Lecture Notes Ali Almousawi

UNIT-I

DRIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Electrical Drives:

Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps, robots,
washing machines etc.
Systems employed for motion control are called DRIVES, and may employ any of prime
movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic motors and
electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors
are known as ELECTRICAL DRIVES.
An ELECTRIC DRIVE can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy into mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various
kinds of process control.

Choice (or) Selection of Electrical Drives

Choice of an electric drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors are.
1. Steady State Operating conditions requirements
Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty
cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuations if any, ratings etc
2. Transient operation requirements
Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance.
3. Requirements related to the source
Types of source and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power
factor, harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability to accept regenerative power
4. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life.
5. Space and weight restriction if any.
6. Environment and location.
7. Reliability.
Applications

Paper mills

Cement Mills

Textile mills

Sugar Mills

Steel Mills

Electric Traction

Petrochemical Industries

Electrical Vehicles
Dynamics of Motor Load System
Fundamentals of Torque Equations
A motor generally drives a load (Machines) through some transmission system. While
motor always rotates, the load may rotate or undergo a translational motion.
Load speed may be different from that of motor, and if the load has many parts, their
speed may be different and while some parts rotate others may go through a translational motion.
Equivalent rotational system of motor and load is shown in the figure.

T Tl
ωm
Motor Load

Notations Used:
J = Moment of inertia of motor load system referred to the motor shaft kg − m 2
ω m = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m
Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque, referred to the motor shaft N-m

Load torque includes friction and wind age torque of motor. Motor-load system shown in
figure can be described by the following fundamental torque equation.
d dω m dJ
T − Tl = ( Jω m ) = J + ωm − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
dt dt dt
Equation (1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine winders, reel drives, Industrial robots.
dJ
For drives with constant inertia =0
dt
dω m
∴ T = Tl + J − − − − − − − − − − − − ( 2)
dt
Equation (2) shows that torque developed by motor is counter balanced by load torque Tl and a
 dω m   dω m 
dynamic torque  J  . Torque component  J  is called dynamic torque because it is present
 dt   dt 
only during the transient operations.

Note:
 dω m 
Energy associated with dynamic torque  J  is stored in the form of kinetic energy given
 dt 

Jω m
2

by .
2

Classification of Load Torques:

Various load torques can be classified into broad categories.

Active load torques

Passive load torques
Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are
called active load torques. Such load torques usually retain their sign when the drive rotation is
changed (reversed)
Eg: Torque due to force of gravity
Torque due tension
Torque due to compression and torsion etc
 Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion
are called passive load torques
Eg: Torque due to friction, cutting etc.

Components of Load Torques:

The load torque Tl can be further divided in to following components
(i) Friction Torque (TF)
Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the
load. TF is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the
motor shaft.
(ii) Windage Torque (TW)
When motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion. This is
known as windage torque.
(iii) Torque required to do useful mechanical work.
Nature of this torque depends upon particular application. It may be
constant and independent of speed. It may be some function of speed, it
may be time invariant or time variant, its nature may also change with
the load’s mode of operation.

Value of friction torque with speed is shown in figure below

ωm

TF
Its value at stand still is much higher than its value slightly above zero speed. Friction at zero speed is
called stiction or static friction. In order to start the drive the motor should at least exceed stiction.

Friction torque can also be resolved into three components

Tv
Speed Tc

Ts

Torque

Component Tv varies linearly with speed is called VISCOUS friction and is given by
Tv = Bω m
Where B is viscous friction co-efficient.
Another component TC, which is independent of speed, is known as COULOMB friction. Third
component Ts accounts for additional torque present at stand still. Since Ts is present only at stand still
it is not taken into account in the dynamic analysis. Windage torque, TW which is proportional to speed
squared is given by
Tw = Cω m
2
C is a constant
From the above discussions, for finite speed
Tl = TL + Bω m + TC + Cω m
2
Characteristics of Different types of Loads
One of the essential requirements in the section of a particular type of motor for driving a
machine is the matching of speed-torque characteristics of the given drive unit and that of the motor.
Therefore the knowledge of how the load torque varies with speed of the driven machine is necessary.
Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics. However, most of the industrial
loads can be classified into the following four categories.

Constant torque type load

Torque proportional to speed (Generator Type load)

Torque proportional to square of the speed (Fan type load)

Torque inversely proportional to speed (Constant power type load)
Constant Torque characteristics:
Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of work like shaping, cutting,
grinding or shearing, require constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the
hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of material per unit time also exhibit this type of
characteristics.

TL
Speed

T=K

Torque

Torque Proportional to speed:

Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current
brakes have speed torque characteristics given by T=k ω
 Speed TL

Torque

Torque proportional to square of the speed:

Another type of load met in practice is the one in which load torque is proportional to the
square of the speed.Eg Fans rotary pumps, compressors and ship propellers.

TL
Speed

T = Kω 2

Torque

Torque Inversely proportional to speed:

Certain types of lathes, boring machines, milling machines, steel mill coiler and electric
traction load exhibit hyperbolic speed-torque characteristics
 Speed TL
1
Tα
ω

Torque

Multi quadrant Operation:

For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable
conventions about the signs of torque and speed. A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and
braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, which supports its motion.
In braking it works as a generator converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus
opposes the motion. Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse
directions. Figure shows the torque and speed co-ordinates for both forward and reverse motions.
Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque. For motoring operations
power developed is positive and for braking operations power developed is negative.

Speed

Forward Forward
Braking Motoring

II I

Torque

III IV

Reverse Reverse
Motoring Braking
 In quadrant I, developed power is positive, hence machine works as a motor supplying
mechanical energy. Operation in quadrant I is therefore called Forward Motoring. In quadrant II,
power developed is negative. Hence, machine works under braking opposing the motion. Therefore
operation in quadrant II is known as forward braking. Similarly operation in quadrant III and IV can
be identified as reverse motoring and reverse braking since speed in these quadrants is negative. For
better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four quadrants as
shown in the figure. Direction of motor and load torques and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

T
Tl
T
ωm Tl
ωm

Motion
Motion

Counter
weight Empty Counter
Cage II I weight Loaded
Cage

T III IV T
Tl Tl
ωm
ωm
Motion
Motion

Empty
Cage Loaded
Cage

Counter
weight
Counter
weight Load Torque with Load Torque with loaded
empty cage cage
 A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft one end of the rope is
tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level . Other end of
the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the weight of
empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage. Forward direction of motor speed will be one which
gives upward motion of the cage. Load torque line in quadrants I and IV represents speed-torque
characteristics of the loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and
counter weight.
The load torque in quadrants II and III is the speed torque characteristics for an empty hoist.
This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sigh is negative
because the counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage.
The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires movement of cage upward, which corresponds to
the positive motor speed which is in counter clockwise direction here. This motion will be obtained if
the motor products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load torque TL1. Since
developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation. Quadrant IV is obtained when a
loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is higher than that of the counter weight .It
is able to overcome due to gravity itself.
In order to limit the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to
TL2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse
braking operation. Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a
counter weigh is heavier than an empty cage, its able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a
safe value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is
positive and developed power is negative, it’s forward braking operation.
Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has
a lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in CW direction. Since speed
is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring operation.
Steady State Stability:
Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable
state equilibrium. Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability
of an equilibrium point from the steady state speed torque curves of the motor and load system.
 In most of the electrical drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared
with the mechanical time constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be
in electrical equilibrium implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the
transient state operation.
Now, consider the steady state equilibrium point A shown in figure below

ωm
T
TL

A
∆ωm

Tshift TA TM Torque

The equilibrium point will be termed as stable state when the operation will be restored to it
after a small departure from it due to disturbance in the motor or load. Due to disturbance a reduction
of ∆ωm in speed at new speed, electrical motor torque is greater than the load torque, consequently

motor will accelerate and operation will be restores to point A. similarly an increase in ∆ωm speed
caused by a disturbance will make load torque greater than the motor torque, resulting into
deceleration and restoring of operation to point A.

Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load
as shown in the figure. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor
torque, electric drive decelerates and operating point moves away from point B. Similarly when
working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the load torque, which
will move the operating point away from point B
 ωm
T

∆ωm TL

Tshift TA TM Torque
From the above discussions, an equilibrium point will be stable when an increase in speed causes load-
torque to exceed the motor torque. (i.e.) When at equilibrium point following conditions is satisfied.
dTL dT
> − − − − − − − − − − − − − (1)
dω m dω m
Inequality in the above equation can be derived by an alternative approach. Let a small perturbation in
speed, ∆ωm results in ∆T and ∆Tl perturbation in T and Tl respectively. Therefore the general load-
torque equation becomes
(T + ∆T ) = (Tl + ∆Tl ) + Jd (ωm + ∆ωm )
dt
Jdωm d∆ωm
= T + ∆T = Tl + ∆Tl + +J − − − − ( 2)
dt dt
The general equation is
dω m
T = Tl + J − − − − − − − (3)
dt
Subtracting (3) from (2) and rearranging
dω m
J = ∆T − ∆Tl − − − − − − − − − (4)
dt
From small perturbations, the speed –torque curves of the motor and load can be assumed to be
straight lines, thus
 dT 
∆T =  ∆ωm − − − − − − − (5)
 dω m 
 dT 
∆Tl =  l ∆ωm − − − − − − − (6)
 dω m 
dT dTl
Where and are respectively slopes of the steady state speed torque curves of motor and
dω m dω m
load at operating point under considerations. Substituting (5) and (6) in (4) we get,
 d∆ω m  dTl dT 
J +  − ∆ωm = 0 − − − − − (7)
dt  dω m dω m 
This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial deviation in speed at t=0 be (∆ωm )0 then the
solution of equation (7) is
 1  dT dT  
∆ωm = (∆ωm )0 exp −  l − t  − − − − − (8)
 J d
 mω d ω m  

An operating point will be stable when ∆ωm approaches zero as t approaches infinity. For this to
happen exponential term in equation (8) should be negative.

Basics of Regenerative Braking

In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as generator, while it is still
connected to the supply. Here, the motor speed is greater than the synchronous speed. Mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy, part of which is returned to the supply and rest of the energy
is last as heat in the winding and bearings of electrical machines pass smoothly from motoring region
to generating region, when over driven by the load.

This operation is indicated as shown in the figure below in the first quadrant. Here the power flow is
from the motor to load.

DOWN HILL UPHILL

Speed

Power Flow Power Flow

TL
TM
Speed

M LOAD M LOAD
Speed
TL TM
Torque
Regenerative Braking for DC motor:
In regenerative braking of dc motor, generated energy is supplied to the source. For this the following
condition is to be satisfied.
E > V and Ia should be negative

Speed

Motoring

Braking

Torque

Modes of Operation:
An electrical drive operates in three modes:

Steady state

Acceleration including Starting

Deceleration including Stopping
dω m
We know that T = Tl + J
dt
According to the above expression the steady state operation takes place when motor torque
equals the load torque. The steady state operation for a given speed is realized by adjustment of steady
state motor speed torque curve such that the motor and load torques are equal at this speed. Change in
speed is achieved by varying the steady state motor speed torque curve so that motor torque equals the
load torque at the new desired speed. In the figure shown below when the motor parameters are
adjusted to provide speed torque curve 1, drive runs at the desired speed ω m1 . Speed is changed to ω m 2
when the motor parameters are adjusted to provide speed torque curve 2. When load torque opposes
motion, the motor works as a motor operating in quadrant I or III depending on the direction of
rotation. When the load is active it can reverse its sign and act to assist the motion. Steady state
operation for such a case can be obtained by adding a mechanical brake which will produce a torque in
a direction to oppose the motion. The steady state operation is obtained at a speed for which braking
torque equal the load torque. Drive operates in quadrant II or IV depending upon the rotation.

Tl
ωm

ω m1
1

ωm 2
2

Torque

Acceleration and Deceleration modes are transient modes. Drive operates in acceleration mode
whenever an increase in its speed is required. For this motor speed torque curve must be changed so
that motor torque exceeds the load torque. Time taken for a given change in speed depends on inertia
of motor load system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds the load torque.
Increase in motor torque is accompanied by an increase in motor current. Care must be taken to
restrict the motor current with in a value which is safe for both motor and power modulator. In
applications involving acceleration periods of long duration, current must not be allowed to exceed the
rated value. When acceleration periods are of short duration a current higher than the rated value is
allowed during acceleration. In closed loop drives requiring fast response, motor current may be
intentionally forced to the maximum value in order to achieve high acceleration.
Problems:
A motor having a suitable control circuit develops a torque by the relationship TM = aω + b , where a
and b are positive constants. This motor is used to drive a load whose torque is expressed
as TL = cω 2 + d , where c and d are positive constants. The total inertia of the rotating masses is J.
a) Determine the relations amongst the constants a, b, c and d in order that the motor can
start together with the load and have an equilibrium operating speed?
b) Calculate the equilibrium operating speed?
c) Will the drive be stable at this speed?
d) Determine the initial acceleration of the drive?
e) Determine the maximum acceleration of the drive?
Solution:
a) At ω = 0 , TM=b and TL=d
Hence the motor can start with the load only if b > d
TM=TL at equilibrium speed
i.e. aω + b = cω 2 + d
i.e. cω 2 − aω − (b − d ) = 0
a ± a 2 + 4c(b − d )
Hence ω =
2c
In order that ω is finite a 2 + 4c(b − d ) > 0, which is true
+ Sign before the radical will give a positive ω as long as
a 2 + 4c(b − d ) > 0
− sign before the radial will give a positive ω only if
a a 2 + 4c(b − d )
>
2c 2c
i.e. a > a + 4c(b − d )
2 2

i.e. 4c(b − d ) < 0

i.e c<0, which is not true, since c is given to be a positive constant. Hence the + sign
before the radial only will give a positive finite equilibrium speed.

If a 2 + 4c(b − d ) >0

a + a 2 + 4c(b − d )
b) Equilibrium speed ω =
2c
 dTL dTM
c) = 2cω and =a
dω dω
If the equilibrium speed has to be stable
dTL dTM
> i.e.2cω > a
dω dω
from the answer to (b), we have
2cω = a + a 2 + 4c(b − d ) which will be always > a
Hence, the equilibrium operating speed determined earlier is a stable point of operation
of drive.
dω
d) Accelerating torque J = TM − TL
dt
Initially TM=b and TL=d
b−d
Therefore, initial acceleration =
J
dω
e) Accelerating torque J = TM − TL
dt
= aω − cω 2 + b − d
dω aω − cω 2 + b − d
Therefore, acceleration A = =
dt J
This will be maximum at a speed when
dA
=0
dω
a − 2cω
=0
J
a
ω=
2c
Substituti ng this speed at which the acceleration is maximum,
in the general expression for acceleration, we get

Amax =
(a 2
)
2c − a ( 4c ) + b − d
2

J
a + 4c(b − d )
2
=
4cJ