematics and physics. This enabled
researchers to perceive a logical pattern in the various aspects of mechanics. On this
basis, four great pioneers – Bernoulli, Euler, Clairaut and D’Alembert – developed the
academic discipline of hydrodynamics.
SHORT HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS
Further progress was made, both in experimentation and in analysis. In Italy,
Poleni investigated the concept of discharge coefficients. The French and German
thinkers then led the way to further development. Henri de Pitot constructed a device
which could measure flow velocity. Antoine Chezy, followed by Eytelwein and
Woltmann, developed a rational equation to describe flow in streams. Woltmann and
Venturi used Bernoulli’s work as a basis for developing the principles of flow
measurement.
The nineteenth century was a period of further advance. Hagen constructed
experiments to investigate the effects of temperature on pipe flow. He was probably
the first person knowingly to observe turbulence, though he was unable to grasp its
significance fully. At almost the same time, a French doctor (Poiseuille) was also
making observations on flow in pipes, which led to the development of equations for
laminar flow in pipes. Further contributions were made by Weisbach, Bresse and Henri
Darcy, who developed equations for frictional resistance in pipe and channel flows.
Reynolds also succeeded in defining different types of flow, observing cavitation and
explaining Darcy’s friction law in greater detail.
SHORT HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS
The twentieth century has, in consequence, seen tremendous advances in the
understanding of fluid mechanics in almost every branch of engineering. Since 1945,
the advent of the electronic computer and advances in sensing and data logging
equipment have revolutionized many aspects of hydraulics. Our understanding of the
nature of turbulence, steady and unsteady flow in channels, sediment transport and
maritime phenomena have developed rapidly. This led to developments in
mathematical modelling and hence to ever-improving computer software.
Hydraulics research continues on an international scale to seek solutions to the
many pressing problems in water and environmental management. There is therefore
every reason to expect that engineers and scientists working in this area will face
exciting and difficult challenges which will make the fullest demand on their skills.
RECALL IN FLUID MECHANICS
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shear stresses. The term fluid embraces both gases and
liquids; a given mass of liquid will occupy a definite volume whereas
a gas will fill its container. Gases are readily compressible; the low
compressibility, or elastic volumetric deformation, of liquids is
generally neglected in computations except those relating to large
depths in the oceans and in pressure transients in pipelines.
Properties of Fluid
• Mass Density, ρ (Density)
• It is the mass per unit volume.
• The mass density of water is 1,000 kg/m3 (SI) or 1.94
slugs/ft3 (English).
• Specific Weight, γ
• It is the weight per unit volume.
• The specific weight of water is 9.81 kN/m3 (SI) or 62.4
slugs/ft3 (English).
RECALL IN FLUID MECHANICS
Properties of Fluid
• Relative Density, s
• It is the ratio of its mass density to that of water at a standard
temperature (4°C) and pressure (atmospheric) and is
dimensionless.
• The relative density of water is s = 1.
•Viscosity
• It is the measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation.
• Viscosity is that property of a fluid which by virtue of cohesion
and interaction between fluid molecules offers resistance to shear
deformation
• For a velocity gradient, dv/dy, the shear stress between any
two thin sheets of fluid is = μ(dv/dy), where μ is the dynamic
viscosity. Dynamic viscosity, μ is expressed in (N · s)/m2.
•Kinematic viscosity (ν) is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the
density in which the gradient force cancels out in μ/ρ. ν =
μ/ρ. Kinematic viscosity is expressed in m2/s.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. The density of an oil at 20°C is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and
kinematic viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 × 10−3 kg/(m s).
Solution:
Relative density,
𝟐
𝟔𝒎
Kinematic viscosity,
𝒔
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Flow Properties
• Pressure, P
• It is the force F acting over an area A. Denoted
as force distributed over an area.
• It exists whenever fluids is either at rest or in
motion.
• Velocity, v
• The rate of change in displacement with
respect to time.
• Discharge (Flow Rate, Q)
• It is the volume rate of flow that passes a given
section in a flow stream.
• For compressible fluids (Gases, weight
discharge and mass discharge is used.
• For incompressible fluids (e.g. water),
volume discharge is used.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Based on the definition of discharge:

Integrating the equation

where:
discharge
velocity
cross-sectional area
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Streamlines are lines drawn through a fluid field so that the velocity
vectors of the fluid at all points on the streamlines are tangent to the
streamline at any instant in time. The figure below shows the different
streamlines.

Streamlines. (a) Flow in a conduit; (b) Flow from a slot; (c) Open-channel; (d)
Open-channel flow (nonuniform)
Streamtubes is an element of fluid bounded by a special group of
streamlines which enclose or confine flow.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Flow Visualization - (How we see / study fluid's motion)
There are two viewpoints on the motion of fluids,
the Eulerian viewpoint and the Lagrangian viewpoint.
•The Lagrangian viewpoint focuses on the motion of
individual fluid particles and follows these particles for all
time.
•The Eulerian viewpoint focuses on a particular point or
control volume in space and considers the motion of fluid
that passes through as a function of time.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Types of Fluid Flow
The types of fluid flow is divided into two (2) which are with respect to
time and with respect to displacement.
Type of Fluid Flow with respect to time
•Steady Flow - occurs when the velocity at a point in the flow field does
not vary in magnitude or direction with respect to time.
•Unsteady Flow - occurs when the velocity does vary in magnitude or
direction at a point in the flow field with respect to time.
Type of Fluid Flow with respect to displacement
•Uniform Flow - is defined as one in which the velocity does not change
from point to point along any of the streamlines in the flow field.
•Non-uniform Flow - is defined as one in which the
velocity does change from point to point along any of the streamlines
in the flow field.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A pipe has a diameter of 0.5 meters. Water is flowing at a rate of
0.75 m/s. Determine the flow rate in the pipe.
Given:
Diameter, Φ = 0.50 m
Velocity, v = 0.75 m/s
Solution:

𝒎𝟑
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A fluid has a flow rate of 0.98 ft3/s. The radius of the pipe is 2.5
inches. Determine the velocity in ft/s.
Given:
Flow rate, Q = 0.98 ft3/s
Radius, r = 2.5 inches
Solution:

𝟎.𝟗𝟖
.
𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝒇𝒕
𝒔
REFERENCES
• Mays, Larry W., (2011) Water Resources Engineering, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. U.S.A.
• Chadwick, Morfett and Borthwick, (2013), Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 5th edition, CRC Press, U.S.A.
• Marriott, Martin, (2016), Nalluri & Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics:
Essential Theory with worked examples, 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, U.K.
HEAD, ENERGY
AND GRADE LINES
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be able
to:
• Familiarize with the hydraulic terms head,
energy and grade lines.
• Understand the conservation of matter, energy
and momentum as they apply to a flowing fluid.
HEAD
Head is the required energy per unit weight of fluid
to increase at a certain vertical distance.
There are three (3) common types head that is used
in hydraulics.
1. Elevation Head, hz
• It is vertical distance from the
datum/reference line to the center of the
pipe/conduit.
2. Pressure Head, hp
• It is the vertical measurement from the center
of the pipe to the maximum height that the
water can reach when a piezometer is
attached to a pipe conduit.
HEAD
2. Pressure Head, hp

where:
pressure
unit weight
pressure
3. Velocity Head, hv
• Refers to the amount of kinetic energy per unit weight of
fluid.
• Deriving the equation for the velocity head using the
equation in physics for kinetic energy:

where: K.E. = Kinetic Energy; m = mass; v = velocity

HEAD
3. Velocity Head, hV

• Additionally, based on the definition, the weight is equal to 1

because the statement stated “a unit weight” which means 1.

• Rearranging the equation

𝟐
𝒗
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Determine the pressure head if the fluid has a specific gravity (SG)
= 0.65 and it experience pressure at 7 kPa.
Given:
Sg = 0.65
P = 7 kPa
hP = ?
Solution

. .

𝒑
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. The flow of a liquid inside a conduit is 8 m/s. Determine the velocity
head.
Given:
V = 8 m/s
hv = ?
Solution

( )
( . )

𝒗
ENERGY
Recalling from physics, energy is the ability to do work. Work is the
measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is moved over
a distance by an external force at least part of which is applied in the
direction of the displacement.
Kinetic Energy is present in flowing fluid. This is because the fluid is
flowing thus there is velocity.
Potential Energy is present in flowing fluid. These are the elevation head
and pressure head.
Total Energy in a fluid motion is the sum of the potential energy and the
kinetic energy or

where:
TE = total energy in m or ft
hz = elevation head in m or ft
hp = pressure head in m or ft
hv = velocity head in m or ft
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A fluid flowing in a pipe with a specific gravity of 0.79 has a velocity
of 0.95 m/s. The pressure inside the pipe is 1.25 kPa. The distance
center of the pipe from the datum line is 8 m. Determine the total
energy.
Given:
Sg = 0.79
v = 0.95 m/s
z =8 m
P = 1.25 kPa
TE = ?
Solution

. ( . )
. ( . ) ( . )
GRADE LINES
Grade Lines are graphical representation of the head in a part of
the pipe or conduit. The grade lines will also show you the flow of
the water or fluid.
Types of Grade Lines
1. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• The graphical representation fro the total potential energy of
a section of the pipe or conduit.
2. Energy Grade Line (EGL)
• The graphical representation for the total energy of a section
of the pipe or conduit.
GRADE LINES
Characteristics of Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but
may rise or fall due to changes in velocity or
pressure.
• For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to
the EGL.
• For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the
drop in pressure heads between any two points is
also equal to the head lost between these two
points.
GRADE LINES
Characteristics of Energy Grade Line
• EGL slopes downward in the direction of flow and will only rise
with the presence of a pump.
• For uniform cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
• The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost
between those points.
• EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity
head.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
GRADE LINES
GRADE LINES
REFERENCES
• Mays, Larry W., (2011) Water Resources Engineering, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. U.S.A.
• Chadwick, Morfett and Borthwick, (2013), Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 5th edition, CRC Press, U.S.A.
• Marriott, Martin, (2016), Nalluri & Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics:
Essential Theory with worked examples, 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, U.K.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
AND THE BERNOULLI
EQUATION
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be able
to:
• To understand the meaning of Continuity
Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation
• To analyze hydraulic problems using Continuity
Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
In order to develop the equations which describe a
flow, hydrodynamicists assumed that fluids are
subject to certain fundamental laws of physics. The
pertinent laws are
1. Conservation of Matter (Mass)
2. Conservation of Energy
3. Conservation of Momentum
1. Conservation of Matter (Mass)
The law of conservation of matter states that matter
cannot be created nor destroyed, though it may be
changed from one form to another (e.g., by a
chemical or nuclear process). This study of hydraulics
excludes chemical processes, etc., so conservation
of matter can be simplified to the principle of
conservation of mass.
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
2. Conservation of Energy and the Concept of “Work”
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created nor destroyed, though it may be transformed from one type
to another. Work and energy are related terms.
Work done is the product of a force, multiplied by a distance
through which the force has acted.
Energy is the capacity or potential for doing work and therefore has
the same dimensions (N m) as work done. Energy can exist in a
number of forms but for our immediate purposes we are interested
in only three, which can be applied to an incompressible liquid.
1. Potential Energy
2. Kinetic Energy
3. Energy Formed by pressure in flowing fluids
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
3. Conservation of Momentum
The law of conservation of momentum states that
a body in motion cannot gain nor lose momentum
unless some external force is applied. The classical
statement of this law is Newton’s second law of
motion, i.e., if momentum = mass × velocity, then
Force = rate of change of momentum
Control Volumes
A control volume is a purely imaginary region
within a body of flowing fluid. The region is usually
(though not always) at a fixed location and of
fixed size. Inside the region, all of the dynamic
forces cancel each other.
APPLICATION OF THE CONSERVATION
LAWS TO FLUID FLOWS
Continuity Equation (Principle of Conservation of Mass)
Considering incompressible flow
Mass flow entering = mass flow leaving
Mass flow = (density of fluid, ρ) x (volume of fluid entering per
second, Q)
ρQ(entering) = ρQ(leaving)
Q(entering) = Q(leaving)
Since Q = Av, the continuity equation may also be written as:
A1v1 = A2v2
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Water flows at a uniform velocity of 3 m/s into a nozzle that reduces the diameter
from 10cm to 2cm. Calculate the water’s velocity leaving the nozzle and the flow
rate.

Solution
A1v1 = A2v2
.
( )
.
( )

. 𝟑
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Water flows in and out of a device as shown in the figure. Calculate the rate of
change of the mass of water in the device.

Solution

.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A water tank is being filled through section 1 at v1 = 5 m/s and through section 3 at
Q3 = 0.012 m3/s. If water level “h” is constant, determine the exit velocity , v2.
Solution

therefore,

. .
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS
Energy Equation (Principle of Conservation of Energy)
Bernoulli’s Equation is based on the law of
conservation of energy. It means that energy at the
entry point of control volume should be equal the
energy at the exit point.
Based on this definition of Bernoulli’s Equation:
E1 = E2
E1 = hz1 + hp1 + hv1
E2 = hz2 + hp2 + hv2
Therefore;
hz1 + hp1 + hv1 = hz2 + hp2 + hv2
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. For the frictionless syphon shown in the figure, determine the
discharge and the pressure heads at A and B, given that the pipe
diameter is 200 mm and the nozzle exit diameter is 150mm.
Solution
hz1 + hp1 + hv1 = hz2 + hp2 + hv2
P1 = 0; P2 = 0
V1 = 0
Therefore, hz1 = hz2 + hv2
z1 – z2 =

. 𝒎𝟑
Q = vA =
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. For the frictionless syphon shown in the figure, determine the
discharge and the pressure heads at A and B, given that the pipe
diameter is 200 mm and the nozzle exit diameter is 150mm.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation from 1-A
hz1= hz2 + hp2 + hv2

.
vA = .

Hence,
.
.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. For the frictionless syphon shown in the figure, determine the
discharge and the pressure heads at A and B, given that the pipe
diameter is 200 mm and the nozzle exit diameter is 150mm.
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s Equation from 1-B
hz1= hz2 + hp2 + hv2

.
vA = v B = .

Hence,
.
.
REFERENCES
• Mays, Larry W., (2011) Water Resources Engineering, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. U.S.A.
• Chadwick, Morfett and Borthwick, (2013), Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 5th edition, CRC Press, U.S.A.
• Marriott, Martin, (2016), Nalluri & Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics:
Essential Theory with worked examples, 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, U.K.
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be able
to:
• Apply the energy equation to numerous
engineering situation.
• Analyze problems using Bernoulli’s Equation
with Head Loss
ENERGY EQUATION
Many problems involving fluid motion demand that
the first law of thermodynamics, often referred to as
the energy equation, be used to relate quantities of
interest.
In many fluid flows, useful forms of energy and flow
work are converted into unusable energy forms. And
these unusable energy forms are defined as losses.
Losses is the sum of all the terms representing
unusable forms of energy.
Losses are due to primary effects:
1. Viscosity causes internal friction that results in
increased internal energy (temperature change)
or heat energy.
2. Changes in geometry result in separated flows
that require useful energy to maintain the
resulting secondary motions in which viscous
dissipation occurs.
MODIFICATIONS TO BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain
constant. Energy is “lost” through friction, and external energy may
be added by means of a pump or extracted by a turbine. These
energy gains and losses are introduced into Bernoulli’s Equation.
Considering a streamline between two points 1 and 2, if the energy
head lost through friction is denoted by hf and the external energy
head added or extracted is E, then Bernoulli’s Equation may be
written as
H1 + E = H2 + hf
or

There are other forms of energy (e.g., thermal and turbulent energy)
which have not been considered here. However, the modified
Bernoulli’s Equation can be used to deal with many practical
problems.
TURBINE AND PUMP
The power generated by the turbine with an Efficiency of ηT

The power requirement by a pump with an efficiency of ηP

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A pump delivers water from a lower to higher reservoir. The difference in elevation
between the reservoirs is 10 m. The pump provides an energy head of 11 m and the
frictional head losses are 0.7 m. If the pipe diameter is 300 mm, calculate the
discharge.
Solution
Apply the modified Bernoulli’s equation from the lower to the higher reservoir
H1 + 11 = H2 + 0.7

Taking p1 = p2 = 0 and V1 = 0

; V2 = 2.426 m/s
Applying continuity equation
. 𝒎𝟑
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A turbine is rated at 450 kW when the flow of water through it is 0.609 m3/s. Assuming
an efficiency of 87%, what head is acting on the turbine?
Solution:

450 kW = (0.609 m3/s)(9.81 kN/m3)(E)(0.87)

E = 86.6 m
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. The pump in the figure is to increase the pressure of 0.2 m3/s of water from 200 kPa to
600 kPa. If the pump is 85% efficient, how much electrical power will the pump
require? The exit area is 20 cm above the inlet area. Assume inlet and exit areas are
equal.

Solution:
,

( , )( . )( . )
or 94.6KW
.
REFERENCES
• Mays, Larry W., (2011) Water Resources Engineering, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. U.S.A.
• Chadwick, Morfett and Borthwick, (2013), Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental
Engineering, 5th edition, CRC Press, U.S.A.
• Marriott, Martin, (2016), Nalluri & Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics:
Essential Theory with worked examples, 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, U.K.
FLUID FLOW
MEASUREMENT
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be
able to:
• Understand the different device, instrument
or apparatus used in measuring the flow of
the fluid.
• Apply Bernoulli’s Principle in fluid flow
measurement.
HYDRAULIC AND MEASURING DEVICES
Common Devices used in flow measurement:
1. Pitot Tube – a flow measurement device used to measure
fluid flow velocity.
2. Venturi Meter – a flow measurement device used to
measure discharge. It utilizes Bernoulli’s principle to measure
the discharge directly.
3. Parshall Flume – Used to measure discharge in an open
channel.
4. Orifice – it is a hole in the wall of a container through which
water may flow. It is used primarily to measure or to control
the flow of the fluid.
5. Nozzle – It is used to increase the velocity of the jet.
6. Weir – is a hydraulic structure that regulates the flow of
water out of an impoundment or reservoir.
7. Hydraulic Gates – a hydraulic structure used to control the
passage of water.
DEVICE COEFFICIENT
Device coefficient is the ratio of the actual value and the
theoretical value.
1. Coefficient of Discharge – the ratio of the actual discharge
through the device to the ideal or theoretical discharge
which would occur without losses.

2. Coefficient of Velocity – the ratio of the actual velocity to

the ideal or theoretical velocity which would occur without
any losses.

3. Coefficient of Contraction – the ratio of the actual area of

the contracted section of the stream or jet to the area of
the opening through which the fluid flows.

The area of jet is also called the Vena Contracta

DEVICE COEFFICIENT
Relationship between the three coefficient
Actual discharge,
Also,

but

Therefore
𝒅 𝒄 𝒗
HEAD LOST
The head lost through Venturi meters, orifices, tubes, and nozzles may be derived from
Bernoulli’s Equation.

and

( ⁄ )

( ⁄ )
HEAD LOST
The head lost through Venturi meters, orifices, tubes, and nozzles may be derived from
Bernoulli’s Equation.

( ⁄ )
ORIFICE
An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which
fluid flows. It is used primarily to measure or control the flow of
fluid. An orifice with a prolonged side, such as a piece of pipe,
having a length two or three times its diameter, is called a short
tube.
According to shape, orifice may be circular, square, or
rectangular in cross-section.
ORIFICE
Formulas used in flow measurement using orifice
Theoretical velocity,
Actual velocity,
Theoretical discharge,
Actual discharge,
Wherein H is the total head producing flow in meters or feet of the
flowing fluid. It can be noted that H is the sum of the flow energy
upstream less the flow energy downstream, or
H = Head Upstream – Head Down Stream
ORIFICE
Values of H for different conditions
Submerged Orifice
H = H2 – H1 = H
ORIFICE
Contraction of the Jet
The figure shown represents a cross-section of fluid flow
through a vertical sharp-edged orifice from a reservoir to
the atmosphere. The fluid flowing is coming from all
direction upstream from the orifice and as they leave the
orifice, they cannot make an abrupt change in their
direction, and they move in curvilinear paths, thus causing
the jet to contract for a short distance beyond the orifice.
The phenomenon is referred to as the contraction of the jet.
The section of the jet where the contraction ceases is
called the vena contracta which is approximate located at
one half of the orifice diameter from the upstream face.
ORIFICE
Orifice under Low Heads
When the head on a vertical orifice is small in comparison with the height of the
orifice, there is an appreciable difference between the discharges using the
derived formula.

⁄ ⁄

⁄ ⁄
ORIFICE
An orifice is an opening with a closed perimeter through which
fluid flows. It is used primarily to measure or control the flow of
fluid. An orifice with a prolonged side, such as a piece of pipe,
having a length two or three times its diameter, is called a short
tube.
According to shape, orifice may be circular, square, or
rectangular in cross-section.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. An orifice has a coefficient of discharge of 0.62 and a coefficient of contraction of
0.63. Determine the coefficient of velocity for the orifice.
Solution:

𝒗
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A calibration test of a 12.5-mm diameter circular sharp-edged orifice in a vertical
side of a large tank showed a discharge of 590 N of water in 81 seconds at a
constant head of 4.70 m. Measurement of the jet showed that it traveled 2.35 m
horizontally while dropping 300 mm. Compute the three coefficients.
Solution:
Theoretical values

𝒎𝟑
𝒔

Actual Values
⁄ 𝒎𝟑
𝒔
Actual Velocity
x = 2.35
θ=0
y = -0.3m
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A calibration test of a 12.5-mm diameter circular sharp-edged orifice in a vertical
side of a large tank showed a discharge of 590 N of water in 81 seconds at a
constant head of 4.70 m. Measurement of the jet showed that it traveled 2.35 m
horizontally while dropping 300 mm. Compute the three coefficients.
Solution:
Solving for Coefficients
.
Velocity,
.
.
Discharge,
.
Therefore, from the relationship between coefficients,
C = CcCv
0.631 = Cc x 0.989
Cc = 0.638
VENTURI METER
Venturi meter is an instrument used in measuring the discharge
through pipes. It consists of a converging tube which is
connected to the main pipe at the inlet and ending in a
cylindrical section called the throat, and a diverging section
which is connected again to the main pipe at the outlet. The
angle of convergence is kept small to reduce the head lost
caused by turbulence as the velocity is reduced
VENTURI METER
Consider two points in the system, 1 at the base of the inlet and 2 at
the throat and writing the energy equation between this two points
neglecting head lost.

The left side of the equation is the kinetic energy which shows an
increase in value, while the left side of the equation is the potential
energy which shows a decrease in value. Therefore, neglecting
head lost, the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in
potential energy. This statement is known as the Venturi Principle.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water
main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the
inlet to the throat is 375 mm.
(a) Determine the discharge neglecting head lost
(b) Compute the discharge if the head lost from the inlet to the
throat is 300 mm of water.
(c) What is the meter coefficient?
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water
main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the
inlet to the throat is 375 mm.
(a) Determine the discharge neglecting head lost.
Q1 = Q2 = Q

( . ) ( . )

Solving for

𝒎𝟑
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water
main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the
inlet to the throat is 375 mm.
(b) Compute the discharge if the head lost from the inlet to the throat is 300 mm of
water.
E1 – HL = E2

( . ) ( . )

𝒎𝟑
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A 150 mm diameter horizontal Venturi meter is installed in a 450 mm diameter water
main. The deflection of mercury in the differential manometer connected from the
inlet to the throat is 375 mm.
(c) Meter Coefficient, C

.
.
NOZZLE
A nozzle is a converging tube installed at the end of a pipe or a
hose for the purpose of increasing the velocity of the issuing jet.
The discharge through a nozzle can be calculated using the
equation,

where
H = total head at base of the nozzle
An = area at the nozzle tip
PITOT TUBE
Named after the French physicist and engineer Henri
Pitot, Pitot tube is a bent (L-shaped or U-shaped) tube with both
ends open and is used to measure the velocity of fluid flow or
velocity of air flow as used in airplane speedometer.
When the tube is placed in a moving stream with open
end oriented into the direction of flow, the liquid enters the
opening at point 2 until the surface in the tube rises a distance h
above the stream surface. An equilibrium conditions is then
established, and the quantity of liquid in the tube remains
unchanged as the flow remains steady. Point 2 at the face of
the tube facing the stream is called the stagnation point.
GATES
A gate is an opening in a dam or other hydraulic structure to
control the passage of water. It has the same hydraulic
properties as the orifice. In using gates, calibration test are
advisable if accurate measurements are to be obtained since its
coefficient of discharge varies widely.
Deriving from the energy equation
Theoretical
Actual
Actual
Coefficient of contraction,
Where
C = CcCv
A = by
b = width of the flume
TUBES
Standard Short Tubes
A standard short tube is one with a square-cornered entrance
and has a length of about 2.5 times its internal diameter. The
first figure shows a condition when the flow started suddenly
with high heads so that the jet may not touch the walls of the
pipe.
TUBES
Converging Tubes
Conical converging tubes has the form of a
right circular cone with the larger end
adjacent to the tank or reservoir.

Diverging Tubes
A diverging tube has the form of a right
circular cone with the smaller end adjacent
to the reservoir or tank.
TUBES
Re-entrant Tubes
These are tube having their ends projecting inside a reservoir or
tank. Borda’s Mouthpiece is a special case of a re-entrant tube,
consisting of thin tube projecting into a tank having a length of
about one diameter. The coefficient of contraction for this tube,
Cc = 0.50 and Cv = 1.0
Submerged Tubes
An example of submerged tube is a culvert conveying water
through embankments. The discharge through a submerged
tube is given by the formula

where C is the coefficient of discharge, A is the area of the

opening, and H is the difference in elevation of the liquid
surfaces.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. A Borda’s Mouthpiece is 150 mm in diameter discharges water under a head of 3 m.
Determine the discharge in m3/s and the diameter of the jet at the vena contracta.
Solution:
Under ideal conditions, the coefficients of Borda’s mouthpiece are Cc = 0.50 and Cv =
1.0.
Diameter at vena contracta:
a = CcA

d = 106.1mm
Discharge:

C = CcCv = 0.50 x 1.00 = 0.50

𝒎𝟑
𝒔
SAMPLE PROBLEM
5. A concrete culvert 1.2 m in diameter and 5 m long conveys flood water. Both ends
of the culvert are submerged and the difference in water level upstream and
downstream is 2.40 m. Calculate the discharge assuming C = 0.61.
Solution:
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. A glass tube with a 90 bend is open at both ends. It is inserted into a flowing stream
of oil (sp. Gr. = 0.90) so that one of the opening is directed upstream and the other is
directed upward. If the oil inside the tube is 50 mm higher than the surface outside,
determine the velocity measured by the tube.
Solution:
SAMPLE PROBLEM
7. A pitot tube in the pipe in which air is flowing is connected to a manometer
containing water as shown in the figure. If the difference in water levels in the
manometer is 87.5 mm, what is the velocity of flow in the pipe assuming a tube
coefficient of Cv= 0.99.
Solution:
Energy equation between 1 and 2 neglecting headloss

Solving for
SAMPLE PROBLEM
7. A pitot tube in the pipe in which air is flowing is connected to a manometer
containing water as shown in the figure. If the difference in water levels in the
manometer is 87.5 mm, what is the velocity of flow in the pipe assuming a tube
coefficient of Cv= 0.99.
Solution:

𝒎
𝒕 𝒔

Actual velocity
v = Cv x vt
v = 0.99 x 37.44
v = 37.07 m/s
UNSTEADY FLOW
The flow through orifice, weirs, or tubes is stead to be steady
only if the total head producing flow, H, is constant. The amount
of fluid being discharged for a time t can therefore be
computed using the formula
Vol = Q t
where Q is the discharge, which is constant or steady. In some
conditions, however, the head over an orifice, tube or weir may
vary as the fluid flows out and thus causing the flow to be
unsteady.
UNSTEADY FLOW
If Qin > Qout, the head will rise and if Qin < Qout,
the head will fall. Suppose we are required to
compute the time to lower the level from h1
to h2, the amount of fluid which is lost in the
tank will be
dV = (Qin – Qout) dt

If the head over the outlet is h, then the level

will drop dh, thus, dV = As dh where As is the
surface area in the reservoir at any instant
and may be constant or variable, then,

𝒉𝟐 𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒉
𝒉𝟏 𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕
UNSTEADY FLOW
When there is no inflow (Qin = 0), the formula becomes:

𝒉𝟏 𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒉
𝒉𝟐 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕

If the outflow is through an orifice or tube, . If the

flow is through any other openings, use the corresponding
formula for discharge.
For tanks with constant cross-sectional area and the outflow is
through an orifice or tube (with no inflow), the time for the head
to change from H1 to H2 is

𝟐𝑨𝒔
𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈 𝟏 𝟐
UNSTEADY FLOW
If the liquid flows through a submerged orifice
or tube connecting two tanks as shown, the
time for the head to change from H1 to H2 is:

𝑯𝟏
𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝟏
𝟐
𝒐 𝑯𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐

Where As1 and As2 is the water surface areas

in the tanks at any time and H is the
difference in water surfaces in the two tanks
at any time. If As1 and As2 are constant, the
formula becomes:

𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒐
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A composite non-prismatic 5 m – high cylindrical tank
shown has a frustum of a cone at the bottom with upper
base diameter 2.5 m, 1.25 m diameter at the bottom and
2 m high. The bottom contains 100 mm diameter sharp
edged orifice with coefficient of discharge of 0.60. If fully
filled to the top, determine the time to empty the tank in
minutes.
Solution:
The cross-sectional area from level 1 to level 2 is constant.
𝟐𝑨𝒔
𝟏 𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈 𝟏 𝟐
𝝅
𝟐( (𝟐.𝟓)𝟐 )
𝟒
𝟏 𝝅
𝟎.𝟔𝟎( (𝟎.𝟏)𝟐 ) 𝟐(𝟗.𝟖𝟏)
𝟒

𝟏
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A composite non-prismatic 5 m – high cylindrical tank
shown has a frustum of a cone at the bottom with upper
base diameter 2.5 m, 1.25 m diameter at the bottom and
2 m high. The bottom contains 100 mm diameter sharp
edged orifice with coefficient of discharge of 0.60. If fully
filled to the top, determine the time to empty the tank in
minutes.
Solution:
From level 2 to level 3

r = 0.625 + x
. .

. .
r = 0.625 +
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A composite non-prismatic 5 m – high cylindrical tank
shown has a frustum of a cone at the bottom with upper
base diameter 2.5 m, 1.25 m diameter at the bottom and
2 m high. The bottom contains 100 mm diameter sharp
edged orifice with coefficient of discharge of 0.60. If fully
filled to the top, determine the time to empty the tank in
minutes.
Solution:
.

. ( )

. ( ) ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
.
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A composite non-prismatic 5 m – high cylindrical tank
shown has a frustum of a cone at the bottom with upper
base diameter 2.5 m, 1.25 m diameter at the bottom and
2 m high. The bottom contains 100 mm diameter sharp
edged orifice with coefficient of discharge of 0.60. If fully
filled to the top, determine the time to empty the tank in
minutes.
Solution:
Total Time to empty, t = t1 + t2
Total time to empty, t = 470.5 + 439.04
Total time to empty, t = 909.54 sec = 15.16 minutes
QUIZ 3.1 ANSWER KEYS
Engr. Heber John De Vera
PROBLEM 1A
Water is being discharged through a 3 in. diameter pipe directly into a container that
has a volume of 27.0 ft3. Find the rate and velocity of flow through the pipe if the time
required to fill the container is 4 minutes. Note: Use two decimal points and dimension in
ft/s.
Solution:
PROBLEM 1B
Water is being discharged through a 6 in. diameter pipe directly into a container that
has a volume of 200.0 ft3. Find the rate and velocity of flow through the pipe if the time
required to fill the container is 3 min. Note: Use two decimal points and dimension in ft/s.
Solution:
QUESTION 2A
A Pitot tube is being used to determine the velocity of flow of water in a closed conduit
indicates a difference between water levels in the Pitot tube and in the piezometer of 48
mm. What is the velocity of the flow? Note: Use two decimal points and dimension in
m/s.
Solution:
QUESTION 3
A 4 ft. diameter tank contains oil of specific gravity 0.75. A 3 in. diameter short tube is
installed near the bottom of the tank (C = 0.85). How long will it take to lower the level of
the oil from 6 ft above the tube to 4 ft above the tube? Note: Use two decimal points
and dimension in seconds.
Solution:
QUESTION 4A
The diverging tube shown in the figure discharges water when h = 4 ft. The area A is
twice the area Ao. Neglecting all friction losses, find the velocity at the throat and
pressure head at the throat.
Solution:

𝒇𝒕
𝒐 𝒔
𝒑𝒐 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒐 𝟏𝟔.𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 [ 𝟐 𝟑𝟐.𝟐 ] [ 𝟐 𝟑𝟐.𝟐 ]
𝒑𝒐
𝜸
QUESTION 4B
The diverging tube shown in the figure discharges water when h = 2.7 m. The area A is 1.7
times the area Ao. Neglecting all friction losses, find the velocity at the throat and
pressure head at the throat.
Solution:

𝒎
𝒐 𝒔
𝒑𝒐 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒐 𝟕.𝟐𝟖𝟐 𝟏𝟐.𝟒𝟐
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 [ 𝟐 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 ] [ 𝟐 𝟗.𝟖𝟏 ]
𝒑𝒐
𝜸
QUESTION 5
The water tank shown in the figure has the form of the frustum of a cone. The diameter of
the top of the tanks is 12 ft, while that at the bottom is 8 ft. The bottom of the tank
contains a round, sharp-edged orifice, which has a diameter of 4in. The discharge
coefficient of the orifice is 0.60. If the tank is full at depth of 10.0 ft, as shown in the figure,
how long will it take to empty the tank?
Solution:

By Similar Triangles

( )
( )

( )

( )
QUESTION 5
The water tank shown in the figure has the form of the frustum of a cone. The diameter of
the top of the tanks is 12 ft, while that at the bottom is 8 ft. The bottom of the tank
contains a round, sharp-edged orifice, which has a diameter of 4in. The discharge
coefficient of the orifice is 0.60. If the tank is full at depth of 10.0 ft, as shown in the figure,
how long will it take to empty the tank?
Solution:
( . . . )
[ . . . ]
WEIRS
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be
able to:
• Understand the use of weir.
• Calculate the flow over a weir.
WEIR
A weir is a structure that, like an orifice, regulates the
flow of water out of an impoundment or reservoir.
Generally, a weir consists of a horizontal surface
over which water is allowed to flow.
Typical uses of weir include outlet structures for dams
and detention basins, as well as other
impoundments such as holding tanks in sewage
treatment plants. Also, weirs are widely used as
measuring devices with such application as natural
streams and treatment works.
TYPES OF WEIRS
Classification of Weirs by Cross Section Shape

Classification of Weirs by Front View Shape

WEIRS
According to shape, weirs may be rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal, circular, parabolic, or of any other regular form.
According to the form of the crest, weirs may be sharp-crested
or broad-crested.
The flow over a weir may either be free or submerged. If the
water surface downstream from the weir is lower than the crest,
the flow is free, but if the downstream surface is higher than the
crest, the flow is submerged.
WEIRS
Definition of Terms
Nappe – is the overflowing stream in a weir.
Crest of weir – is the edge or top surface of a weir with which the
flowing liquid comes in contact.
Contracted weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the
nappe is contracted in width or having end contractions, either one
end or two ends.
Suppressed weir or full-width weir – weirs having length L being
equal to the width of the channel so that the nappe suffers no end
contractions.
Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface
before the weir.
Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of
the weir, measured before the drop-down curve.
RECTANGULAR WEIR
The rate of flow or discharge over a rectangular weir is computed by the formula,

It comes from the general equation

; Cw is called the weir factor. If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small, the velocity
of approach becomes .
In situation where the discharge is required considering the velocity of approach, the
following simplified equation may be used:
;
Where
d = depth of water upstream
d=H+P
P = height of crest above the channel bottom
STANDARD WEIR
The following specification must be applied to a standard rectangular weirs without end
contractions:
1. The upstream face of the weir plate should be vertical and smooth.
2. The crest edge shall be level, shall have a square upstream corner, and shall narrow
that the water will not touch again after passing the upstream corner.
3. The sides of the flume shall be vertical and smooth and shall extend a short distance
downstream past the weir crest.
4. The pressure under the nappe shall be atmospheric.
5. The approach channel shall be of uniform cross section for a sufficient distance
above the weir or shall be provided with baffles that a normal distribution of
velocities exists in the flow approaching the weir and the water surface is free of
waves or surges.
STANDARD WEIR FACTOR CW FORMULAS
Numerous equations have been developed for finding the
discharge coefficient Cw. Some these equations are given
below.
Francis Formula
Cw = 1.84[1+0.26(H/d)2] (S.I. Units)
For H/P < 0.4, the following value of Cw may be used,
For S.I. Unit, Cw = 1.84 ; For English Unit, Cw 3.33
Rehbock and Chow Formula
S.I. Unit, Cw = 1.8 + 0.22(H/P)
English Unit, Cw = 3.27 + 0.40 (H/P)
Bazin Formula
For rectangular weirs of length 0.5m to 2.0m under heads from
50mm to 600 mm
.
SHARP-CRESTED WEIR
A rectangular, sharp-crested weir is perhaps the most basic type
and is used for measuring flow in a channel and also as a simple
spillway structure. Computation of the discharge, Q, for this type of
weir depends on the dimensions of the weir in relation to the
channel and the head, H.
CONTRACTED RECTANGULAR WEIRS
As water flows past the vertical sides of the weir, a loss of energy
takes place, which is called contraction. This contraction can be
accounted for by reducing the actual measured length to a lesser
value called effective length.
L = L’ – 0.1nH
where
L’ = actual measured crest length
n = number of contractions
H = head above the crest
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Find the discharge flowing over a sharp-crested rectangular weir, as shown below, if
the crest elevation is 282.00 ft and the impoundment elevation is 283.75 ft. Use
Rehbock and Chow Formula to solve for the weir factor Cw.

.
.
⁄ ⁄
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Find the width, in meters, of the channel at the back of a suppressed weir using the
following data:
Head, H = 28.5 cm
Depth of water, d = 2.485 m
Discharge, Q = 0.84 m3/s
Consider velocity of approach and use Francis formula.
Solution:
⁄ ⁄

⁄
⁄
.
[ ]
.

⁄ ⁄
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Find the width, in meters, of the channel at the back of a suppressed weir using the
following data:
Head, H = 28.5 cm
Depth of water, d = 2.485 m
Discharge, Q = 0.84 m3/s
Consider velocity of approach and use Francis formula.
Solution:
;
( . )
( . )
.
.
TRIANGULAR WEIR (V-NOTCH)
A variation of the sharp-crested weir is the triangular, or V-notch
weir, which is used to measure flow when very low quantities
are expected. Discharge over a V-notch weir is computed by
using the formula below.

where is the angle (in degrees) made by the notch as shown

in the figure. Although Cw varies under different conditions, it is
taken generally to be 2.5 (English Unit).
The general formula for a triangular weir is:

For a standard 90° weir

⁄
(SI Unit)
⁄
(English Unit)
TRAPEZOIDAL SHARP CRESTED WEIR
The discharge from a trapezoidal weir is assumed the same as
that from a rectangular weir and a triangular weir in
combination.

where Z = b/h, substituted for tan

CIPOLLETTI WEIR
Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal with side slope of 1 horizontal to
4 vertical. The additional area at the sides adds approximately
enough effective width of the stream to offset the side
contractions.
For a Cipolletti weir:

⁄
for SI units
⁄
for English units
OGEE WEIR
A type of rectangular weir that is commonly used as the spillway for
a dam is the ogee weir shown in the figure. Its smooth, rounded
surface is designed to reduce energy loss by edge contraction as
water passes over the crest, thus increasing the discharge Q for a
given head H, in comparison to sharp- or broad-crested weirs.
The geometrical shape of an ogee weir is formed by compound
curves with radii dependent on a specific anticipated head.
However, the term is commonly applied to weirs that have the
general shape shown in Figure.
SUTTRO WEIR OR PROPORTIONAL FLOW WEIR
It may be noted that, in a rectangular weir, discharge varies with 3/2
power of H and in a triangular weir, with 5/2 power of H. There exist
a shape for which the discharge varies linearly with the head, the
proportional flow or Rettger weir, also known as Suttro weir.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. Find the discharge flowing over a 60 V-notch weir if H = 4.0 inches.
Solution:

⁄
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. The discharge over a trapezoidal weir is 1.315 m3/s. The crest length is 2 m and the
sides are inclined at 75 57’49” with the horizontal. Find the head on the weir in
meters.
Solution:
The side inclination angle given is that for a Cipolletti weir.
Q = 1.859 L H3/2
1.315 = 1.859(2)H3/2
H = 0.50 m
FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
Engr. Heber John De Vera
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this lecture, the student will be
able to:
• Determine the different type of flow in a
pipe.
• Analyze the different head losses in a pipe.
• Understand the velocity and shearing stress
in pipe.
• Analyze series, parallel, branching pipes
and pipe network using Hardy Cross
Method.
WATER FLOW IN PIPES
In hydraulics, the term pressure pipe flow refers to full
water flow in closed conduits of circular cross sections under a
certain pressure gradient. For a given discharge (Q), pipe flow
at any location can be described by the pipe cross section,
pipe elevation, the pressure, and the flow velocity in the pipe.
The elevation (h) of a particular section in the pipe is
usually measured with respect to a horizontal reference datum
such as mean sea level (MSL). The pressure in a pipe generally
varies from one point to another, but a mean value is normally
used at a given cross section.
In most engineering computations, the section mean
velocity (V) is defined as the discharge (Q) divided by the cross-
sectional area (A):
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Pipes – These are closed conduits through which fluids or gases
flows. Conduits may flow full or partially full. Pipes are referred to as
conduits (usually circular) which flow full. Conduits flowing partially
full are called open channels.
Laminar Flow – The flow is said to be laminar when the path of
individual fluid particles do not cross or intersect. The flow is always
laminar when the Reynolds number Rn is less than 2,000.
Turbulent Flow – The flow is said to be turbulent when the path of
individual particles are irregular and continuously cross each other.
Turbulent flow normally occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds
2,000.
Critical Velocity – This is the velocity below which all turbulence are
damped out by the viscosity of the fluid.
Reynolds’s Number (NR or Rn) – It is the ratio of the inertia forces to
the viscous force.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Brief History
Osborne Reynolds famously studied the conditions in which
the flow of fluid in pipes transitioned from laminar flow to turbulent
flow. In his 1883 paper, Reynolds described the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow in a classic experiment which he examined the
behavior of water flow under different flow velocities using a small
stream of dyed water introduced into the center of clear water flow
in a larger pipe.
The larger pipe was glass so the behavior of
the layer of the dyed stream could be observed
and at the end of this pipe there was a flow control
valve used to vary the water velocity inside the
tube. When the velocity was low, the dyed layer
remained distinct through the entire length of the
large tube, When the velocity was increased, the
layer broke up at a given point and diffused
throughout the fluid’s cross-section. The point at
which this happened was the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
From these experiments came the
dimensionless Reynold’s number for dynamic
similarity – the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. Reynolds also proposed what is now
known as the Reynolds – averaging of turbulent
flows, where quantities such as velocity are
expressed as the sum of mean and fluctuating
components. Such averaging allows for ‘bulk’
description of turbulent flow, for example, using
the Reynolds – averaged Navier Stokes
equations.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Reynold’s Number for Pipes Flowing Full

where
= Mean Velocity in m/s
D = Diameter of the Pipe in meter
= Kinetic Viscosity in m2/s
= absolute or dynamic viscosity in Pa-s
when
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Reynold’s Number for Non-circular Pipes, use D = 4R

where
= Mean Velocity in m/s
,
R = Hydraulic Radius =
,
= Kinetic Viscosity in m2/s
= absolute or dynamic viscosity in Pa-s
when
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Type of Flow According to its Reynold’s Number
• Laminar Flow – A fluid relative to a binding surface and the
momentum transfer is by molecular activity only. The forces of
viscosity predominate over other forces such as fluid inertia.
• Turbulent Flow – The result of disintegration of eddies into random
pattern of mixing so that the moment transfer is by discrete
masses of fluid.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
The velocity distribution for laminar flow, at a cross section follows a
parabolic law of variation with zero velocity at the walls. In circular
pipes, the velocity varies as the ordinates of a paraboloid of
revolution with its average velocity equal to one-half of its maximum
velocity.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
Under ordinary circumstances, water loses energy as it flows
through a pipe. A portion of the energy loss is caused by
1. Friction against the pipe walls and
2. Viscous dissipation occurring throughout the flow.
Wall friction on a moving column of water depends on the
roughness of the wall material and the velocity gradient at
the wall. For the same flow rate, it is evident in the previous
figure that turbulent flow has a higher wall velocity gradient
than that of laminar flow; hence, a higher friction loss may
be expected as the Reynolds number increases. At the
same time, momentum transfer of water molecules
between layers is intensified as the flow becomes more
turbulent, which indicates an increasing rate of viscous
dissipation in the flows. Consequently, the rate of energy loss
in pipe flow varies as a function of the Reynolds number and
the roughness of the pipe wall.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
For Laminar Flow
The equation for the velocity profile for laminar flow is given
by

The velocity at any distance r from the center of the pipe

may computed using the squared property of parabola

𝟐
𝒄 𝟐
𝟎
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
For Laminar Flow
𝟐
𝒄 𝟐
𝟎
where
hL = head lost in the pipe
L = pipe length
ro = pipe radius
vc = centerline or maximum velocity
= absolute viscosity of the liquid
= unit weight of the fluid
= velocity at distance r from pipe center
v = average velocity
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
Turbulent Flow
The velocity distribution for turbulent flows varies with Reynolds
number with zero velocity at the wall and increases more rapidly for
a short distance from the walls as compared to laminar flow.

The velocity, u, at any point r in a

pipe of radius ro and center velocity
vc is:

The centerline or maximum

or velocity is given by:
𝒄
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES
Turbulent Flow

Combining the equation with and

solving for v gives the following:
𝒐
𝒄

where
= maximum shearing stress in the pipe
f = friction factor
v = mean velocity
SHEARING STRESS IN PIPES

Shear Velocity or Friction Velocity

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A 40mm diameter circular pipe carries water at 20 C. Calculate
the largest flow rate for which laminar flow can be expected. Use
kinematic viscosity of water at 20 C to be v = 1.00 x 10-6 m2/sec.
Solution:
.
. ⁄

V = 2,000(1.00 x 10-6/0.04) = 0.05 m/sec

Therefore, the flow rate is
𝟓 𝒎𝟑
𝒔𝒆𝒄
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Water having kinematic viscosity v = 1.3 x 10-6 m2/s flows in a 100
mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 4.5 m/s. Is the flow laminar or
turbulent?
Solution:
( . )( . )
.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. Oil of specific gravity 0.80 flows in a 200 mm diameter pipe. Find
the critical velocity. Use = 8.14 x 10-2 Pa-s
Solution:
At critical velocity in pipes, Rn = 2,000
( . )( , )( . )
.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
4. Determine the (a) shear stress at the walls of a 300 mm diameter
pipe when water flowing causes a head lost of 5 m in 90 m pipe
length, (b) the shear velocity, and the (c) shear stress at 50 mm
from the centerline of the pipe.
Solution:
a) Shear stress at walls
( )( )( . )
( )

b) Shear Velocity
.

c) Shear Stress 50 mm from pipe center

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Energy loss resulting from friction in a pipeline is commonly
termed the friction head loss (hf). Friction loss is sometimes
referred to as major loss because of its magnitude, and all
other losses are referred to as minor losses. Several studies
have been performed during the past century on laws that
govern the loss of head by pipe friction. It has been learned
from these studies the resistance to flow in a pipe is
1. Independent of the pressure under which the water
flows.
2. Linearly proportional to the pipe length (L).
3. Inversely proportional to some power of the pipe
diameter (D).
4. Proportional to some power of the mean velocity (V),
and
5. Related to the roughness of the pipe, if the flow is
turbulent.
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Head losses in pipes are therefore classified as major head loss,
which is caused by the pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of
uniform diameter and uniform roughness, and minor head loss,
which are caused by changes in velocity or directions of flow, and
are commonly expressed in terms of kinetic energy.
The most popular pipe flow equation was derived by Henri Darcy
(1803 - 1858), Julius Weisbach (1806 - 1871), and others about the
middle of the nineteenth century. The equation takes the following
form:

This equation is commonly known as the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

where = friction factor
L = length of pipe in meters or feet
D = pipe diameter in meters or feet
= mean or average velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R, where R is the hydraulic radius.
For circular pipes, the head loss may be expressed as:

where Q is the discharge

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
The value for the friction factor :
For Laminar Flow:

For circular pipes,

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
For Turbulent Flow
1. For turbulent flow in smooth and rough pipes, universal
resistance laws can be derived from:

2. For smooth pipes, Rn between 3,000 and 100,000: (Blasius)

3. For smooth pipes with Rn up to about 3,000,000

HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
For Turbulent Flow
4. For rough pipes, where (Karman)

where
= absolute roughness, mm
e = relative roughness (dimensionless)
= nominal thickness of viscous sublayer
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
For Turbulent Flow
5. For smooth and rough pipes, turbulent: (Colebrook equation)

This equation was plotted in 1944 by Moody into what is now called
the Moody chart for pipe friction
6. Haaland formula. This is an alternate formula for the Colebrook
equation. This varies less than 2% from the Colebrook Equation.
.
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
The Moody Chart shows the four zones of pipe flow:
1. A laminar flow zone where the friction factor is a simple
linear function of the Reynolds number,
2. A critical zone where values are uncertain because the
flow might be neither laminar nor truly turbulent.
3. A transitional zone where is a function of both the
Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe,
and
4. A zone of fully developed turbulence where the value of
depends solely on the relative roughness and is
independent of the Reynolds number.
HEAD LOSSES IN PIPE FLOW
Moody Friction Factor Chart may be used together with Table 3.1 to
obtain the friction factor for circular pipes. Subsequent to the
development of the Moody diagram, the Swamee-Jain equation
was proposed to solve for the friction factor once Rn is known.

This explicit expression is supposed to provide a very accurate

estimate (within 1 percent) of the implicit Colebrook-White equation
for 10-6 < < 10-2 and 5,000 < Rn < 108.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
5. Compute the discharge capacity of 3m concrete (rough) pipe
carrying water at 10 C. It is allowed to have a head loss of 2m/km
of pipe length. At 10 C, the kinematic viscosity of water v = 1.31 x
10-6 m2/sec.
Solution:
Solving for the friction head loss in the pipe is

Hence,

Using the table 3.1, for rough concrete e = 0.60 mm

SAMPLE PROBLEM
5. Compute the discharge capacity of 3m concrete (rough) pipe
carrying water at 10 C. It is allowed to have a head loss of 2m/km
of pipe length. At 10 C, the kinematic viscosity of water v = 1.31 x
10-6 m2/sec.
Solution:
Therefore,

Analyzing this two equations with the use of Table 3.1 and Moody
Friction Factor Chart:

The discharge
𝟑
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. Estimate the size of a uniform, horizontal welded steel-pipe
installed to carry 14.0 ft3/sec of water at 70 F (approximately
20 C). The allowable pressure loss resulting from friction is 17 ft/mi
of pipe length. At 20 C, v = 1.08 x 10-5 ft2/sec.
Solution:
The energy equation can be applied to two pipe sections 1 mile
apart:

For a uniformly sized, horizontal pipe with no localized (minor ) head

losses,

And the energy equation reduces to

SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. Estimate the size of a uniform, horizontal welded steel-pipe
installed to carry 14.0 ft3/sec of water at 70 F (approximately
20 C). The allowable pressure loss resulting from friction is 17 ft/mi
of pipe length. At 20 C, v = 1.08 x 10-5 ft2/sec.
Solution:
From the equation:

Therefore,

where L = 5,280 ft and hf = 17 ft. Assuming welded-steel roughness to

be in the lower range of riveted steel, e = 0.003 ft, the diameter can
then be found using the Moody chart by means of an iteration
procedure.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. Estimate the size of a uniform, horizontal welded steel-pipe
installed to carry 14.0 ft3/sec of water at 70 F (approximately
20 C). The allowable pressure loss resulting from friction is 17 ft/mi
of pipe length. At 20 C, v = 1.08 x 10-5 ft2/sec.
Solution:
Let D = 2.5 ft, then

And
SAMPLE PROBLEM
6. Estimate the size of a uniform, horizontal welded steel-pipe
installed to carry 14.0 ft3/sec of water at 70 F (approximately
20 C). The allowable pressure loss resulting from friction is 17 ft/mi
of pipe length. At 20 C, v = 1.08 x 10-5 ft2/sec.
Solution:
Entering this values into the Moody chart, we get = 0.021
⁄

At D = 2.0 ft, then the equations will yield, = 4.46 ft/s, Rn = 8.26 x 105,
e/D = 0.0015, = 0.022.
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR FRICTION HEAD LOSS
Manning Formula
The Manning Formula is one of the best known open-
channel formulas and is commonly used in pipes. The
Formula is given by:

where
n = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = Slope of the energy grade line = hf/L
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR FRICTION HEAD LOSS
Manning Formula
Substituting S = hf/L and R = D/4 to the
general formula and solving for hf.

For non-circular pipes, use D = 4R

For circular pipes:

⁄
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR FRICTION HEAD LOSS
Hazen-Williams Formula
This formula is applicable only to the flow of water in pipes larger
than 50 mm and velocities less than 3 m/s. The formula is given by:
. .

. .

For circular pipes flowing full, this formula becomes

. .

. .

and
.

. .

Where:
C1 = Hazen Williams coefficient
EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS FOR FRICTION HEAD LOSS
SAMPLE PROBLEM
7. A 100 m long pipe with D = 20cm and C1 = 120 carries a
discharge of 30 L/s. Determine the head loss in the pipe.
Solution:

.
.
Applying Hazen-Williams Equation:
. .

. .
.
.

𝒇
SAMPLE PROBLEM
8. A horizontal pipe (old cast iron) with a 10cm uniform diameter is
200m long. If the measured pressure drop is 24.6m of water, what
is the discharge?
Solution:

.
.
.

Manning’s roughness coefficient, n = 0.015

Using Manning’s equation, we have
⁄ ⁄

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝒎𝟑
𝟑 𝟐 𝒔
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟓
MINOR HEAD LOSS
Minor losses are caused by the changes in direction or velocity of
flow. These changes may be due to sudden contraction, suddent
enlargement, valves, bends, and any other pipe fittings. These losses
can usually be neglected if the length of the pipeline is greater than
1,500 times the pipe’s diameter. However, in short pipelines, because
these losses may exceed the friction losses, minor losses must be
considered.
A. Sudden Enlargement – The head loss, m, across a sudden
enlargement of pipe diameter is:

where
= velocity before enlargement, m/s
= velocity after enlargement. m/s
MINOR HEAD LOSS
Another equation for the head loss caused by sudden enlargements
was determined experimentally by Archer, and given as:
.

B. Gradual Enlargement – The head loss, m, across a gradual

conical enlargement of pipe diameter is:

C. Sudden Contraction – The head loss, m, across a

Sudden contraction of a pipe is:

where
Kc = the coefficient of sudden contraction
v = velocity in smaller pipe
MINOR HEAD LOSS

A special case of sudden contraction is the entrance loss for

pipes connected to reservoir. For this case, the values of Kc
are as follows:
Flush and rounded connection . . . . . Kc = 0.50
Projecting connection . . . . . . . . . . . . Kc = 1.00
Pipe projecting into reservoir . . . . . . . KC = 0.80
Slightly rounded entrance . . . . . . . . . Kc = 0.25
Sharp-cornered entrance . . . . . . . . . . Kc = 0.50
MINOR HEAD LOSS
The loss of head at the entrance of a pipe from a large
reservoir is a special case of loss of head resulting from
contraction. The general equation for an entrance head
loss is also expressed in terms of the velocity head of the
pipe:
MINOR HEAD LOSS
D. Bends and Standard Fittings – The head loss that occurs
in pipe fittings, such as valves and elbows, and bends is
given by:

The approximate values of K vary with the type and design

of valves. When designing hydraulic systems, it is necessary
to determine the head losses through any valves that are
present. The values of Kv for common valves are listed in the
table on the succeeding slide.
MINOR HEAD LOSS
SAMPLE PROBLEM
9. The figure shows two sections of cast-iron pipe connected in series
that transport water from a reservoir and discharge it into air
through a rotary valve at a location 100 m below the water
surface elevation. If the water temperature is 10 C, and square-
edged connections are used, what is the discharge? Use v = 1.31
x 10-6 at 10 C..
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
The energy equation can be written for section 1 at the reservoir
surface and section 3 at the discharge end as

Selecting the reference datum at section 3 yields h3 = 0. Because the

reservoir and the discharge end are both exposed to atmospheric
pressure and the velocity head at the reservoir can be neglected, we
have

The total available energy, 100m of water column, is

equal to the velocity head at the discharge end plus
all the head losses incurred in the pipeline system.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
This relationship, as show in the figure, may be expressed as

Where he is the entrance head loss. For a square-edged entrance,

the equation will yield

The head loss from friction in pipe section 1-2 is hf1.

The head loss from the sudden contraction at section 2

Is hc. Assume Kc = 0.33 for the first trial.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
The head loss from friction in pipe section 2-3 is hf2 :

The head loss at the valve is hv.

Therefore,

From continuity equation, we have

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Substituting v1 in the previous relationship gives

To evaluate and we have:

For the 40 cm pipe, e/D = 0.00065, which yields (assuming

complete turbulence). For the 20 cm pipe, e/D = 0.0013, so
Solving the above equation for v2 yields the following:
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Hence, at and ,

These values do not agree with the assumed values, so a second

trial must be made. For the second trial, we assume Kc = 0.35,
, and Repeating the calculation made, we obtain v2
= 3.62 m/s, v1 = 0.905 m/s, Rn1 = 1.10 x 106, Rn2 = 1.38 x 105. Now from
the figure, .
Therefore, the discharge is
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
AND PIPE NETWORKS
Engr. Heber John De Vera
METHOD OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
The method of equivalent pipes is used to facilitate
the analysis of pipe systems containing several pipes in series
or parallel. An equivalent pipe is a hypothetical pipe that
produces the same head loss as two or more pipes in series
or parallel for the same discharge.
Pipes in Series
For pipes of different diameters connected in series
as shown in the figure below, the discharge for all pipes are
all equal and the total head lost is equal to the sum of the
individual head losses.
METHOD OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
If the pipe length in any problem is about 500 diameters, the
error resulting from neglecting minor losses will ordinarily not
exceed 5%, and if the pipe length is 1,000 diameters or
more, the effect of minor losses can usually be considered
negligible.

Pipes Connected in Parallel

METHOD OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
In the pipe system shown, pipe 1 draws water from reservoir
A and leads to junction C which divides the flow to pipes 2
and 3, which join again in junction D and flows through pipe
4. The sum of the flow in pipes in 2 and 3 equals the flow in
pipes 1 and 4. Since the drop in energy grade line between
C and D is equal to the difference in the levels of
piezometers a and b, then the head lost in pipe 2 is
therefore equal to the head lost in pipe 3.
The necessary equations for the
system are:
Q1 = Q4
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
PIPE DISCHARGING FROM A RESERVOIR
The figure shown below shows the conditions of flow in a pipe of
uniform diameter discharging from a reservoir into open air. If the
pipe is horizontal and with uniform size, the difference in pressure
head measures the head lost between the two points. If the pipe is
very large such that the velocity head is very small, the total head
lost HL can be taken as equal to H.
PIPE CONNECTING TWO RESERVOIRS
When one or more pipes connects two reservoirs as in the figure
shown, the total head lost in all the pipes is equal to the difference
in elevation of the surfaces of the reservoir.
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
In The figure shown below, the three pipes 1, 2, and 3 connects the
three reservoir A, B, and C respectively and with all pipes meeting at
a common junction D.
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
Types of Reservoir Problems
• Type 1: Given the discharge in one of the pipes, or given the
pressure at the junction P, and the required is the elevation one of
the reservoirs or the diameter or length of one of the pipes.
• Type 2: Given all the pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs,
find the flow in each pipe, which can be solved by trial and error.
Procedure in Solving Reservoir Problems:
Type 1:
1. With known flow in one pipe leading to or flowing out from a
reservoir of known elevation, solve for hf.
2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line
at the junction of the pipes (P) by adding or
subtracting (depending on the direction of flow)
the head lost in the pipe from the elevation of
the water surface in the reservoir.
METHOD OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
3. If the known value is the pressure at P, the
elevation of P’ is the elevation .
4. Draw a line from P’ to the surface of the other
reservoir. These lines represent the EGL’s of
each pipe. The difference in elevation
between P’ and the surface of the reservoir is
the head lost in the pipe.
5. Solve for the discharge.
Type 2:
1. Given all elevation and pipe properties,
determine the direction of flow in each pipe.
The highest reservoir always have an outflow
and the lowest always have an inflow, but the
middle reservoir may have an inflow or
outflow.
METHOD OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
2. To find out the direction of flow in pipe 2,
assume that Q2 = 0 such that P’ is at elevation
B, then the values of hf1 and hf2 can be solved.
(In the figure shown, hf1 = 20 m and hf3 = 30m).
With hf1 and hf3 known, solve for Q1 and Q3. If
Q1 > Q3, then Q2 is towards B and P’ is above
reservoir B. If Q1 < Q3, then Q2 is away from B
and P’ is below reservoir B.
3. After determining the direction of Q2, express
all the head lost in terms the other, say in terms
of hf1. Let hf1 = x. With all head lost hf expressed
in terms of x, all flow Q can also be expressed
in terms of x. Simplify the equation and solve
for x. Trial and error may also be used for the
solution.
4. Once x is determined, substitute its value to
the equations to solve for Q1, Q2, and Q3
respectively.
PIPE NETWORKS
The following conditions must be satisfied in any pipe
network:
1. The algebraic sum of the pressure drops (head loss)
around any closed loop must be zero and,
2. The flow entering a junction must be equal to the flow
leaving it.
Pipe network problems are usually solved by numerical
methods using computer since any analytical solution
requires the use of many simultaneous equations, some of
which are nonlinear.
PIPE NETWORKS
Hardy Cross Method
The procedure suggested by Hardy Cross requires that the
flow in each pipe be assume so that the principle of
continuity is satisfied at each junction. A correction to the
assumed flow is computed successively for each pipe loop
to the network until the correction is reduced to an
acceptable value.
Let Qa = assumed flow
Q = true flow
= correction, then
Q = Qa +
PIPE NETWORKS
Using Darcy-Weisbach formula:
.

If is small, the term containing may be neglected

Hence,

∑
∑
PIPE NETWORKS
In applying the previous equation:
= algebraic sum of the head loss in the circuit (clockwise
positive, counterclockwise negative)
= absolute sum without regard to direction of flow (clockwise
positive, counterclockwise positive)
The correction is added or subtracted from the assumed flow in
order to get the true or corrected flow. It is added if the direction of
the flow is clockwise and subtracted if counterclockwise.
The general formula in computing the correction can be
expressed as:

Where n = 2 for Darcy-Weisbach and Manning formulas and n = 1.85

for Hazen-Williams formula.
PIPE NETWORKS
The value for K are as follows:
.
Darcy-Weisbach,
.
Manning, ⁄
.
Hazen-Williams, . .
SAMPLE PROBLEM
10. A pump draws 20 L/sec of water from reservoir A to reservoir B as
shown. Assuming for all pipes, compute the horsepower
delivered by the pump and the pressures at points 1 and 2.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
a) Horsepower delivered by the pump

. . ( . )( )( . )
.
. . ( . )( )( . )
.
Energy equation between A and B

Power delivered by the pump (output power)

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Pressure at point 1
Energy Equation between A and 1

.
.

𝟏
Pressure at point 2
Energy Equation between 2 and B

.
. 𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEM
11. Two pipes 1 and 2 are in series. If the roughness coefficients n2 =
2n1 and the diameter D1 = 500 mm, find the diameter D2 if the
slope of their energy grade lines are to be the same.
Solution:
Using Manning’s Formula for circular pipes,
.
⁄

.
⁄

For pipes in series, Q1 = Q2 = Q

For pipe 1:
.
⁄

.
( . ) ⁄

(1)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
11. Two pipes 1 and 2 are in series. If the roughness coefficients n2 =
2n1 and the diameter D1 = 500 mm, find the diameter D2 if the
slope of their energy grade lines are to be the same.
Solution:
For pipe 2:
.
⁄

. ( )
⁄

. ( )
⁄ (2)

1 2
. ( )
⁄

D2 = 0.648 m = 648 mm
SAMPLE PROBLEM
12. Two pipes 1 and 2 having the same length and diameter are in
parallel. If the flow in pipe 1 is 750 L/s, what is the flow in pipe 2 if
the friction factor of the second pipe is twice that of the first
pipe?
Solution:
For parallel pipes, head losses are equal.

. .

𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEM
12. Two pipes 1 and 2 having the same length and diameter are in
parallel. If the flow in pipe 1 is 750 L/s, what is the flow in pipe 2 if
the friction factor of the second pipe is twice that of the first
pipe?
Solution:
For parallel pipes, head losses are equal.

. .

𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEM
13. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 15 m. Find the
discharge in each pipe. Assume for all pipes.

Pipe Length, L (m) Diameter, D (mm)

1 450 600
2 600 500
3 360 450
4 480 450
5 540 600
SAMPLE PROBLEM
13. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 15 m. Find the
discharge in each pipe. Assume for all pipes.
Solution:
Q1 = Q5 Eq. (1)
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 Eq. (2)
Q3 = Q4 Eq. (3)
Eq. (4)
HLAE = Eq. (5)
Using Darcy-Weisbach formula
.

. ( . )( )
( . )
. ( . )( )
( . )
SAMPLE PROBLEM
13. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 15 m. Find the
discharge in each pipe. Assume for all pipes.
Solution:
. ( . )( )
( . )
. ( . )( )
( . )
. ( . )( )
( . )

In Eq. (5)
15 = 9.56Q12 + 31.72Q22 + 11.47 Q52
But Q5 = Q1 from Eq. (1)
15 = 21.03Q12 + 31.72Q22 Eq. (6)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
13. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 15 m. Find the
discharge in each pipe. Assume for all pipes.
Solution:
In Eq. (4)
31.72Q22 = 32.23Q32 + 42.97Q42
But Q3 = Q4 from Eq. (1)
31.72Q22 = 75.20Q32
Q3 = 0.649 Q2 Eq. (7)

In Eq. (2)
Q1 = Q2 + 0.649 Q2
Q1 = 1.649 Q2 Eq. (8)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
13. The total head lost from A to E in the figure shown is 15 m. Find the
discharge in each pipe. Assume for all pipes.
Solution:
In Eq. (6)
15 = 21.03(1.649Q2)2 + 31.72Q22
15 = 88.9Q22
Q2 = 0.411 m3/s
Q3 = (0.649)(0.411) = 0.267 m3/s = Q4
Q1 = (1.649)(0.411) = 0.678 m3/s = Q5
Check:
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 = 0.411 + 0.267 = 0.678 (OK)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
14. How many liters per second of water must the pump shown
supply when the flow needed in the 915 mm diameter pipe is
1.314 m3/s? Assume for all pipes.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Q2 = 1.314 m3/s
. ( . )( )( . )
( . )

Elevation B’ = 6.1 +
Elevation B’ = 6.1 + 9.22 = 15.32 m
= Elev. B’ – Elev. C = 15.32 – 12.2
= 3.12
. ( . )( )
( . )

Q3 = 0.142 m3/s

= Elev. D – Elev. B’
= 24.6 – 15.32 = 9.28
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
. ( . )( )
( . )

Q4 = 0.35 m3/s

At junction B:
Inflow = Outflow
Q1 + Q4 = Q2 + Q3
Q1 + 0.35 = 1.314 + 0.142
Q1 = 1.106 m3/s
Q1 = 1,106 Liters per second
SAMPLE PROBLEM
15. The pipe network shown in the figure represents a spray rinse
system. Find the flow in each pipe. Assume C1 = 120 for all pipes.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Using Hazen-Williams
Formula
.
. .

. ( )
. ( . ) .

. ( )
. ( . ) .
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Correction to be applied
∑
∑
where n = 1.85

Pipe K Qa KQa0.85 KQa1.85

AB 321 0.20 81.73 16.346
AH 520 0.20 132.40 26.479
HG 321 0.10 45.34 4.534
BG 520 0.10 73.45 7.345
BC 321 0.10 45.34 4.534
GF 321 0.10 45.34 4.534
CF 520 0.05 40.75 2.038
FE 321 0.05 25.16 1.258
CD 321 0.05 25.16 1.258
DE 520 0.05 40.75 2.038
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Correction to be applied
∑ .

. ∑ .

Loop 1: AB, BG, GH, HA

Loop 2: BC, CF, FG, GB

Loop 3: CD, DE, EF, FC

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Corrected flow:
QAB = 0.2 + 0.0119 = 0.2119
QBG = 0.1 + 0.0119 – 0.014 = 0.979
QGH = 0.1 – 0.0119 = 0.0881
QHA = 0.2 – 0.0119 = 0.1881
QBC = 0.1 + 0.014 = 0.114
QCF = 0.05 + 0.014 – 0 = 0.064
QFG = 0.1 – 0.014 = 0.086
QCD = 0.05 + 0 = 0.05
QDE = 0.05 + 0 = 0.05
QEF = 0.05 + 0 = 0.05
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Second Cycle (using the initial corrected flow)
Pipe K Qa KQa0.85 KQa1.85
AB 321 0.2119 85.845 18.191
AH 520 0.1881 125.671 23.639
HG 321 0.0881 40.713 3.587
BG 520 0.0979 72.139 7.062
BC 321 0.1140 50.684 5.778
GF 321 0.0860 39.887 3.430
CF 520 0.0640 50.264 3.217
FE 321 0.0500 25.155 1.258
CD 321 0.0500 25.155 1.258
DE 520 0.0500 40.750 2.038
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Correction
Loop 1: AB, BG, GH, HA

Loop 2: BC, CF, FG, GB

Loop 3: CD, DE, EF, FC

SAMPLE PROBLEM
Solution:
Corrected flow:
QAB = 0.2119 + 0.00329 = 0.21519 m3/s
QBG = 0.0979 + 0.00329 – 0.0038 = 0.09739 m3/s
QGH = 0.0881 – 0.00329 = 0.08481 m3/s
QHA = 0.1881 – 0.00329 = 0.18481 m3/s
QBC = 0.114 + 0.0038 = 0.1178 m3/s
QCF = 0.064 + 0.0038 – 0.00451 = 0.06329 m3/s
QFG = 0.086 – 0.0038 = 0.0822 m3/s
QCD = 0.05 + 0.00451 = 0.05451 m3/s
QDE = 0.05 + 0.00451 = 0.05451 m3/s
QEF = 0.05 – 0.00451 = 0.04549 m3/s