A PROJECT REPORT ON

DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND FABRICATION OF CHASSIS AND SUSPENSION OF AN ATV

SUBMITTED BY SANKHALA AMIT PRADEEPKUMAR UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF Prof. PAVAN B. CHAUDHARI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENT IN

BACHELORS DEGREE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF PUNE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHNICAL ENGINEERING G.H.RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT WAGHOLI, PUNE-07
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G.H.RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT WAGHOLI, PUNE-07.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project entitled

DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND FABRICATION OF CHASSIS AND SUSPENSION OF AN ATV

Submitted by 1. SANKHALA AMIT PRADEEPKUMAR

is the bonafied work completed in the academic year 2009-10 under my supervision and guidance in partial fulfillment for award of Bachelors Degree in Mechanical Engineering by the University of Pune. Place: Date:

(Prof. PAVAN B. CHAUDHARY) GUIDE

(Dr. D.D.SHAH) PRINCIPAL

(Prof. ABHAY A. PAWAR) HOD EXTERNAL

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report is a collection of work done on Design and Fabrication of an ATV, through the one year of our bachelors studies, and at the Department of Mechanical Engineering until the submission of this report. I would like to thank some important people who have helped us during this year. One person who has inspired and guided us is our Faculty Advisor Prof. Abhay A. Pawar, for his help and inspirations. Its always been a great pleasure discussing with him, both our project and career goals. I are indebted to him for all his suggestions and help in guiding the project, and for the huge support and positive energy he has given to me. He has always been a great leader and for being so modest and humble. I would like to thank Prof. P. B. Choudhari for being a valuable guide, and for providing the most valuable information for the completion of this report. Without this information, the completion of report would not be possible. Thanks to him for his timely guidance, and help in both academic and personal work. Thanks for all his suggestions. Other people whom I would like to say special thanks are: Prof. S.V. Patil, Prof. V. Dange, Prof. Pratik, Prof. Abhijit Patil, and other staff members for their valuable help and cooperation during the project, without you the work would not be as fun and inspiring as it was. My special thanks to Dr. D.D. Shah, Principal of our institute who had been measure source of inspiration, motivation and for all needed support emotionally and financially. I would extent my thanks to all of my teammates who have also contributed for this project and made the competition successful. I would also like to thank our institute, G.H. Raisoni College Of Engineering And Management for granting funds for this project and BAJA SAE INDIA organization for providing us valuable guidelines for the design and testing of our project.

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ABSTRACT
This report explains the insight of dynamics of vehicles for its best performance and the methodology required to be adopted for the design and fabrication of an All Terrain Vehicle (ATV). Also, it provides the prospects for determining the appropriate parameters for better performance of an ATV in rigorous conditions of sandy, muddy racetrack etc. without losing the stability. An All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a vehicle that travels on low pressure tyres, with a seat that is straddled by the operator, along with handlebars for steering control. As the name suggests, it is designed to negotiate a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. This project is for study, analysis, design and fabrication of vehicle and to identify the performance affecting parameters with respect to chassis, suspension, driveline and its integration in the whole vehicle. It also incorporates the managing of different manufacturing methodologies, within limited recourses of time, equipment and money. The study explores the on ground manufacturing difficulties, methods for identification and implementation of performance improving parameters in vehicle systems of chassis, suspension and driveline. Also mention has been made in the report for use of knowledge of basic subjects used in design, fabrication and testing of the vehicle. ATV was made to run for about 100 km in rough terrain and its performance found to be satisfactory.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Acknowledgement Abstract List of Figures List of Images List of Tables Abbreviation iii iv viii x x xi

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. Background of A.T.V.s Application of A.T.V.s Comparison of A.T.V. and C.V. Objective of the project Project outline 01 01 02 02 02

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 2.1.1. 2.1.2. 2.1.2.1. 2.1.2.2. Chassis Load on chassis Vehicle and body C.G. C.G. and handling properties Calculating the vehicle C.G. 04 04 05 05 05 06 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 08
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2.1.2.2.1. C.G. distance to front & rear axle 2.1.2.2.2. C.G. height 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. 2.2.1.3. 2.2.1.4. 2.2.1.5. Suspension system Basic consideration for suspension system Vehicle loading Rolling Brake dip and Squat Side thrust Road holding

2.2.1.6. 2.2.2. 2.2.2.1. 2.2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4. 2.2.4.1.

Unsprung weight Types of suspensions system used in automobiles Dependent suspension system Independent suspension system Requirements of suspension system Springs and Dampers Important parameters in springs and dampers

09 09 09 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 17
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2.2.4.1.1. Spring rate 2.2.4.1.2. Mathematics of the spring rate 2.2.5. 2.2.6. 2.2.7. 2.2.8. 2.2.9. 2.2.10. 2.2.11. 2.2.12. 2.2.13. 2.2.14. 2.2.15. 2.2.16. 2.2.17. 2.2.18. 2.2.19. 2.2.20. 2.3. 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.4. Wheel rate Roll couple center Weight transfer Unsprung weight transfer Sprung weight transfer Jacking force Travel Damping Camber control Roll center height Instant center Anti-dive and Anti-squat Isolation from high frequency hook Space occupied force distribution Air resistance (Drag) Cost Tyre and wheels Tyre design Tyre pressure Elastokinematics

2.4.1. 2.4.2. 2.4.3. 2.4.3.1. 2.4.3.2.

Wheelbase Track Roll center and roll axis Roll center Method of determining roll center for independent suspension system

18 18 18 18 19

2.4.3.2.1. For double wishbone system 2.4.3.2.2. Mc. Pherson suspension system 2.4.3.3. 2.4.4. 2.4.4.1. 2.4.5. 2.4.5.1. 2.4.5.2. 2.4.5.3. 2.4.6. 2.4.7. 2.5. 2.6. 2.6.1. 2.6.1.1. 2.6.1.2. 2.6.1.3. 2.6.1.4. 2.6.1.5. Roll axis Camber angles Camber alteration Caster angles Caster and straight running Kinematic caster alteration on front wheel travel Resolution of vertical wheel force on caster Kingpin inclination and kingpin offset at ground Toe angle Steering Driveline Driveline parts Engine Clutch Manual gearbox Propeller shaft Drive shafts

19 21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 31 34 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 37
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2.6.1.6. Drive shafts 2.6.1.7. 2.6.1.8. 2.6.2. Brakes Wheel Types of drives preferable for A.T.V.

2.6.2.1.

Four wheel drive (4WD)

37 37 38 38

2.6.2.1.1. Part-time four wheel drive 2.6.2.1.2. All wheel drive 2.6.2.2. Two wheel drive (2WD)

Chapter 3 Design
3.1. 3.2. 3.2.1. Tyre selection for A.T.V. design Chassis Determination of center of gravity distance to front and rear axle 3.2.2. 3.3. 3.3.1. 3.3.1.1. 3.3.1.2. 3.3.1.3. 3.3.2. 3.3.2.1. 3.3.2.2. 3.4. 3.4.1. 3.4.2. 3.4.3. 3.4.4. Determination of C.G. Suspension systems Designing of front suspension system Determination of length of wishbone Calculation of spring Shocker mounting support beam Designing of rear suspension system Calculation for rear suspension system Calculation of spring Driveline Engine Manual gear box Calculation for traction force and different velocities Drive shafts 41 42 42 42 44 45 47 47 49 51 51 53 54 57 39 40 40

Chapter 4 Fabrication
4.1. 4.2. 4.2.1. Chassis and roll cage Front suspension Front wheel hubs 59 62 63
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4.2.2. 4.2.3. 4.3. 4.4. 4.4.1. 4.5. 4.5.1. 4.5.2. 4.5.3.

Wishbones Shock absorbers Engine mounting Rear engine Rear wheel hubs Safety accessories Seat mounting Belly Pan Fire wall

64 65 66 67 67 68 68 68 68

Chapter 5 Testing analysis Chapter 6 Cost analysis Chapter 7 Conclusion & Scope of future work 7.1.
7.2. 7.3. 7.4. Results Conclusion Problems noted in the system Scope for future work 76 78 78 79

References

81

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LIST OF FIGURES

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8.

Determining C.G. of the overall vehicle Vehicle on weighbridge Dependent suspension system using leaf spring Independent suspension system using double wishbone Design of diagonal ply tubeless car tire Tyre dimension specified in standard and directives Path designation on the front axle Determination of the paths hRo and p by drawing and calculation

05 07 09 10 17 17 18 20

2.9.

Determination of the body roll centre on parallel double wishbone

20

2.10.

Determination of virtual roll centre of rotation when viewed from the rear

21

2.11. 2.12.

The body roll centre Ro in Mc Pherson strut Calculation of hRo and p in the standard configuration of Mc Pherson strut and strut damper

21 22

2.13. 2.14.

Camber angles Inclination of wheel with the body using independent wheel inclination

23 24

2.15.

Construction for determination of camber and kingpin inclination on double wishbone

25

2.16.

Construction for determination of camber and kingpin inclination on Mc Pherson strut

25

2.17. 2.18. 2.19. 2.20.

Caster angles Direction of tractive power Stabilizing effects of caster Lateral forces caused by uneven ground

25 26 27 27
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2.21. 2.22. 2.23. 2.24. 2.25. 2.26. 2.27. 2.28. 2.29. 2.30. 2.31. 2.32. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3.

Caster effect on wind sensitivity of a vehicle Effect of loading on rear part of vehicle Effect of parallel axes of rotation on caster Position of wheel centre when spring is supported Shift of vertical forces for static observation Resolving vertical force FZ, W in rear view Generation of force FT in the rods Effect of caster on location of force FZ, W sin Precise positioning of steer-axis Inclination angle of kingpin Toe angles Driveline for a rear-drive vehicle Position of C.G. from front and rear axle Determination of C.G. height from ground Graphical determination of roll centre for front double wishbone suspension

28 28 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 34 36 40 41 42

3.4.

Angular geometry for determination of roll centre height by analytical method

43

3.5. 3.6.

Cross section of shocker mounting beam Graphical determination of roll centre for front double wishbone suspension system

46 48

3.7.

Angular geometry for determination of roll centre by analytical method

49

3.8. 3.9. 3.10. 3.11. 4.1. 4.2.

Roll axis position of designed vehicle Overall dimension of engine Overall dimension of manual gear box Schematic layout of clutch and transmission Drawing for base structure Drawing for FBM, overhead member of roll cage

49 53 54 54 61 62
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4.3. 4.4 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10.

Drawing for RRH of roll cage Drawing for front axle Drawing for upper wishbone Drawing for lower wishbone Drawing for spring mounting plate and guide Drawing for fabrication of engine mounting Drawing for rear wheel hub Drawing of drive shaft

62 63 64 64 65 66 67 68

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LIST OF IMAGES

3.1. 3.2. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 6.1. 6.2.

Tire profile Lombardini LGA 340 OHC engine Testing certificate of selected material ASTM 106 Grade B CATIA model of entire roll cage Machining of hub on lath machine CATIA model of helical spring front shocker Assembly of front suspension system after manufacturing Assembly of rear suspension, engine and gear box FEA analysis of roll cage FEA analysis of front stub axle FEA analysis of front upper wishbone Possible deformation of upper wishbone due to forces FEA possible shocker spring FEA analysis of shocker mounting bar Vehicle before testing Vehicle after testing

39 52 60 62 63 65 66 67 69 70 70 71 71 72 75 75

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LIST OF TABLES

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 6.1. 7.1.

Final values obtained for front double wishbone suspension Final values obtained for front suspension spring Final values obtained for rear suspension spring Specification of LGA 340 OHC Cost Estimation of ATV model General specification

44 47 51 51 74 77

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ABBRIVATIONS
Bo Ro Uf or U r CG mV, t W q Body centre of gravity Roll centre Wheel centre point, front or rear Vehicle centre of gravity Gross weight of the vehicle Center of tyre contact Inclination angle of lower control arm (double wishbone or McPherson axles) Inclination angle of upper control arm (double wishbone) Force lever of vertical force

SUFFIXES
dyn X or x Y or y Z or z Ro Dynamic Longitudinal direction Lateral direction Vertical direction Body roll center

LENGTHS & DISTANCES

Cr hv hRo r d c p Dynamic rolling circumference at 60 kmh-1 Height of the vehicle center of gravity Height of roll center Transverse offset at ground, static Kingpin inclination angle Camber angle Caster angle Efficiency Distance of lower wishbone ball joint from ground Length of kingpin distance of roll pole from ground
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND OF ATVS
An All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a vehicle that travels on low pressure tires, with a seat that is straddled by the operator, along with handlebars for steering control. In some vehicles steering wheel similar to passenger cars is also used. As the name suggests, it is designed to negotiate a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. Although it is a street-legal vehicle in some countries, it is not legal within most states and provinces of Australia, the United States and Canada and definitely not in India. By the current ANSI definition, it is intended for use by a single operator, although a change to include 2-seaters is under consideration. [9] The All Terrain Vehicle (ATV) was initially developed in the 1960s as a farm-totown vehicle in isolated, mountainous areas. During spring thaws and rainy seasons, steep mountainous roads were often impassable with conventional vehicles. It soon became a recreational vehicle however, providing transportation to areas inaccessible by other motorized transport. Royal Enfield CO built and put on sale a powered Quadra cycle in 1893 that worked in the same way as, and resembles, a modern quad-bike. ATVs were made in the United States a decade before 3- and 4-wheeled vehicles were introduced by Honda and other Japanese companies. During the 1960s, numerous manufacturers

offered similar small off-road vehicles that were designed to float and were capable of traversing swamps, ponds and streams, as well as dry land. The early ATVs were mainly used for agricultural purpose only. But now the definition of ATV is changing. Many countries are allowing ATVs as commercial vehicle, though with the regulations on its use and safety. Now days, ATVs are generally used in defense and sports application redefining the ATV. Now the ATVs are also coming with durable roll cages, added safety of seat and shoulder belts and higher ground clearance making it more rugged vehicle. The rear cargo deck is more useful for hauling camping gear, bales of hay, tools and supplies making it suitable for exploring back country, riding sand dunes, hunting, fishing and camping. ATVs Sport models are built with performance, rather than utility, in mind. To be successful at fast trail riding, an
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ATV must have light weight, high power, good suspension and a low center of gravity. These machines can be modified for such racing disciplines as motocross, woods racing, desert racing, hill climbing, ice racing, speedway, tourist trophy, flat track, drag racing and others.

1.2. APPLICATION OF ATVs

Initially the ATVs were solely used for the transportation through the inaccessible areas, but now these vehicles have found their application in different areas as mentioned below: a. In Defense Services like army and air force etc to carry and transport guns, ammunition and other supplies to remote areas of rough and varied terrain. b. By railways during construction of railway tracks on mountain or on other rough terrain. c. By police force. d. In sport also like golf for traveling one place to other place. e. In Antarctic bases for research things where use of conventional vehicle is impossible. f. Now a days ATVs are also used in adventuring like mountaineering, in dirt and in snow.

1.3.

COMPARISON BETWEEN ATV AND CV

An ATV is made for rough terrain whereas a Conventional Vehicle (CV) is made

for a metal road or may be used on village roads. Hence, an ATV requires a sturdy and stable design compared to any CV. Although the basic automotive concepts and types of different subsystems used in an ATV and a CV are similar, these vehicles are distinguished by the values of different parameters of automobile suspension system, their steering geometry etc. It is very essential for an ATV to have very strong and flexible suspension system in order to sustain the tremendous dynamic forces acting on the vehicle which is quite large compared to a CV.The main difference that can be observed in an ATV and a CV is the tires used. These tires are specially meant for ATVs to provide greater amount of traction to the vehicle in case of sandy, muddy or gravelly terrain. As the ATVs are
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mostly used in places like farms and mountains where large amount of torque is required rather than mere speed, hence, ATVs are designed for larger torque, less speed and high ground clearance whereas CVs are designed for speed and passenger comfort for their transportation through metal roads. The ATVs also possess the ability to travel through terrains like desert, dirt, sandy and muddy areas unlike any other CV.

1.4.

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The objective of our project work was to study the static and dynamic parameter

of the chassis, suspension system and driveline of an ATV by determining and analyzing the dynamics of the vehicle when driving on an off road racetrack. Though, there are many parameters which affect the performance of the ATV, the scope of this project work is limited to optimization, determination, design and fabrication of following systems and to integrate them into whole vehicle systems for best results. The scope of the project was limited to study, analyze, design, manufacture and integrate the following systems into main vehicle for best performance. a. Chassis b. Suspension c. Driveline The goals were to identify and optimize the parameters affecting the dynamic performance above systems within limitations of time, equipment and data from manufacturer. For better performance a fast, light weight and reliable vehicle is required. The project was sponsored by BAJA SAE INDIA, under Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The objective of the project includes: a. Study the static and dynamic parameters of the chassis. b. Workout the parameters by analysis, design, optimization, fabrication, integration and testing of chassis. c. Study of existing suspension systems and parameters affecting its performance.

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d. Determination of design parameters for suspension system, its design, selection of other components, manufacturing, integration and testing of suspension system. e. Study of driveline, its design, selection, manufacture, integration and testing of driveline. f. Testing vehicle system in rough terrain for about 200 km.

1.5.

PROJECT OUTLINE
This section outlines the material presented in each chapter of the report and

provides a general overview of the work. This chapter intends to provide the vision and objectives which have guided our efforts to build an ATV. All in all, our intentions are to set the scenario for automotive designing, fabrication and testing procedures. Chapter two provides general background about vehicle systems. An introduction to chassis, suspension and driveline design and the important parameters or design factors that affect them are presented in this chapter. The purpose of this section is to collect adequate information to understand the working of different systems in the vehicle and parameters affecting their performance. Some of the important concepts that will be important to this work will be introduced. Chapter three outlines the important design constraints and requirements of important dimensions for manufacturing. Detailed calculations for these constraints are presented. Chapter 3 also identifies and selects values of parameters which affect the vehicle performance. Chapter four summarizes the manufacturing methods and discusses the fabrication of the vehicle. Chapter five is a summary of the results of testing of the project vehicle. Chapter six presents the cost analysis the project. It also provides the overview on method employed for cost reduction. Chapter seven presents the conclusions.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
An Automobile has different components, also called as main units. These units further comprise of subassemblies. They are as follows: a. The Basic Structure: It consists of the frame, the suspension system, axels, wheels and tires. b. The Power Plant: The power plant (engine) provides the motive power for all the functions which the vehicle or any part of it, may be called upon to perform. c. The Transmission System: It consists of a clutch, a gear box giving four or even six different ratios of torque output to torque input, driving shafts to transmit torque to wheels. d. The Auxiliaries: It is consists of battery, generator, the starter, ignition system etc. e. The Controls: The controls consist of Steering system and Brakes. f. The Superstructure: It is the body attached to the frame, which prevents intrusion of foreign particles inside. [6]

2.1. CHASSIS
The chassis of an automobile consists of following components suitably mounted: a. Engine b. Transmission system c. Suspension system d. Road wheels e. Steering system f. Brakes

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2.1.1. Loads on the Chassis a. Weight of the vehicle and driver, which causes vertical bending of the side members. b. Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which result in longitudinal torsion due to one wheel lifted (or lowered) with other wheels at the usual road level. c. Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn which result in lateral bending of side members. d. Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame to parallelogram shape. e. Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the vertical plane. 2.1.2. Vehicle and Body Centre of Gravity

2.1.2.1. Centre Of Gravity And Handling Properties The following are important variables considered in chassis design in vehicle engineering: a. Vehicle centre of gravity CG b. Body (sprung-mass) centre of gravity Bo c. Axle (unsprung mass) centers of gravity Uf or Ur Low centers of gravity are always desirable, as they are associated with fewer driving dynamic problems and increased vehicle performance during cornering and braking, but in practice the design options are relatively restricted. [2] 2.1.2.2 Calculating the Vehicle Centre Of Gravity Calculating the position of the centre of gravity is likely to be possible only with great difficulty and considerable effort. If the vehicle and all its individual components are shown on a computer in the form of a digital model including body surfaces and properties (digital surfaced model), modern CAE tools make it possible to calculate the position of the centers of gravity of the components and the whole vehicle.
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Figure 2. 1: Designation of the paths for determining the centers of gravity CG of the overall vehicle and Bo

of the body. The centers of gravity Uf and Ur of the front and rear axles can be regarded as being in the centers of the wheels.

It is much simpler to determine the position experimentally by weighing. For this, the empty vehicle should be observed and when it is occupied by driver (approximately 170 cm tall and weighing around 68 kg). 2.1.2.2.1 Centre of Gravity Distance to Front and Rear Axle Figure 2.1 contains the paths and angles necessary for calculating the centers of gravity. When the vehicle is weighed, it must be standing on a completely horizontal plane and with each axle on a weighbridge. So as not to distort the weighbridge, it must be possible to turn the wheels freely. The weighed front axle load mV, f and the rear axle load mV, r give the total weight mV, t of the vehicle: (2.1) The balance of moments around mV, f or mV, r, in conjunction with the wheelbase l in the longitudinal direction, gives the centre of gravity distances lf to the front and lr to the rear axle: (2.2)

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If the lateral distance of the centre of gravity (y-direction) from the vehicle centreline is required, the wheel loads must be weighed to be able to calculate first of all the lateral offset of the centers of the front and rear axles from the centre-line via similar equations made up from the rear view, and then similarly for the vehicle centre of gravity from the top view. [2] 2.1.2.2.2. Centre of Gravity Height To calculate height of center of gravity (hV), first the front and then the rear axle must be lifted as high as possible (by the amount h) with an elevating mechanism (auto hoist, jack, crane), with the other axle standing in the centre of a weighbridge (Fig. 2.2). The following would need to be ensured: a. The vehicle must be prevented from falling off by inserting wedges from the outside on the axle to be raised. The brake must be released and the gearbox must be in neutral. It must be possible to turn the wheels on the platform easily; the platform would otherwise distort and the result will be imprecise. b. The wheels are held still on the centre of the platform; the vehicle forward movement must be even when the vehicle is raised, in order to prevent wrong measured values as a result of different force application positions on the horizontal surface. c. If the change in axle load during lifting is measured by means of a crane over a load cell, it is possible to ensure that the direction of lifting is completely vertical. d. The vehicle should be in the on-road condition, i.e. full tank, tools, spare wheel, etc. e. Both axles must be prevented from compressing or rebounding before the vehicle is raised. f. To eliminate tire springing during the measurement, it is recommended that the tire pressure on both axles be increased to 3.0 to 3.5 bar. Mathematical observation of the measurement is as follows (Fig. 2.2): The angle is known; but
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is sought, whereby

To be able to determine lr, the equation of moments produced around the centre of the front axle is set up: ( Eliminating cos
( )

whereas

Therefore, Hence

Figure 2. 2: Vehicle on a weighbridge with forces and paths for deriving the equation for vehicle centre of

gravity height hV included.

(2.3) In Equation 2.3 the angle can be expressed through the easily measurable vehicle stroke height h and so the equation can be simplified:

(2.4)

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Where, rdyn is dynamic rolling radius given by, rdyn = Cr/2 With m/h or m/tan there is a constant in the equation. When it is weighed, in each instance, only the changes caused by the vehicle lifting on one side, namely m and the raised dimension h, need to be determined. The other values such as wheelbase l, vehicle weight mV,t and the dynamic rolling radius rdyn remain the same. The centre of gravity height is required for calculating various vehicle conditions, i.e. for the travelling vehicle, so the dynamic rolling radius rdyn of the tyre must be added to hV and not the somewhat lower static rolling radius that only applies to the standing vehicle. [2, 3]

2.2.
depend

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The suspension of vehicles needs to satisfy a number of requirements which on different operating conditions of the vehicle (loaded/unloaded,

acceleration/braking, level/uneven road, straight running/ cornering). Suspension systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the vehicle's handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and mounted systems from damage and wear. Suspension is the term given to the system comprise of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its wheels. The design of front and rear suspension of a vehicle may be different. 2.2.1. Basic Consideration for Suspension System

2.2.1.1. Vertical Loading When the road wheel comes across the bump or a pit on the road it is subjected to vertical forces (tensile or compressive) depending on the load irregularity which are absorbed by the elastic compression, shear, bending, twisting properties of spring. To reduce the pitching tendency of the vehicle, the front system should be less springing than the rear suspension system.

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2.2.1.2.Rolling The center of gravity (C.G.) of the vehicle is considerably above the ground. As a result while taking turns the centrifugal force acts outwards on the C.G. of vehicle, while the load resistance acts inwards at the wheels. This give rise to a couple turning the vehicle about the longitudinal axis called rolling. 2.2.1.3.Brake Dip and Squat On applying brakes the nose of the vehicle dips which depends on the position of C.G. relative to the ground, wheel base and other suspension characteristics. This phenomenon is called as dip. In the same way the torque loads during acceleration tend to lift the front of vehicle. This effect is called as squat. 2.2.1.4.Side Thrust Centrifugal force during cornering, crosswinds, cambering of the road causes side thrust. 2.2.1.5.Road Holding The degree to which vehicle maintains the contact with the road surface in various types of directional changes as well as in straight line motion is called as road holding. 2.2.1.6.Unsprung Weight Unsprung weight is the weight of the vehicle components between suspension and road surface (Rear axle assembly, steering knuckle, front axle, wheels). [6] 2.2.2. Types of Suspension System used in Automobiles Suspension systems can be broadly classified into two subgroups Dependent and Independent. 2.2.2.1. Dependent Suspension System A dependent suspension normally has a beam or live axle that holds wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle with the help of leaf springs to it. In dependent suspension system when the camber of one wheel changes, the camber of the opposite wheel changes in the same way (by convention, on one side this is a positive change in camber and on the other side this a negative change). Depending on the
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location of system of linkages, the dependent suspension systems have various configurations as: a. Satchell link b. Panhard rod c. Watt's linkage d. WOBLink e. Mumford linkage f. Live axle g. Twist beam h. Beam axle Dependent suspension system assures constant camber, it is most commonly used in vehicles that need to carry large loads.

Figure 2. 3: Dependent suspension system using leaf spring

2.2.2.2. Independent Suspension System In an independent suspension system wheels are allowed to rise and fall on their own without affecting the opposite wheel by using kinematic linkages and coil springs. Suspensions with other devices, such as anti-roll bars that link the wheels are also

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classified in independent suspension system. The various independent suspension systems are: a. Double wishbone suspensions b. McPherson struts and strut dampers c. Rear axle trailing-arm suspension d. Semi-trailing-arm rear axles e. Multi-link suspension In this type of suspension system, the wheels are not constrained to remain perpendicular to a flat road surface in turning, braking and varying load conditions; control of the wheel camber is an important issue. In double wishbone and multi-link system we can have more control over the geometry of system than swing axle, McPherson strut or swinging arm because of the cost and space requirements. [2]

Figure 2. 4: Independent suspension system using Double wishbone

2.2.3. Requirements of Suspension System a. Independent movement of each of the wheels on an axle

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b. Small, unsparing masses of the suspension in order to keep wheel load fluctuation as low as possible c. The introduction of wheel forces into the body in a manner favorable to the flow of forces d. The necessary room and expenditure for construction purposes, bearing in mind the necessary tolerances with regard to geometry and stability, ease of use e. Behavior with regard to the passive safety of passengers and other road users f. To preserve stability of the vehicle in pitching and rolling while in motion g. Cost 2.2.4. Spring and Dampers Most suspensions use springs to absorb impacts and dampers (or shock absorbers) to control spring motions. Traditional springs and dampers are referred to as passive suspensions. If the suspension is externally controlled then it is a semi-active or active suspension. Semi-active suspensions include devices such as air springs and switchable shock absorbers, various self-leveling solutions, as well as systems like Hydro pneumatic, Hydromantic, and Hydra gas suspensions. Mitsubishi developed the worlds first production semi-active electronically controlled suspension system in passenger cars; the system was first incorporated in the 1987 Gallant model. Fully active suspension systems use electronic monitoring of vehicle conditions, coupled with the means to impact vehicle suspension and behavior in real time to directly control the motion of the car. With the help of control system, various semi-active/active suspensions could realize an improved design compromise among different vibrations modes of the vehicle, namely bounce, roll, pitch and warp modes. However, the applications of these advanced suspensions are constrained by the cost, packaging, weight, reliability, and/or the other challenges. Interconnected suspension, unlike semi-active/active suspensions, could easily decouple different vehicle vibration modes in a passive manner. The interconnections can be realized by various means, such as mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic. Anti-roll bars are one of the typical examples of mechanical interconnections, while it has been
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stated that fluidic interconnections offer greater potential and flexibility in improving both the stiffness and damping properties. The leading / trailing swinging arm, fore-aft linked suspension system together with inboard front brakes had a much smaller unsprung weight than existing coil spring or leaf designs. The interconnection transmitted some of the force deflecting a front wheel up over a bump, to push the rear wheel down on the same side. When the rear wheel met that bump a moment later, it did the same in reverse, keeping the car level front to rear. The springing balance (which expresses how well the front and rear axles are matched to one another) also needs to be taken into consideration. If a vehicle does not pitch when it goes over bumps in the ground, but instead moves up and down in parallel translation, it has a good springing balance. [1] 2.2.4.1.Important Parameters in Spring and Dampers 2.2.4.1.1. Spring Rate The spring rate (or suspension rate) is a component in setting the vehicle's ride height or its location in the suspension stroke. Vehicles which carry heavy loads will often have heavier springs to compensate for the additional weight that would otherwise collapse a vehicle to the bottom of its travel (stroke). Heavier springs are also used in performance applications when the suspension is constantly forced to the bottom of its stroke causing a reduction in the useful amount of suspension travel which may also lead to harsh bottoming. Springs that are too hard or too soft will both effectively cause the vehicle to have no suspension at all. Vehicles that commonly experience suspension loads heavier than normal have heavy or hard springs with a spring rate close to the upper limit for that vehicle's weight. This allows the vehicle to perform properly under a heavy load when control is limited by the inertia of the load. Riding in an empty truck used for carrying loads can be uncomfortable for passengers because of its high spring rate relative to the weight of the vehicle. A race car would also be described as having heavy springs and would also be uncomfortably bumpy. A luxury car, taxi, or passenger bus would be described as having soft springs. Vehicles with worn out or damaged springs ride lower to the ground which reduces the overall amount of compression available to the suspension and increases the amount of body lean. Performance vehicles can sometimes have spring rate requirements other than vehicle weight and load. [1]
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2.2.4.1.2. Mathematics of the Spring Rate Spring rate is a ratio used to measure how resistant a spring is to being compressed or expanded during the spring's deflection. The magnitude of the spring force increases as deflection increases according to Hooke's Law. Briefly, this can be stated as,

Where, F is the force the spring exerts k is the spring rate of the spring. x is the displacement from equilibrium length i.e. the length at which the spring is neither compressed or stretched. Spring rate is confined to a narrow interval by the weight of the vehicle, the load the vehicle will carry, and to a lesser extent by suspension geometry and performance desires. Spring rates typically have units of N/mm. A non-linear spring rate is one for which the relation between the spring's compression and the force exerted cannot be fitted adequately to a linear model. The spring rate of a coil spring may be calculated by a simple algebraic equation or it may be measured in a spring testing machine. The spring constant k can be calculated as follows:

Where, d is the wire diameter, G is the spring's shear modulus (e.g., about 80 GPa for steel), and N is the number of wraps and D is the diameter of the coil. [11] 2.2.5. Wheel Rate Wheel rate is the effective spring rate when measured at the wheel. Wheel rate is usually equal to or considerably less than the spring rate. Commonly, springs are mounted on control arms, swing arms or some other pivoting suspension member. The wheel rate is calculated by taking the square of the ratio (0.5625) times the spring rate. Squaring the ratio is because the ratio has two effects on the wheel rate. The ratio applies to both the force and distance traveled.

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Wheel rate on independent suspension is fairly straight-forward. However, special consideration must be taken with some non-independent suspension designs. Yet because the wheels are not independent, when viewed from the side under acceleration or braking the pivot point is at infinity (because both wheels have moved) and the spring is directly in line with the wheel contact patch. The result is often that the effective wheel rate under cornering is different from what it is under acceleration and braking. This variation in wheel rate may be minimized by locating the spring as close to the wheel as possible. 2.2.6. Roll Couple Percentage Roll couple percentage is the effective wheel rates, in roll, of each axle of the vehicle as a ratio of the vehicle's total roll rate. Roll Couple Percentage is critical in accurately balancing the handling of a vehicle. A vehicle with a roll couple percentage of 70% will transfer 70% of its sprung weight at the front of the vehicle during cornering. 2.2.7. Weight Transfer Weight transfer during cornering, acceleration or braking is usually calculated per individual wheel and compared with the static weights for the same wheels. Cornering wheel weights requires knowing the static wheel weights and adding or subtracting the unsprung, sprung and jacking forces at each wheel. 2.2.8. Unsprung Weight Transfer Unsprung weight transfer is calculated based on the weight of the vehicle's components that are not supported by the springs. This includes tires, wheels, brakes, spindles, half the control arm's weight and other components. These components are then (for calculation purposes) assumed to be connected to a vehicle with zero sprung weight. They are then put through the same dynamic loads. The weight transfer for cornering in the front would be equal to the total unsprung front weight times the G-Force times the front unsprung center of gravity height divided by the front track width. The same is true for the rear.

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2.2.9. Sprung Weight Transfer Sprung Weight Transfer is the weight transferred by only the weight of the vehicle resting on the springs not the total vehicle weight. Calculating this requires knowing the vehicles sprung weight (total weight less the unsprung weight), the front and rear roll center heights and the sprung center of gravity height (used to calculate the roll moment arm length). Calculating the front and rear sprung weight transfer will also require knowing the roll couple percentage. The roll axis is the line through the front and rear roll centers that the vehicle rolls around during cornering. The distance from this axis to the sprung center of gravity height is the roll moment arm length. The total sprung weight transfer is equal to the Gforce times the sprung weight times the roll moment arm length divided by the effective track width. The front sprung weight transfer is calculated by multiplying the roll couple percentage times the total sprung weight transfer. 2.2.10. Jacking Forces Jacking forces can be thought of as the centripetal force pushing diagonally upward from the tire contact patch into the suspension roll center. The front jacking force is calculated by taking the front sprung weight times the G-force times the front roll center height divided by the front track width. The rear is calculated the same way except at the rear. 2.2.11. Travel Travel is the measure of distance from the bottom of the suspension stroke to the top of the suspension stroke. Bottoming or lifting a wheel can cause serious control problems or directly cause damage. "Bottoming" can be the suspension, tires, fenders, etc. running out of space to move the body or other components of the car hitting the road. The control problems caused by lifting a wheel are less severe if the wheel lifts when the spring reaches its unloaded shape than they are if travel is limited by contact of suspension members. 2.2.12. Damping Damping is the control of motion or oscillation, as seen with the use of hydraulic gates and valves in a vehicles shock absorber. This may also vary, intentionally or
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unintentionally. Like spring rate, the optimal damping for comfort may be less than for control. Damping controls the travel speed and resistance of the vehicles suspension. An undamped car will oscillate up and down. With proper damping levels, the car will settle back to a normal state in a minimal amount of time. Most damping in modern vehicles can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the resistance to fluid flow in the shock absorber. 2.2.13. Camber Control A tire wears and brakes best at -1 to -2 degrees of camber from vertical. Depending on the tire, it may hold the road best at a slightly different angle. Small changes in camber, front and rear, are used to tune handling. 2.2.14. Roll Center Height This is important to body roll and to front to rear roll moment distribution. However, the roll moment distribution in most cars is set more by the antiroll bars than the RCH. It may affect the tendency to roll over. 2.2.15. Instant Center A tire's force vector points from the contact patch of the tire through a point referred to as the "instant center". This imaginary point is the effective geometric point at which the suspension force vectors are transmitted to the chassis. Another way of looking at this is to imagine each suspension control arm mounted only at the frame. The axis that the arm rotates around creates an imaginary line running through the vehicle. Forces, as far as suspension geometry are concerned, are transmitted either along this axis (usually front to rear) or through this axis at a right angle (usually right to left and intersects the ball joint). When force lines of the upper and lower control arms intersect, where they cross is the Instant Center. The Instant Centers when viewed from the front or side may not seem to have much of a relation to each other until you imagine the points in three dimensions. Sometimes the Instant Center is at ground level or at a distant point due to parallel control arms. The instant center can also be thought of as having the effect of converting multilink suspension into a single control arm which pivots at the Instant Center. This is
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only true at a given suspension deflection, because an unequal length, multi-link system has an instant center that moves as the suspension is deflected. 2.2.16. Anti-Dive and Anti-Squat Anti-dive and anti-squat are expressed in terms of percentage and refer to the front diving under braking and the rear squatting under acceleration. They can be thought of as the counterparts for braking and acceleration as jacking forces are to cornering. The main reason for the difference is due to the different design goals between front and rear suspension, whereas suspension is usually symmetrical between the left and right of the vehicle. Anti-dive and anti-squat percentage are always calculated with respect to a vertical plane that intersects the vehicle's center of gravity The anti-dive is the ratio between the height of where the tire force vector crosses the center of gravity plane expressed as a percentage. An anti-dive ratio of 50% would mean the force vector under braking crosses half way between the ground and the center of gravity. Anti-squat is the counterpart to anti-dive and is for the rear suspension under acceleration. Anti-dive and anti-squat may or may not be desirable depending on the suspension design. 2.2.17. Isolation from High Frequency Shock For most purposes, the weight of the suspension components is unimportant, but at high frequencies, caused by road surface roughness, the parts isolated by rubber bushings act as a multistage filter to suppress noise and vibration better than can be done with only the tires and springs. 2.2.18. Space Occupied Force Distribution Designs differ as to how much space they take up and where it is located. It is generally accepted that MacPherson struts are the most compact arrangement for frontengine vehicles, where the wheels is required to place the engine. 2.2.19. Air Resistance (Drag) Certain modern vehicles have height adjustable suspension in order to improve aerodynamics and fuel efficiency. And modern formula cars, that have exposed wheels and suspension, typically use streamlined tubing rather than simple round tubing for their suspension arms to reduce drag. Also typical is the use of rocker arm, push rod, or pull
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rod type suspensions, that among other things, places the spring/damper unit inboard and out of the air stream to further reduce air resistance. 2.2.20. Cost Production methods improve, but cost is always a factor. The continued use of the solid rear axle, with unsprung differential, especially on heavy vehicles, seems to be the most obvious example. [5]

2.3.

TIRES AND WHEELS

The tires are crucial functional elements for the transmission of longitudinal,

lateral and vertical forces between the vehicle and road. The tire properties should be as constant as possible and hence predictable by the driver. As well as their static and dynamic force transmission properties, the requirements described below depending on the intended use of the vehicle are also to be satisfied. Selecting the right tires for the ATV is not difficult if we know what we are looking for, there are some important things to consider in order to make the best selection, doing a wrong selection can kill the fuel economy, decrease performance and possibly damage the vehicle. Tread pattern is one of the most important things to consider, there are several patterns like mud tires, trail tires, sand tires and race tires. It is needed to analyze first what type of terrain the vehicle will drive in most, in order to select best performing tires for that particular terrain. Since, the ATV is meant to drive in all kinds of terrains, an aggressive all terrain tires should be the best. The all terrain tires come in two patterns, flat and round. Flat tires have more treads to the ground, and in the other hand round tires can increase the vehicle speed. But the round tires also have a tendency to roll under during hard cornering, while the flat tire "puts more rubber to the track". Then comes the problem with the choice between the tall tire and the short tire, the a tall tire will lift the ATV higher off the ground and give a softer ride, but on the other hand a tall tire has more sidewall flex which will give the ATV a feeling of being loose during hard cornering. Whereas a short tire gives more stability during hard

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cornering and high speeds, but gives less ground clearance and makes the ride a little bumpier. Things to remember while selecting ATV tires: a. Ride Comfort: These tires ride exceptionally smooth on pavement and dirt roads. They also absorb the impact of rocks and other obstacles very well. The driver should feel comfortable and safe while driving the vehicle. b. Steering/Handling: These tires steer effortlessly and track well over the trail, but they are a little sensitive to uneven surfaces, tending to follow small ruts and grooves etc. c. Puncture Resistance: Puncture resistance should be very high as this vehicle is going to run through rough terrains, water, mud and many such adverse conditions. Also small bits of gravel caught between the tire bead and rim should be cleaned periodically as it causes to lose all air minimizing life of the tire. d. Mud Traction: Mud traction is as expected, pretty good for a multi-purpose tire. e. Sand/loose dirt track traction: This is where these tires really shine, especially in very steep terrain. The soft tread cleats that wrap around the tire shoulders and flexible tire construction combine to grab nicely on to most dirt/rocky trail conditions i.e. it should have very high sand tracks in order to deal with the muddy tracks. [2, 6] 2.3.1. Tire Design Cross-ply tires consist of the substructure (also known as the tire carcass, Fig. 2.5) which, as the supporting framework has at least two layers of rubberized cord fibers, which have a zenith or bias angle of between 20 and 40 to the centre plane of the tire. Rayon (an artificial silk cord), nylon or even steel cord may be used, depending on the strength requirements. This represents the frictional connection to the rim. On tubeless tires the bead must provide the airtight seal.

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Figure 2. 5: Design of a diagonal ply tubeless car tire with a normal drop rim and pressed-in inflating valve

2.3.2. Tire Pressures . Since, ATVs are intended to ride on muddy and sandy areas, where the grip provided by the road surface is relatively less; the tire pressure recommended is in the range 15 PSI to 20 PSI. Sometimes depending on the terrain, the tire pressure of 13 PSI is also recommended by the manufacturers.

Figure 2. 6: Tyre dimensions specified in standards and directives. B is the cross-section width of the new

tire; the tread molding is not included in the dimension. The tire radius, dependent on the speed, is designated r.

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2.4. ELASTOKINEMATICS
Elastokinematics defines the alterations in the position of the wheels caused by forces and moments between the tires and the road or the longitudinal movement of the wheel, against suspension anchorage required to prevent compliance, kinematics changes. 2.4.1. Wheelbase The wheelbase l, measured from the centre of the front to the centre of the rear axle (Fig 2.1), is an important variable in the vehicles ride and handling properties. The short body overhangs to the front and rear, reduce the tendency to pitch oscillations and make it possible to fit soft springing, normally associated with a high level of ride comfort. A short wheelbase, on the other hand, makes cornering easier, i.e. gives a smaller swept turning circle for the same steering input. 2.4.2. Track The track bf is measure of centre distance between two front wheels or two rear wheels. When the wheels travel in bump and rebound-travel direction, the track changes on almost all independent wheel suspensions, which may be unavoidable if a higher body roll centre is necessary. However, the track size alteration causes the rolling tire to slip and, on flat cross-sections in particular, causes lateral forces, higher rolling resistance and deterioration in the directional stability of the vehicle, and may even influence the steering. When the wheels travel in bump and rebound-travel direction, the track changes on almost all independent wheel suspensions, which may be unavoidable if a higher body roll centre is necessary. However, the track size alteration causes the rolling tire to slip and, on flat cross-sections in particular, causes lateral forces, higher rolling resistance and deterioration in the directional stability of the vehicle, and may even influence the steering.

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Figure 2. 7: Path designations on the front axel

2.4.3. Roll Centre and Roll Axis 2.4.3.1.Roll Centre The roll center of a vehicle is the imaginary point at which the cornering forces in the suspension are reacted to the vehicle body. There are two definitions of roll center. The most commonly used is the geometric (or kinematics) roll center, whereas the Society of Automotive Engineers uses a force based definition. "The point in the transverse vertical plane through any pair of wheel centers at which lateral forces may be applied to the sprung mass without producing suspension roll". The roll centers are also defined as the instant center of rotation of the chassis relative to the ground when both suspensions of the same axle are regarded as planar mechanisms. Load transfer is of critical importance for vehicle stability in vehicle such as ATVs. Ideally in high performance applications load transfer tends to be minimized as a tires performance is directly affected by the amount of load that it has to transmit. In a steady state turn the final load transfer, summed across all the axles, is only related to the position of the center of mass above the ground, the track width and the lateral acceleration. ATVs must shift their center of mass lower level or decrease their lateral acceleration to avoid tipping. To keep them from tipping the tires used are with lower grip

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which reduces the vehicles cornering capacity, or another option is altering the roll stiffness balance from front to rear, to encourage under steer or over steer as necessary to limit the maximum lateral acceleration of the vehicle. The geometric roll center of the vehicle can be found by following basic geometrical procedures when the vehicle is static. However, when the vehicle rolls the roll centers migrate. The rapid movement of roll centers when the system experiences small displacements can lead to stability problems with the vehicle. The roll center height has been shown to affect behavior at the initiation of turns such as nimbleness and initial roll control. 2.4.3.2.Method of Determining the Roll Center for Independent Suspension System 2.4.3.2.1. For Double Wishbone System The height of the (instantaneous centre of rotation) P determines the position of the body roll centre Ro (Figure 2.8) From figure 2.8, the roll center height can be calculated by formula, [2]

Where,

As it can be seen in figure 2.8, for double wishbone suspension only the position of the control arms is important. The lines connecting the inner and outer control arm pivots need to be extended to fix virtual centre of rotation P and, at the same time, its height p.

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Figure 2. 8: Determination by drawing and calculation of the paths hRo and p on double wishbone

suspensions and a multi-link as well as longitudinal transverse axes.

Figure 2. 9: Determination of the body roll centre on parallel double wishbones; the virtual centre of rotation

is at infinity.

P linked with the centre of tire contact W gives the body roll centre R o in the intersection with the vehicle centre plane. In the case of parallel control arms, P is at and a line parallel to them needs to be drawn through W (Figure 2.9). Where the virtual centre of rotation is a long way from the wheel centre of contact, it is recommended that the distances p and hRo be calculated using the formulae listed above. Steering control arm axes of rotation, which are sloped when viewed from the side, need E1 and G1 to be moved perpendicularly up or down (Figure 2.10). The points
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E2 and G2 obtained in this way linked with E1 and G1 when viewed from the rear give the virtual centre of rotation P, and the line from this axis to the centre of tire contact (as shown in Figure 2.8) gives the body roll centre.

Figure 2. 10: If the suspension control arm axes of rotation are at an angle to one another when viewed from

the side, a vertical should first be drawn to the ground through the points E 1 and G1; the intersections with the axes of rotation C1C2 and D1D2 yield the points E2 and G2, needed for determining the virtual centre of rotation when viewed from the rear.

2.4.3.2.2. For McPherson Suspension System On McPherson struts, or strut dampers, a vertical must be created in the body side fixing point E to the centre line of the shock absorber piston rod, and the lower steering control arm must be extended. The intersection of the two lines will then give point P. [8] On the McPherson strut, the height of the body roll centre can only be influenced by placing the lower suspension control arm at an angle and only marginally by changing the angle between steering axis EG and the McPherson strut centre line (Figure 2.12), which is a disadvantage of this type of suspension.

Figure 2. 11: The body roll center Ro in McPherson strut

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The Roll Center Height can be calculated as, [2]

Where,

Figure 2. 12: Calculation of the paths hRo and p in the standard configuration of a McPherson strut and strut

damper

2.4.3.3.Roll Axis Traditionally the vehicle has been assumed to roll about a roll axis which has been defined as an axis joining two imaginary points, the roll centers of the front and rear suspensions. The roll axis is the line about which the chassis (or car body) rolls when a force (or a pure rolling moment) acts on the car body from the side (which is what happens, for instance, when the car enters a turn). Or the roll axis is the set of the chassis points where a lateral force can be applied without producing any roll movement of the chassis itself.

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The roll axis is determined as the line going through the front and rear roll centers of a car. In the general, the roll axis is determined by introducing the ensuing simplifications: a. The front and rear parts of the car are considered separately. Each semi-vehicle is composed of a part (front or rear) of the chassis, together with the suspensions of the corresponding axle. b. Any pitch rotation of the chassis of a semi-vehicle is neglected, so that a transverse vertical plane pt fixed to the chassis of the semi-vehicle and going through the centers of the wheels at the reference configuration of the vehicle keeps vertical when the chassis moves with respect to the ground. c. The spatial kinematic chains of the suspensions connecting the chassis to the two hub carriers of any semi-vehicle are considered as planar (even though they are actually not), the plane of motion being pt. d. The two wheels of any semi-vehicle are supposed as rigid and of infinitesimal thickness. e. The toe and steering angles of the wheels are neglected, so that the points of contact between the two wheels of a semi-vehicle and the ground always lie on plane pt.
f.

The mutual distance of the contact points between the two wheels of a semi-vehicle and the ground is considered as constant. 2.4.4. Camber Angle Camber angle is the angle made by the wheel of an automobile; that is, it is the angle between the vertical axis of the wheel and the vertical axis of the vehicle when viewed from the front or rear. If the top of the wheel is farther out than the bottom (that is, away from the axle), it is called positive camber; if the bottom of the wheel is farther out than the top, it is called negative camber. Camber angle alters the handling qualities of a particular suspension design. Negative camber improves grip when cornering. This is because it places the tire at a more optimal angle to the road, transmitting the forces through the vertical plane of the tire, rather than through a shear force across it. Another reason for negative camber is that a rubber tire tends to roll on itself while cornering. If the tire had zero camber, the inside
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edge of the contact patch would begin to lift off of the ground, thereby reducing the area of the contact patch. By applying negative camber, this effect is reduced, thereby maximizing the contact patch area. Note that this is only true for the outside tire during the turn; the inside tire would benefit most from positive camber.

Figure 2. 13: Camber Angle

On the other hand, for maximum straight-line acceleration, the greatest traction will be attained when the camber angle is zero and the tread is flat on the road. Proper management of camber angle is a major factor in suspension design, and must incorporate not only idealized geometric models, but also real-life behavior of the components; flex distortion, elasticity, etc. In cars with double wishbone suspensions, camber angle was usually adjustable, but in newer with McPherson strut suspensions, it is normally fixed. While this may reduce maintenance requirements, if the car is lowered by use of shortened springs, this changes the camber angle (as described in McPherson strut) and can lead to increased tire wear and impaired handling. For this reason, for better handling the car should not only lower the body, but also modify the mounting point of the top of the struts to the body to allow some inward/outward (relative to longitudinal centerline the of vehicle) movement for camber adjustment. Aftermarket plates with slots for strut mounts instead of just holes are available for most of the commonly modified models of cars. Off-Road vehicles such as agricultural tractors, ATVs generally use positive camber. In such vehicles, the positive camber angle helps to achieve a lower steering effort.

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2.4.4.1. Camber alteration The designers tend to design the suspension on cars such that the wheels go into negative camber as they travel in bump and into positive camber as they rebound. From a construction point of view, the camber alteration on the front wheels can easily be determined as a function of the wheel travel over the angle of alteration of the kingpin inclination if elasticitys are ignored. On double wishbone suspensions, arcs with the suspension control arm lengths e and f must be drawn around the points C and D (in other words the suspension control arm axes of rotation) and, in the normal position, the centers of the outer ball joints marked as points 1 and 2 (Figure 2.15). A point 3 is determined on the upper arc and an arc with the path 1, 2 drawn around it to give point 4. The line connecting them, 3, 4 then has the alteration angle to the path 1, 2 if the wheel compresses by the path s1. If it goes into negative camber (as in the example), then must be subtracted from the camber angle wo, in the normal position, i.e.

In the case of positive camber, would have to be added:

Figure 2. 14: In independent wheel suspensions, the wheels incline with the body when the vehicle is

cornering. To even this out, the wheels, in bump travel, should go into negative camber and the rebounding ones into positive camber.

On McPherson struts and strut dampers, the distance 1, 2 is shortened when the wheel is in bump travel; the upper mounting point is in the wheel house and only the
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lower point 2 moves to 3. are again the angle between the two connecting lines.

Figure 2. 15: Construction determination of the kingpin inclination alteration on double wishbones which

is equal to the camber alteration.

Figure 2. 16: Construction for determining the camber and kingpin inclination alteration on the McPherson

struts and strut damper

2.4.5. Caster Angle Caster angle is the angular displacement from the vertical axis of the suspension of a steered wheel in a vehicle, measured in the longitudinal direction. It is the angle between the pivot line (in a car - an imaginary line that runs through the center of the upper ball joint to the center of the lower ball joint) and vertical.

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Figure 2. 17: Caster Angle

As shows in figure, caster angle is angle between center plane of wheel (AA) and line joining two pivot points E and G. The pivot points of the steering are angled such that a line drawn through them intersects the road surface slightly ahead of the contact point of the wheel. The purpose of this is to provide a degree of self-centering for the steering - the wheel casters around so as to trail behind the axis of steering. This makes a car easier to drive and improves its directional stability (reducing its tendency to wander). Excessive caster angle will make the steering heavier and less responsive, although, in racing, large caster angles are used to improve camber gain in cornering. Caster angles over 10 degrees with radial tires are common. Power steering is usually necessary to overcome the jacking effect from the high caster angle. The steering axis (the dotted line in the diagram above) does not have to pass through the center of the wheel, so the caster can be set independently of the mechanical trail, which is the distance between where the steering axis hits the ground, in side view, and the point directly below the axle. The interaction between caster angle and trail is complex, but roughly speaking they both aid steering, caster tends to add damping, while trail adds 'feel', and return ability. In the extreme case the system is undamped but stable, as the wheel oscillates around the 'correct' path. Complicating this still further is that the lateral forces at the tire do not act at the center of the contact patch, but at a distance behind the nominal contact patch. This distance is called the pneumatic trail and varies with speed, load, steer angle, surface, tire type, tire pressure and time. A good starting point for this is 30 mm behind the nominal contact patch.

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2.4.5.1.Caster and straight running Caster can be compared with the tea trolley effect, where the pulled wheel takes on the direction of pull and the wheel centre adopts a position behind the axis of rotation 1 (Figure 2.18). The tensile force and the opposed force FR generated by the rolling resistance are on an effective line, in other words in a stable ratio to one another because the guiding and wheel axis lie behind one another. The same effect also exists (despite kingpin offset and kingpin inclination) on the wheels of a vehicle if these can be rotated around axes. The wheels are set to caster on both sides and are linked by tie rods.

Figure 2. 18: If the rolling resistance force FR acts behind the steering axis 1, the wheel follows in a stable

manner in the direction in which it is pulled.

Figure 2. 19: When the vehicle is travelling in a straight line, caster has a stabilizing effect.

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Figure 2. 20: Lateral forces FY,W,f caused by uneven ground, in conjunction with the caster moment-arm n,k

cause the forces FT in the tie rods.

If unevenness in the road surface or a steering input pushes the wheels out from the straight-ahead direction, by the angle , the rolling resistance components FR sin (as shown in Figure 2.19) move both wheels back via the force lever n,k (or the overall lateral force lever n,t) until they roll in a straight line again. The components FR cos (left and right) compensate and only subject the tie rods to pressure. On a vehicle moving in a straight line, caster would not only have advantages but also disadvantages. Uneven road surfaces cause alternating lateral forces on the centers of tire contact and these, together with the lever in n,k (or n,t) cause moments around the steering axis (Figure 2.20), which are supported on the tie rods and can cause steering disturbances and vibrations.

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Figure 2. 21: Caster can increase the wind sensitivity of a vehicle. The point at which the wind acts is usually

in front of the centre of gravity V, a moment arises which seeks to turn the vehicle and causes the wheels to steer in the same direction.

Furthermore, there is increased wind sensitivity due to the fact that a wind force acting on the body (Figure 2.21) causes lateral forces FY, W in the opposite direction, on the centers of tire contact. In addition, the front forces FY,W,f together with the caster moment-arm n,k (or n,t) result in moments that turn the vehicle in the direction of the wind, i.e. further in the direction in which the body is already being pushed by the wind. This also applies to driving on (diagonally) inclined roads and leads to increased steering moment. 2.4.5.2. Kinematic caster alteration on front-wheel travel If two or three people are seated in the back, or the boot at the back of the vehicle is loaded, it is a very different story. The rear axle springing complies more strongly than that of the front axle and the bodys position, which was almost parallel to the ground, alters by Bo, t = 1 to 2 (Figure 2.22). The caster angle increases by the same amount something which designers should bear in mind when specifying axle settings. The increase in the caster angle under load is likely to be the main reason why the steering is heavier on a fully laden vehicle even though this sometimes causes the front axle load to be reduced. An alteration in caster has its disadvantages, as this in turn causes the selfrighting torque to alter, but it is unavoidable if the brake dive on the front axle is to be kept within limits by means of vehicle pitch poles.

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Figure 2. 22: When loaded, the body tail sinks further than the front; the caster angle increases by its angle

alteration Bo,t

Figure 2. 23: On most double wishbone suspensions, the axes of rotation 1 and 2 are parallel to one another;

in such cases, caster does not change when the wheels compress and rebound.

On double wishbone suspensions, the axes of rotation 1 and 2 of the two suspension control arms are usually parallel to one another (Figure 2.23); in the standard configuration of the McPherson strut and strut damper there is a right angle between the centre line of the damping part and suspension control arm. In such cases regardless of the position of the compressed or rebounded wheel the caster is retained. This is not the case where there are different angles between the suspension control arm axes of rotation, or the damper centre and suspension control arm. 2.4.5.3. Resolution of the vertical wheel force on caster If the steering axis EG on a double wishbone suspension is angled by the caster angle , the lower ball joint lies in front of the wheel centre and the upper one behind it. If the spring is supported on the lower suspension control arm, its force FG,z may be the
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same size as the vertical wheel force less the weight of the axle side (Figure 2.24), but the moment MZ = FG,z ( f - e) occurs, causing the forces FE,x and FG,x. The compliance present causes the caster angle to reduce. If the spring were on the top, it would increase.

Figure 2. 24: If the spring is supported on the lower suspension control arm and if the front axle has caster,

the supporting ball joint will be in front of the wheel centre.

Figure 2. 25: For static observation, the vertical force FZ, W must be shifted to the wheel axis and resolved into

its components. The distance to the steering axis is equivalent to the vertical force lever q, the size of which depends on the kingpin offset r and the angle .

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Figure 2. 26: If the steering axis is at the caster angle in the side view, the vertical force component FZ,W

cos calculated in the rear view in Fig. 2.25 must be further resolved.

Where there is caster (Case 1), the vertical force component FZ,W cos , shown in Figure 2.25, would be further resolved by the angle , i.e. in FZ,W cos cos and FZ,W cos sin (Figure 2.26). The last component tensions the wheels via the lever q at the front (Figure 2.27). If the caster angles on the left and right wheels are different, the same will apply to the tensioning forces, i.e. the vehicle could deviate from the direction of travel if the steering wheel were let go, and would pull to one side when held. A 2 difference means that there is a 3040 N higher tie rod force on the side with the greater angle . If the caster is achieved by relocating the wheel centre to the back (Case 2), the component FZ,W sin pushes the wheels together at the front via the force lever n role.

(Figure 2.28), i.e.

even here the parallel position of the left and right steering axes to one another plays a

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Figure 2. 27: The forces FZ,W cos sin push the front wheels together at the front via the levers q (i.e. into

toe-in) both when the vehicle is in a stationary position and moving in a straight line, and generate the forces FT in the tie rods.

Figure 2. 28: With caster achieved by setting the wheel centre back, the vertical force component FZ, W sin

comes to be located behind the steering axis.

2.4.6. Kingpin Inclination and Kingpin Offset at Ground According to ISO 8855, the kingpin inclination is the angle which arises between the steering axis EG and a vertical to the road (Figure 2.29). The kingpin offset is the horizontal distance r from the steering axis to the intersecting point of line NN in the wheel centre plane with the road. Larger kingpin inclination angles are necessary to give the vehicle a small or negative kingpin offset. In commercial vehicles, tractors and building-site Lorries, the inclination of the kingpin is often equivalent to the angle , whereas the wheels are controlled by ball joints on the front axles of passenger cars. On double wishbone suspensions, the steering axis therefore goes through the centers of the ball sockets E and G indicated (Figure 2.29); the engineering detail drawing must show the total angle of camber and kingpin inclination. The McPherson strut and strut damper have a greater effective distance between the lower ball joint G and the upper mounting point E in the wheel house; however, the upper axle parts are next to the wheel, so attention should be paid to creating enough clearance for the rotating tire (possibly for snow chains). As a result, a higher inclination of the steering axis and a higher angle has to be accepted. In addition, as can be seen in the illustrations, point G has been shifted to the wheel to obtain a negative kingpin offset. The steering axis then no longer matches the centre line of the suspension strut. Due to
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the relationship between camber and kingpin inclination shown in Figure 2.29, the angle does not need to be tolerance on double wishbone suspensions.

Figure 2. 29: The precise position of the steer axis also known as kingpin inclination axis can only be

determined if the centre points E and G of the two ball joints are known. The total angle of kingpin inclination and camber ( + w) must also be included when dimensioning the steering knuckle as an individual part.

The permissible deviations on the overall angle W + are given in the detailed drawing of the steering knuckle. If the camber has been set correctly on this type of suspension, the kingpin inclination angle will also be correct. However, the important thing is (as specified in the camber tolerance) that the deviation between left and right does not exceed 30, otherwise the steering could pull to one side if the caster angle on the left- and right-hand sides. On McPherson struts and strut dampers, the steering knuckle is usually bolted to the damping unit. In this case there may be play between the bolts and holes or the position may even be used for setting the camber. In this case it is sensible to tolerance the kingpin inclination angle because, provided the camber is correct, the kingpin inclination does not have to be.

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There is also a direct correlation between the alteration to camber and kingpin inclination when the wheels bump and rebound. The aim is to make the compressing wheel go into negative camber, as this leads to small changes in camber at body roll, but an increase in kingpin inclination by the same angle. Strictly speaking, the calculation by drawing of the camber alteration, shown in Figure 2.15 relates to the kingpin inclination, and for this reason the angle alteration is also entered. To obtain the self-aligning torque MZ,W,Z which is important for righting, the vertical force FZ,W, which is always present on the centre of tire contact, must, for static consideration, be shifted up to the wheel axis and resolved there in the direction of the steering axis: FZ, W cos and, vertical to it, FZ,W sin (Figure 2.25 and 2.30) The steering lever or vertical force lever q at the resolution point is: (2.5) The equation will apply provided that cos W = 1, a condition that applies to normal camber angles. If the vehicle has caster, the force components FZ,W sin must be further resolved by the angle . The parameter rdyn can be calculated using Equation, rdyn = Cr/2 When the wheels are turned, the force FZ,W sin is at the angle to the wheel axis and the component FZ,W sin sin will, with smaller steering angles, give the approximate righting moment based on the whole axle;

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Figure 2. 30: The negative kingpin offset reduces the vertical force lever q. However, its length is one of the

determining factors in the self-aligning torque MZ,W,Z. To maintain its level, the kingpin inclination angle would have to be increased.

Mean steering angle, and

The exact solution has to take the changing kingpin inclination angle (due to lateral forces when the wheels are turned and due to the body roll) into account as well as the positive and negative caster that occurs. The influence of the paths r
, T

and rT in the

tire contact area also has to be considered. Both can have a significant influence on the size of MZ,
W, Z

during cornering. On the outside of the bend, the lateral force FY,W,O

reduces the kingpin offset by rT (or causes it to become more negative) whereas on the inside of the bend, it increases or becomes less negative. There is also a load alteration during cornering, whereby FZ,W,f,o > FZ,W,f,i and also i and o are not always of the same size, so that different moments always occur on individual wheels. The kingpin offset r, which appears in Equation 2.5, influences the level of the self-aligning torque MZ,W,Z; if this offset is large, the righting increases, if r decreases or even becomes negative (owing to the shorter lever q), the moment reduces (Figure 2.30). The more MZ,W,Z increases, the more the front axle becomes longitudinally

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sensitive. There is, therefore, a clear tendency towards a small positive or negative kingpin offset. If MZ,W,Z is to remain at the same level, the kingpin inclination angle has to be enlarged with the disadvantage that, when the wheels are turned, the wheel on the outside of the bend goes in the more positive camber direction, which makes more space necessary because the brake disc has to be shifted into the disc wheel. With a given path r 1, the necessary angle 1 can be calculated from the existing values r (in mm) and 0; ( Where, )

2.4.7. Toe Angle In automotive engineering, toe is the symmetric angle that each wheel makes with the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, as a function of static geometry, and kinematic and compliant effects. Positive toe, or toe in, is the front of the wheel pointing in towards the centerline of the vehicle. Negative toe, or toe out, is the front of the wheel pointing away from the centerline of the vehicle. Toe can be measured in linear units, at the front of the tire, or as an angular deflection. In a rear wheel drive car, increased front toe in (i.e. the fronts of the front wheels are closer together than the backs of the front wheels) provides greater straight-line stability at the cost of some sluggishness of turning response, as well as a little more tire wear as they are now driving a bit sideways. On front wheel drive cars, the situation is more complex.

Figure 2. 31: Toe Angles

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Toe is always adjustable in production automobiles, even though caster angle and camber angle are often not adjustable. Maintenance of front end alignment, which used to involve all three adjustments, currently involves only setting the toe; in most cases, even for a car in which caster or camber are adjustable, only the toe will need adjustment. One related concept is that the proper toe for straight line travel of a vehicle will not be correct while turning, since the inside wheel must travel around a smaller radius than the outside wheel; to compensate for this, the steering linkage typically conforms more or less to Ackermann steering geometry, modified to suit the characteristics of the individual vehicle. Individuals who decide to adjust their car's static ride height, either by raising or lowering the springs, should have the car properly aligned. The common misconception is that camber angle causes an increased rate of tire wear, when in fact its contribution to tire wear is usually only visible over the entire life of the tire.

2.5. STEERING
The steering systems of a car are not only important for safety reasons but also enhance the comfort level of the vehicle. The two systems are directly related to each other, which is why they are always referred to together. Steering system in automobiles, steering wheel, gears, linkages, and other components used to control the direction of a vehicle's motion. Because of friction between the front tires and the road, especially in parking, effort is required to turn the steering wheel. To lessen the effort required, the wheel is connected through a system of gears to components that position the front tires. The gears give the driver a mechanical advantage, i.e., they multiply the force he applies, but they also increase the distance through which he must turn the wheel in order to turn the tires a given amount. Various types of gear assemblies, none with any decisive advantages over the others, are used, although some manufacturers prefer a rack-andpinion system. When a vehicle turns at a rate exactly proportional to the rate at which the steering wheel is turned, it is said to have neutral steering; if it turns at a slower rate it is said to under steer; if it turns faster it is said to over steer. Racing vehicles are often designed for neutral steering; few vehicles are built to over steer, since this is considered hazardous by many authorities. As a safety feature in many modern cars the column on which the

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steering wheel is mounted will collapse if the driver is thrown against the wheel in a collision. There are two basic types of steering systems: a. Standard mechanical (reciprocating ball) steering b. Rack and pinion steering

2.6. DRIVELINE
In a vehicle, the term power train or power plant refers to the group of components that generate power and deliver it to the road surface. This includes the engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, and the final drive (drive wheels, continuous track like with tanks or Caterpillar tractors, propeller, etc.). Sometimes "power train" is used to refer to simply the engine and transmission, including the other components only if they are integral to the transmission. A vehicle's driveline consists of the parts of the drive train excluding the engine and transmission. It is the portion of a vehicle, after the transmission that changes depending on whether a vehicle is front - wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, or four-wheel drive. 2.6.1. The Driveline Parts The driveline is an integral part of the vehicle. The driveline is the system that transfers the signals from the driver (gear lever, accelerator and brake pedal) via the combustion in the engine to vehicle speed.

Figure 2. 32: Driveline for a rear-drive vehicle

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2.6.1.1. Engine The engine is the power source in the drive train. The driver controls the engine with the gas pedal. The output from the engine is the torque resulting from the combustion, and the resulting engine speed. This thesis will not enter deeply into the modeling of the engine and its subsystems but a model of the engine torque will be treated. This model will be good enough to use when simulating the rest of the driveline in a drive cycle. The Engine is further discussed in section 3.3.1 2.6.1.2. Clutch The function of the clutch is to connect and disconnect the engine to the rest of the driveline in vehicles equipped with a manual gearbox. A friction clutch consists of a clutch disc connecting the flywheel of the engine and the input shaft of the gearbox. 2.6.1.3. Manual Gearbox The function of the gearbox is to change the gear ratio from the engine to the wheels and thereby extending the work range. The gearbox will be further discussed in section 3.3.2 2.6.1.4. Propeller Shaft The propeller shaft connects the gearbox with the final drive. This part does not exist in our vehicle where the final drive is integrated with the gearbox. 2.6.1.5. Final Drive The final drive is a differential gear that allows the driven wheels to have different speeds. This is necessary to be able to drive the car in curves. 2.6.1.6. Drive Shafts The drive shafts connect the final drive with the wheels. In section 3.3.3 the modeling of the drive shaft is discussed. 2.6.1.7.Brakes To be able to stop the car, it is equipped with brakes. The brakes can be of two types, disc brakes or drum brakes. Both types are friction brakes where brake blocks (shoes) are pressed against the disc (drum).

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2.6.1.8. Wheel The wheels are the part of the driveline that has contact with the ground. The tyre ground contact transforms the rotational motion to translational motion. The tyre is very complex to model. For instance, driven wheels do not roll but instead they rotate faster than the corresponding translational velocity and a rolling wheel is deformed which causes rolling resistance. The tires and wheels are already discussed in section 2.3. [6] 2.6.2. Types of Drive Preferable for ATV 2.6.2.1.Four wheel drive(4WD) Four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles have gained mainstream acceptance over the last two decades due to the popularity of the Sport Utility. The term four-wheel drive is used interchangeably with all-wheel drive and describes the ability of a vehicle to transfer the engine's power to all four wheels. The majority of vehicles on the road do not offer this feature as either the front or rear wheels are driven by the engine's power. However, a four-wheel drive system offers a distinct advantage when traction is limited in slippery conditions - such as on snow, mud, loose gravel or sand - due to four driven wheels offering more traction than two. Most of the four-wheel drive systems offered today can be broken down into two main categories: a. b. Part-time four-wheel drive All-wheel drive

2.6.2.1.1. Part-time four wheel drive Like its name implies, this form of four-wheel drive powers all four wheels only when the 4WD mechanism is engaged. Typically, these systems power the rear wheels during ideal weather conditions to reduce the wear on the drive train and improve fuel economy, however, when four-wheel drive is engaged, power is transferred to the front wheels as well. In a part-time four-wheel drive vehicle, the engine's power is transferred to a transfer case inside the transmission that then splits the torque evenly between a front and rear driveshaft (50% to the front, 50% to the rear). The drive shafts are connected to two axle differentials (front and rear), which split power to the wheels at each corner.

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During ideal driving conditions, the part-time four-wheel drive system can be disengaged from powering the front axle by unlocking the front hubs (hubs are used on vehicles to attach the driven wheels to the axle). The front hubs are either disengaged manually by the driver, or hydraulically when the driver presses a switch on the dashboard. When the front hubs are disengaged and allowed to spin freely, power from the engine is transferred solely to the rear wheels. 2.6.2.1.2. All-wheel drive In the typical all-wheel drive system all four wheels are powered at all times. However, unlike a true four-wheel drive vehicle, the power split between the front and rear axles is not set at fixed value (typically 50% front, 50% rear) but can be varied depending on available traction. All-wheel drive systems typically work by having an active center differential (located in the transmission) that under normal driving conditions splits power evenly between the front and rear axles. However, when driving conditions change and wheel slip is detected at one axle, the center differential responds by transferring more torque to the axle with the most traction. This change in torque split maximizes the traction available at each axle and in extreme conditions it is possible for 100% of power to be transferred to just one axle. However, the normal torque split returns when the vehicle is on a grippe surface again. One other kind of all-wheel drive system that's becoming relatively common can be best described as part-time all-wheel drive. In this system, either the front or rear axle receives all of the engine's power during normal driving, but when slip is detected, power is transferred to the other axle in just a fraction of a second. Some part-time all-wheel drive systems are so advanced and lightning quick, that the wheels which normally receive 100% of the engine's power only need to slip a sixth of a revolution before power is transferred to the other axle. However, once traction is regained, the vehicle returns to being two-wheel drive once more. 2.6.2.2. Two wheel drive (2WD) A two-wheel drive vehicle is vehicle with only two wheels powered all the time by the engine out of four wheels. That is the power is transmitted to only two wheels, usually the rear. This type of drive is preferred when vehicle speed and the fuel economy are factors of major concern.
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CHAPTER 3

DESIGN
3.1. TYRE SELECTION FOR ATV DESIGN

a. For selection of ATV tyres for loose, muddy and rough track, it should give more grip for better traction. So we used cross groove tires. b. For lesser unspurng weight and better heat dissipation from tires, we choose tube less wheel which also give lesser rolling resistance. c. Also it gives comfortable ride and slow leakage of air which provides safety to driver and vehicle. d. To get rid of all obstacles on rough track high ground clearance required so selecting the rim of larger diameter give large clearance. e. Width of tyre is also a criterion for selection, so tyre having maximum width to give more grips in rough track. f. Based on our requirements and market constrains we selected tyre of specification following

Image 3. 1: Tire Profile

Width

= 203 mm.

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Outer diameter of tyre Outer diameter of rim Number of ply

= 635 mm. = 305 mm. =2

3.2.

CHASSIS
Chassis is the frame or main structure of the vehicle which denotes the complete

vehicle except the body .the chassis contain all the major units necessary to propel the vehicle, direct its motion, stop it and allow it to run smoothly over uneven surfaces. 3.2.1. Determination of Centre of Gravity Distance to Front and Rear Axle

Figure 3. 1: Position of Center of Gravity from front and rear axle in our design

mvf = 137.3 kg mvr = 245 kg

(measured on weighing machine) (measured on weighing machine)

So, weight distribution between front and rear axle is, Front = 36% Wheelbase, l = 1400 mm
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Rear = 64 %

3.2.2. Determination of Centre of Gravity Height

Figure 3. 2: Determination of CG height from ground

h= 445 mm Cr = 1995 mm rdyn = Cr/2 rdyn = 317.5 mm ( )

We take,

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3.3.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Depending on the various parameters such as driver comfort, required ground

clearance, and rolling tendency of vehicle we selected double wishbone suspension system at front and McPherson suspension system at rear. 3.3.1. Designing of Front Suspension System 3.3.1.1. Determination of length of wishbones

The overall dimension of the car was decided within constraints by considering B/L ratio for better performance of differential during cornering, and drivers comfort. From this we have decided track width (bf) as 1390 mm. And wheel Base (l) as 1400 mm. According to the required travel for front suspension system of around 150 mm we have decided to go for Double wishbone system which gives maximum travel amongst all suspension systems. The double wishbone system is more flexible and provides better ride comfort on bumpy terrain; also it is easy to manufacture. Moreover we get more control on parameters of suspension geometry. We have decided the optimum length of wishbone keeping in mind the required leg space at front, the required ground clearance and the angles at which wishbones were positioned. The values of angles for wishbones were determined by required roll center height at front. To achieve that, we have fixed the feasible range for the height of roll center. Generally for the stability of vehicle it is required that the height of roll center at front is around 280 mm to 310 mm. This roll center positioning provides better

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transmission of forces acting on the vehicle along the roll axis which yields good stability of vehicle and increased effect of roll/yaw damping.

Figure 3. 3: Graphical determination of roll center for front double wishbone suspension

From the above data we have selected the hub and stub axle assembly for front wheels from Premier 118NE. Now from these inputs we calculated the exact dimensions of upper wishbone and lower wishbone and also angles and geometry for front suspension. To get the desirable camber adjustment, we mounted stub axle in such a way that king pin inclination is negative. Though, the negative resulting scrub radius was within limit. So by knowing important values listed below, we calculated roll center height for front suspension system by graphical as well as theoretical method shown below.

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Figure 3. 4: Angular geometry for determination of roll center height by analytical method

From EPG,

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This Value of roll center is selected since we get it in the feasible range of 280 mm to 310 mm which we have fixed earlier. Corresponding to this value of roll center, respective values of all other parameter like wishbone length, its angle etc are selected.
Table 3. 1: Final values obtained for front double wishbone suspension

Length of upper wish bones Length of lower wish bones

318 mm 340 mm

Inclination of upper wishbones with o horizontal () 11 Inclination of lower wishbones with o horizontal () 16 Track width(bf) 1390 mm Wheel base(l) 1400 mm 140.6 mm Scrub radius(r) o Toe in 5 Caster angle Camber angle King pin Inclination () Roll Center Height Graphically (hRo ) Roll Center Height Analytically (hRo ) 8o 4o o 9 293.80 mm 280.05 mm

3.3.1.2.

Calculation of spring

Most automotive suspension systems use helical springs. Next step in suspension designing is to get dimensions of helical spring. Depending on wishbone travel the spring and damper travel was determined. Mounting of spring to lower wishbones give better suspension effect. So the space between the two arms of wishbone gives the maximum diameter of spring that can be accommodated in the wishbone. By using the standards we calculate the number of coils and other parameters as shown below. It can be observed that maximum force acting on one shocker spring is around 2000 N considering the Factor of Safety (FS), hence, we take P max as 2000 N. Depending on the material available at manufacturer and the space available on the vehicle chassis for shocker mounting certain parameters are taken as given parameter, which are as follows. Spring rate (K)= 50 N/mm
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Sut = 1250 N/mm2 G = 80 GPa

N/mm2 C=6 (Assumed)

(Range for C is 6 to 12 [9], selected by trial and error method) [9]

[9]

d =10.1026 ~12 mm

(available standard wire diameter)

D= C X d = 6 X 12 = 72 mm [9]

Total No. of Coils = N = n+2 = 12+2 = 14 Solid Length = no. of coils X Diameter of coil = 14 X 12 = 168 mm Total Gap = (14-1) X 13 = 169 mm
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Deflection, [9]

50.4 mm Free length = solid length + total gap + Deflection = 168 + 169 + 50.4 =387.4 ~ 390 mm

Table 3. 2: Final values obtained for front suspension spring

Active number of coils(N) Mean Diameter of coil(D) Wire diameter of coil(d) Modulus of Rigidity of material(G) Shear strength of material() Maximum permissible force(Pmax )

12 72 mm 12 mm 80 x 10 375 N/mm2 2000 N

3

3.3.1.3.

Shocker Mounting Support Beam

The force acting on this beam is equal to the axial force acting on the shocker which we have assumed to be as 2000 N, as mentioned in previous section.The other specification of support beam based on the manufacturing feasibility is as shown in figure 3.5 Force acting, P = 2000 N Length of Beam, L = 221 mm Cross sectional area, A = (25.4 x 50.8) (38.8 x 19.4) = 537.6 mm2

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Figure 3. 5: Cross section of shocker mounting beam

[9]

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3.3.2. Designing of Rear Suspension System 3.3.2.1. Calculation for Rear Roll Center

Being a rear wheel drive the required travel of rear wheels was restricted to 100 mm. This is due to the fact that the gear box allows maximum angle 15o. Since, McPherson system itself does not allow much more travel of the wheel, making it less tedious to restrict the wheel travel. Due to this reasons we decided to use McPherson suspension system at the rear suspension system. The gear box was sponsored by Mahindra & Mahindra. The drive transmission was through only notch and dowel pin. Also, the shafts provided by them were not enough for us because they were short in length. So it was mandatory for us to design our shafts. To maintain the stability of vehicle we kept same track width as rear. Also the mounting of engine and transmission box was so arranged that their combined weight was concentrated at center as far as possible. These constraints gave us the tentative dimensions of shaft length and the lower arm of the suspension system. Also the mounting points on hub gave required angles for calculations of rear roll center. Thus we calculated the rear roll center and rear roll center height and confirmed its desirable range. In practice the desirable range of roll center height at rear suspension lie in between 320 mm to 340 mm. From EPG, (figure 3.4)

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This Value of roll center is selected since we get it in the feasible range of 320 mm to 340 mm which we have fixed earlier. Corresponding to this value of roll center, respective values of all other parameter like wishbone length, its angle etc, are selected.

Figure 3. 6: Graphical determination of roll center for front double wishbone suspension

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Figure 3. 7: Angular geometry for determination of roll center height by analytical method

Figure 3. 8: Roll axis position of designed vehicle

3.3.2.2.

Calculation of spring

Similar to front suspension system we followed the same procedure for designing of rear shocker spring. Maximum Force, Pmax = 2000 N Spring rate (K) = 18 N/mm Sut = 1800 N/mm2 G = 80 GPa

N/mm2

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C = 10

(Assumed)

d=8.05 ~9 mm

(available standard wire diameter) D= C X d = 10 X 9 = 90 mm

Total No. of Coils = N= n+2 = 5+2 = 7 Solid Length = no. of coils X Diameter of coil =7X9 = 63 mm Total Gap = (7-1) X 6 = 36 mm Deflection,

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Free length = solid length + total gap + Deflection = 63 + 36 +155.6 =254.6 ~ 255 mm

From our market survey we observed that the shocker spring of Maruti 800 type I model has dimensions very much closer to our designed values, also it was observed that the calculated dimensions of the roll center height could be achieved by using the readymade McPherson system along with the spring and damper assembly from the same vehicle, hence we have selected this readymade McPherson system.
Table 3. 3: Final values obtained for rear suspension spring

Active number of coils (N) Mean Diameter of coil (D) Wire diameter of coil (d) Modulus of Rigidity of material (G) Shear strength of material () Maximum permissible force (Pmax )

5 90 mm 9 mm 3 80 x 10 2 900 N/mm 2000 N

3.4.

DRIVELINE

3.4.1. Engine For propulsive power an engine manufactured by Lombardini group was sponsored. The engine is LGA 340 OHC gasoline fuelled. The specification of this engine provided by the manufacturer is as follows: a. Type of engine : SI engine b. 4-stroke cycle c. OHC driven by toothed belt, timing synchronized through toothed belt d. Forced-air cooling system with fan flywheel e. Lubrication system: fully forced by trochoidal pump
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f. Electrical starting with motor (0.60 kW) g. Cast iron liner incorporated in the casting The technical features of LGA 340 OHC engine are as follows:
Table 3. 4: Specification of LGA 340 OHC

Cylinder Bore Stroke Displacement Compression ratio Max R.P.M. at no-load Rating kW N DIN 70020 Max torque Oil capacity (without filter) Oil capacity (with filter) Oil consumption Dry weight Spark plug Ignition system

N. mm mm Cm RPM kW/RPM Nm/RPM lt. lt. lt/kW.h Kg. make

1 82 64 338 8 6200 9.0@4400 20.2@2800 1.6 1.7 0.8 .E-3 30.5 Champion RC12YC Electronics

Image 3. 2: Lombardini LGA 340 OHC Engine

For the mounting positions of the engine and corresponding design of chassis overall dimensions of the engine are required which are as follows:

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Figure 3. 9: Manufacturer supplied engine drawing specifying its overall dimensions.

3.4.2.

Manual Gear Box We have used a gear box from Mahindra & Mahindra (M & M). This gear box is from Alfa Champion model. The schematic drawings of the gear box are as shown in following figures.

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Figure 3. 10: Manufacturer supplied gear box drawing specifying its overall dimensions

The Gear ratios of M & M transmission are as follows: 1 ----- 31.48:1 2 ----- 18.70:1 3 ----- 11.40:1 4 ----- 7.35:1 R ----- 55.08:1

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The operating angles of final driveshaft are as follows: Full Angle ----- 15o Full Jounce ----- 3o Full Rebound ----- 12o

Figure 3. 11: Schematic Layout of Clutch & Transmission

3.4.3. Calculation for Traction Force and Different Velocities

Maximum power develop by engine = 9KW @4400 rpm Calculation based on maximum power transmitted Gear reduction ratios 1 ----- 31.48:1 2 ----- 18.70:1 3 ----- 11.40:1 4 ----- 7.35:1 R ----- 55.08:1 69 | P a g e

Where D = Outer diameter of wheel. N = Rpm Available. For first speed at no load maximum rpm is:

Thus

= 4.64 m/s. =16.72 km/hr For second speed at no load maximum rpm is:

Thus

= 7.82m/s. =28.17 km/hr For third speed at no load maximum rpm is:

Thus

= 12.83m/s. 70 | P a g e

= 46.19 km/hr For forth speed at no load maximum rpm is:

Thus

= 19.90 m/s. =71.65 km/hr For reverse speed at no load maximum rpm is:

Thus

= 2.63 m/s. = 9.45 km/hr Calculation of velocity when maximum load is considered The self weight and drivers weight, the total force acting vertically downwards is 4560 N.Considering the maximum resistance offered by the track so the frictional coefficient is taken as 0.8. Therefore the frictional resistance force is:

= 3648N. Assuming, transmission efficiency of the drive as 0.9 Thus the total power available at wheel is:

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Also we know velocity is ratio of power at the wheel by engine to the frictional force at wheel. For first speed reduction ratio

= 2.22 m/s = 7.99 km/hr For second speed reduction ratio

= 3.74 m/s = 13.45 km/hr For third speed reduction ratio

= 6.13 m/s= 22.06 km/hr For fourth speed reduction ratio

= 9.51 m/s = 34.22 km/hr Since, the sufficient speed and required traction force is obtainable by direct coupling of shaft to the wheel is possible, we went for direct drive axle transmission system over chain drive mechanism, which is more complicated and heavy too.

3.4.4. Drive Shafts The Driveshaft is the most important component of the entire driveline system. These drive shafts were subjected to surface hardening 50 BHN in order to offer greater torque transmission capability. The material used for the fabrication was EN 19, the characteristics of which are as mentioned below.
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C% Mn % Mo %

= 0.45 0.35 = 0.5 0.8 = 0.2 0.4

Si %

= 0.1 0.35

Cr % = 0.9 1.5 S&P% = 0.05

Tensile strength (Sut) = 90 Tsi = 1368 N/mm2 Taking Factor of Safety (FS) as 1.5

According to ASME code,

Selecting the smallest one,

As the shaft is subjected to torsional moment, we are neglecting the bending moment.

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CHAPTER 4

FABRICATION
The fabrication of the entire vehicle was done in stages. First of all the base frame of chassis then the entire roll cage, followed by front suspension, engine mounting and rear suspension. We will go in same sequence as of manufacturing, to specify details of fabrication. In the fabrication of the entire vehicle we have used only CO2 welding, because of its property to provide more strength compared to general arc welding.

4.1. CHASSIS AND ROLL CAGE

In fabrication our first job was to select the proper material for construction of chassis and rest of the roll cage. After the market survey and based on our assumptions for the required strength of the material, we have selected an Alloy Steel pipe ASTM A106 Grade B. This material was laboratory tested for the confirmation of its properties and strength. The laboratory testing certificate (TC) is shown in image 4.1. Initially we started off with the fabrication of base frame. Different members of the chassis were designed so as to have minimum no. of welding joints. These pipes were bent in different profiles in order to get the exact geometry. To obtain exact bending angles we used to the scale printouts of our drawings on which we tallied the accuracy of our bent members. The pipe which we selected has dimensions as follows: OD = 25.4 mm Wall Thickness = 3.91 mm

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Image 4. 1: Testing Certificate of the selected material, ASTM A 106 grade B

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To obtain minimum error in the fabrication of chassis we have first fabricated a jig with square hollow pipes to create a datum for the measurements of chassis members. The roll cage was made as integral with the chassis. The purpose of the roll cage is to provide a minimal three-dimensional space surrounding the driver. The cage was designed and fabricated to prevent any failure of the cages integrity.

Figure 4. 1: Manufacturing drawing for base structure of chassis

The roll cage was manufactured element wise. The elements of the roll cage are as follows: Rear Roll Hoop (RRH) Rear Roll Hoop Lateral Diagonal Bracing (LDB) Roll Hoop Overhead members (RHO) Front Bracing members (FBM) Side Impact Member (SIM) The Rear Roll Hoop (RRH) separates the cockpit area (drivers area) and the engine section. It supports the fire wall which is designed to provide the safety to the driver in case of a fire hazard in engine section.

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RRH is designed in one continuous tube. The drivers seat should not intrude into the plane of the RRH, so we have provided an angle of 10o. This angle has also provided the recess for the driver seat movement (Refer Figure 4.3). The RRH height is such that it provides safer distance between the driver head and overhead member. Rear Roll Hoop Lateral Diagonal Bracing (LDB) is provided to give additional strength to the RRH structure. Roll Hoop Overhead members (RHO) provides safety to the driver in case of vehicle turn over or rolling and it connects the RRH with the FBM.Front Bracing members (FBM) join the RHO, the SIM and the base structure. It gives safety to the driver in case of head on collision as well as in case of roll over. It protects the driver in case of side impact.

Figure 4. 2: Manufacturing drawing for front bracing member (FBM) and overhead member of roll cage

Figure 4. 3: Manufacturing drawing for rear roll hoop (RRH) member of roll cage

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Image 4. 2: CATIA model of chassis and the entire roll cage

4.2. FRONT SUSPENSION

The front suspension system is of Double Wishbone type. We manufactured the hubs according to the wheel rim. The stub axel were not feasible to be manufactured due to the manufacturing requirement of pressure casting and precise machining, hence we opted for readymade stub axel from Premier 118NE model by FIAT.

4.2.1. Front wheel Hubs

The hubs were manufactured from M.S. Bright bars. According to the selected stub axle, the bore of hub and other profiles for press fitting and easy removal of outer race of bearing; was fabricated on the lathe machine. After making the bore, the mounting plate for wheel bolts & the mounting plate for the brake disc were fabricated.

Image 4. 3: Machining of hub on Lathe machine

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The mounting plate for wheel was welded to the hub. This procedure has been followed to reduce the eccentricity of mounting plate with the axis of bore on hub during machining on lathe. Same procedure is repeated for mounting the plates of brake discs. According to the positions of holes on the rim and brake disc, holes were drilled on the bolt mounting plate & the brake disc plate.

Figure 4. 4: Manufacturing drawing for front wheel.

4.2.2. Wishbones
Wishbones were fabricated from the same material as we used for chassis (ASTM A106 Grade B) due to its strength characteristics. The exact dimensions of these wishbones were obtained from the calculations of roll center, roll axis & considered ground clearance (Refer section 3.2.1.1).

Figure 4. 5: Manufacturing drawing for upper wishbone

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The exact size & shape of the wishbones were drawn to true scale. The pipes were bent on the bending machine & then they were matched with the true scale drawings & modifications in bends were made as per drawings. This gave us more accurate shape of wishbones. The ends of the wishbones were welded to a small pipe with internal threads of dimension 20 x 2 mm, in which the ball joint could fit. The other two ends were having pivot action. As a result they were placed with two swing arm bearings & a sleeve of Honda Unicorn.

Figure 4. 6: Manufacturing drawing for lower wishbone

Due to threading on the ball joint side end of the wishbone, the ball joints were adjustable which gave us the facility for adjustment of camber of the front wheel.The lower wishbone is fabricated in same way as upper. It has shocker mounting clamps welded to it.

4.2.3. Shock Absorbers

The spring for the shockers were fabricated. The manufacturing of spring was done by Bhalchandra Industries as per the specifications which we got by our calculations (Refer section 3.2.1.2). As per the design calculations the material selected was IS 4454 Part 1 Grade B.

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Image 4. 4: CATIA model of helical spring for front shocker.

This spring was then assembled with the damper which was readymade procured from the market. To facilitate the mounting of spring two holding plates were manufactured, which provided spring support as well as positioning guide for the spring. The major diameter of the spring was considered to design the mounting plate of the shocker which was then welded to the pivot end of the shocker. Then we designed our other mounting plate with inner guide that holds the spring in position. At this end, lower arm bush were incorporated to absorb shocks.

Figure 4. 7: Manufacturing drawing for spring mounting plate with guide

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Image 4. 5: Assembly of front suspension system after manufacturing

4.3. ENGINE MOUNTING

The engine mounting is required to be enough strong to sustain the dead weight of engine as well as the vibration forces. A rectangular hollow pipe (MS bright, CRC pipe) of cross section 40 x 20 x 2 mm; was selected for the engine mounting. According to the holes provided on engines base, the positions of mounting members were decided as shown in figure 4.8. These hollow rectangular pipes were strengthened by solid rectangular pieces of MS bar. This gave enough rigidity & sturdiness while mounting of the engine. In order to reduce the vibrations of the engine transmitted to the chassis, rubber bushes were inserted in between the engine & the chassis which proved to be beneficial.

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Figure 4. 7: Manufacturing drawing for fabrication of engine mounting

4.4. REAR SUSPENSION

The rear suspension system is of McPherson type. In the fabrication of this system we have utilized the hub of Maruti 800 Type I model. This Model of MARUTI has a McPherson suspension system in the front; hence with some modification as per our calculation of roll axis and roll center, we have utilized these components.

4.4.1. Rear wheel Hubs

The hub of Maruti 800 type I has three distinct sub parts rotor, bearing hub and brake disk. Rotor has internal splines which are coupled with the drive shaft splines, also the wheel is bolted to the rotor only. Rotor rotates on bearing inside the bearing hub. Since, this rotor is to be coupled with the wheel; we have modified the original rotor.

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Figure 4. 8: Manufacturing drawing of rear wheel hub

Image 4. 6: Assembly of rear suspension system, the engine and gear box

4.5. Safety accessories 4.5.1. Seat Mounting

The vehicle was fitted with a Bucket type seat to provide additional safety measure to the driver. Seat mounting was fabricated in the same way as for the engine mounting.

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4.5.2. Belly Pan

Belly pan is provided to prohibit the entry of foreign matter like stones, pebbles, dirt etc. into the cockpit. For belly pan we used a MS sheet of thickness 0.7 mm, this sheet is welded to the chassis members.

4.5.3. Fire Wall

Fire wall is provided to protect the driver in case of fire at engine compartment. This wall separates the cockpit from engine compartment. For fire wall we used MS sheet of thickness 0.9 mm.

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CHAPTER 5

TESTING ANALYSIS
Testing analysis was done twice during the project time line; prior to fabrication and after fabrication, on the track. The various parts of the vehicle were modeled on the simulation software first in order to get the proper idea of its assembly, fabrication and possible difficulties in fabrication. Another and most important advantage of the modeling was to check for any possibility of the failure of the component. The modeling software provided us with the information of the stress distribution in the component or in the system and its behavior under static and dynamic loading conditions. This has saved lot of redesign work as well as it reduced the overall cost of vehicle. For software modeling and analysis we have utilized CATIA and ABAQUS software. The results of these analyses are explained further in this chapter.

Image 5. 1. FEA analysis of Roll Cage

Image 5.1 shows the graphical image of the result of FEA analysis made for the evaluation of the weak sections of the roll cage. The force applied on the roll cage for the analysis purpose was selected as high as possible keeping factor of safety in mind. The force applied is in the order of 18000 N considering the dynamic forces acting on the chassis. This force is much higher than the estimated force which would act on the chassis.
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As it can be observed from the image 5.1 that the bent sections shows the orange zone after the application force of such high order, causing Von Mises stress of around 1.49 x 108 N/m2. Image 5.2 shows the FEA analysis of front stub axel. The stub axel provides the support for the bearings on which hub and ultimately the wheel rotates. This acts large amount of forces on the stub axle. As it can be seen from the graphical image of the FEA analysis result, with application of load of 2000N there are no red zones on the stub axle; proving its strength to sustain the forces acting on it.

Image 5. 2: FEA analysis of front stub axle.

Image 5.3 shows the FEA analysis of front upper wishbone. As it can be observed from the image the component shows stress concentration near bearing sleeves, though the force at which the red zone has occurred it is a very critical section where failure can occur hence, in manufacturing extra care is been taken to avoid any possibility for defect occurrence. Image 5.4 shows the possible deflection in the upper wishbone due to same force as applied for the stress distribution analysis.

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Image 5. 3: FEA analysis of front upper wishbone

Image 5. 4: Possible deformation of the upper wishbone due to forces

Image 5.5 shows the FEA analysis of shocker spring. This spring is the most vulnerable component of the suspension system. It is subjected to tremendous amount of compressive forces, to which the ATV is exposed to, during every bump it goes through.

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As the image shows, the stress concentration takes place at both the ends of spring. To provide extra strength to the spring, in order to sustain these compressive forces the spring is hardened.

Image 5. 5: FEA analysis of shocker spring

Image 5.6 shows the FEA analysis of a beam which is welded to lower wishbone and it supports the lower end of the shocker. The analysis shows that the strength of the beam is enough to sustain all the dynamic forces acting on it. As mentioned before we have also tested our vehicle after the entire fabrication on an off terrain racetrack. In order to get the entire idea about the reliability and performance of the vehicle we have tested it through various test such as hill climb, maximum speed attain, maximum acceleration, and final and most important of all, the endurance test running into total 100 km.

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Image 5. 6: FEA analysis of shocker mounting beam

To check the reliability and strength of the ATV we ran it for two continuous hours on a very rough track consists of gravels, heavy bumps, mud, steep inclinations, loose dirt etc. During two hours the vehicle ran for around 49 km of track length in 14 laps. During and after all the testing the vehicle was observed continuously and observations were taken. Following observations were made after the testing: a. The vehicle proved to be reliable, by showing no failure in any of its components throughout the testing. b. The performance of the vehicle on turning was not as per the requirement. c. The vehicle showed very less tendency to allow drifting effect on cornering. d. The maximum speed attained by the vehicle was not satisfactory. e. The ATV showed better performance on each bump due to proper absorption the impact forces acting on the vehicle.

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CHAPTER 6

COST ANALYSIS
Cost is one of the most important parameter in any engineering design. It can be defined as a limiting factor for the construction and selection of any assembly or sub assembly. As an engineering point of view it is very important while designing to keep and maintain a balance between the quality and the cost of the product. In our case since it was the ATV; compromising quality could result in drop of reliability of the vehicle, as a consequence of which would have resulted in hazardous condition. The basic aim was to design a fast, light and reliable vehicle at optimum cost but at the same time not to compromise on the quality of the vehicle. We wanted to make a sturdy vehicle which could withstand the worst of the terrain on which it would run. The most effective way to achieve the optimum cost without sacrificing the quality is to select parts which are readily available in the market rather than designing each part and manufacturing in the workshop with semi skilled workmanship. Since these parts are being manufactured on mass scale their cost compared to individually manufactured part is very less. Hence, making market survey to select components with some modifications was the most vital approach to achieve the balance between cost and quality. A market survey for all available automobile parts has proven a most beneficial tool for designing. Designing the system (may be suspension or braking or steering) according to the most suitable standard parts (may be with minute or major modification) was the most cost effective approach.

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The overall cost estimation of the entire ATV model is given in following table:
Table 6. 1: Cost Estimation of ATV model

Sub System
Engine Transmission Front Suspension Rear Suspension Drive Body Safety Electricals Roll Cage Steering Fuelling

Procurement Cost
Rs. 20,518.00 Rs. 10,752.00 Rs. 3,677.70 Rs. 13,112.00 Rs. 51,360.05 Rs. 12,995.00 Rs. 19,050.00 Rs. 4,545.00 Rs. 12,450.00 Rs. 6,500.00 Rs. 500.00

Manufacturing Cost
Rs. Rs. Rs. 400.00 Rs. Rs. 300.00 Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. -

Total Cost
Rs. 20,518.00 Rs. 10,752.00 Rs. 4,077.70 Rs. 13,112.00 Rs. 51,960.05 Rs. 12,995.00 Rs. 19,050.00 Rs. 4,545.00 Rs. 12,450.00 Rs. 6,500.00 Rs. 500.00

Total

Rs. 1,55,419.75

Rs.

700.00

Rs. 1,56,119.75

This does not include cost of Engine provided by Lombardini & Gear Box by M & M.

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Image 6. 1: Vehicle before testing on track

Image 6. 2: Vehicle after testing.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION & SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK

7.1. RESULT
After the designing, analysis, fabrication and testing of ATV on rough terrain for around 300 km, some of the following results were obtained: a. Position of Center of gravity obtained from vehicle for better stability and comfortable ride for driver.

Distance from rear axle Distance from ground level

lr = 502.8mm hv = 601.8mm

b. Dynamic testing is done by continuously driving of vehicle for four hour on rough track having numbers of bumps, hill climb having 30 degree inclination, loose sand and stone and from muddy water which result good stability, better control and comfort driving of vehicle which conclude appropriate position of center of gravity. c. To sustain the static and dynamic load on vehicle following parameter are obtain by designing for suspension. Front suspension:Total number of coils Diameter of wire Outer diameter of spring Solid length of spring = 12 = 12mm =72mm =168mm

Deflection under maximum load=50.4mm

Rear suspension:Total Numbers of coils =7 Diameter of wire = 9mm

Outer diameter of spring =90mm Solid length = 63 mm

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Deflection under maximum load = 155.6mm d. Driveline is designed for smooth transmission of power from engine to wheel with maximum traction force following results were obtained. Diameter of driving shaft Maximum velocity at no load =29mm =71.65km/hr

Maximum velocity at loaded condition =34.22km/hr Calculated values of velocities and actual velocities at ground are found to similar and according of selection of direct coupling of shaft we got appropriate value of traction force and respective value of velocities proving selection to be right.
Table 7. 1: Result Table

GENERAL SECIFICATIONS WHEEL BASE OVEWRALL HEIGHT FRONT TRACK REAR TRACK GROUND CLEARANCE TARGET WEIGHT MAX SPEED 350 KG 50-60 KMPH 64 INCH 71 INCH 56 INCH 56 INCH 11 INCH

DRIVE TRAIN SPECIFICATION TRANSMISSION MAHINDRA CHAMPION ALPHA 4 SPEEDS WITH REVERSE GEAR BOX. CHASSIS SPECIFICATION MATERIAL ASTM A 106 GR B

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SIZE

1.057 OD, .01562 WALL THICKNESS

SUSPENSION SPECIFICATIONS FRONT TYPE DOUBLE WISHBONE,NON PARALLEL TRAVEL 9 INCH( 6 IN COMP.AND 3 IN DROOP) CAMBER CASTOR ADJUSTMENT REAR TYPE TRAVEL MC PHERSON SYSTEM 7 INCH(5 IN COMP.2 IN DROOP) CAMBER CASTOR ADJUSTMENT 2 0 STATIC TOE 1 3 STATIC CAMBER

STEERING SPECIFICATION LOCK TO LOCK 270 DEGREES OF WHEEL ROTATION MAX ANGLE TOE CHANGE ADJUSTMENT 40 DEGREES 0.5 DEGREES TOTAL STATIC TOE
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BRAKE SPECIFICATION MASTER CYLINDERS DOUBLE ACTING

7.2.

CONCLUSION
The project aimed at designing, fabricating and analyzing of roll cage, suspension

& driveline of an All Terrain Vehicle (ATV) and their integration in the whole vehicle. The ATV has been designed and fabricated based on the facts of vehicle dynamics. The primary objective of this project was to identify and determine the design the parameters of a vehicle with a proper study of vehicle dynamics. This project helped us to study and analyze the procedure of vehicle designing and to identify the performance affecting parameters. It also helped us to understand and overcome the practical difficulties of vehicle fabrication. Based on the objectives following systems were designed and fabricated and integration was done in the whole vehicle: a. Chassis b. Suspension system c. Driveline Vehicle components were tested during manufacturing stages and also the whole vehicle was tested to check the performance of chassis, suspension and driveline for about 100 %.Vehicle performance was found satisfactory. Vehicle did not require any repairs or modifications during last endurance test of 50 km.

7.3.

PROBLEMS NOTED IN THE SYSTEMS

Following problems were noted in the vehicle after testing: a. Failure of shock absorbers b. Failure of charging system c. Excessive weight and dimensions
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d. Clogging of air filter during testing

7.4.

SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK

We suggest the following to improve the ATV performance:

a. Shocker mounting angles needs to be increased. b. Engine compartment to be isolated from dust. c. The overall weight of the vehicle should be reduced by use of better material. d. The inclination of the roll axis should be increased. e. The overall dimension of chassis should be reassessed to make it more compact.

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REFERENCES
[1] Prof. Dr. Georg Rill Vehicle Dynamics, Lecture Notes, November 2002. [2] The Automotive Chassis: Engineering Principles, by Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Jrnsen Reimpell [3] Erik Hermansson Andersson Analysis & Optimization of a Racecar Chassis, Bachelors Thesis, Lulea university of Technology. [4] Calculation manual for MAN. [5] Timothy M. Allred Compliant Mechanism Suspensions, Masters thesis, Brigham Young University. [6] Automobile Engineering by Dr.Kripal Singh [7] Hazem Ali Attia Dynamics of the Macpherson Strut Motor-Vehicle Suspension System in Point and Joint Coordinates, College of Science, King Saud University. [8] Design of Machine Elements by V. B. Bhandari. [9] Duygu GLER "Dynamic Analysis of Double Wishbone Suspension, Masters Thesis, zmir Institute of Technology, June 2006. WEB REFERENCES [1] The Suspension Bible.htm http://www.carbibles.com/suspension_bible.html [2] Design of Compression Spring http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/springs/calc_comp_designer.cfm#calc [3] Center of Gravity determination.htm http://www.robrobinette.com/corner_weight_calc.htm

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