energies

Article
Axial-Flux Permanent-Magnet Generator Design for Hybrid
Electric Propulsion Drone Applications
Ji-Young Lee 1,2, * , Ji-Heon Lee 1 and Tung Khanh Nguyen 1,2

1 Electric Machines and Drives Research Center, Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI),
Changwon 51543, Korea; ljh0524@keri.re.kr (J.-H.L.); tungnguyen@keri.re.kr (T.K.N.)
2 Energy and Power Conversion Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST),
Daejeon 34113, Korea
* Correspondence: jylee@keri.re.kr

Abstract: This paper presents the design of an axial-flux permanent-magnet (AFPM) generator used
for hybrid electric propulsion drone applications. The design objectives of the AFPM generator are
high power density, which is defined as output power per generator weight, and high efficiency. In
order to satisfy the requirements for the target application and consider the practical problems in the
manufacturing process, the structure of the AFPM generator comprising a double-rotor single-stator
(DR-SS) was studied. In order to determine the rotor topology and stator winding specifications
that had the greatest impact on performance in the DR-SS type design process, we selected three
rotor models according to the arrangement of the magnetization direction and three stator models
according to the coreless winding specifications. These models were first compared and analyzed.
Then, a 3-D finite element method was performed to calculate the magnetic, mechanical, and thermal



characteristics of the designed models. By consideration of the output power, efficiency, temperature,

 and mechanical stability, etc., a topology suitable for the design of generators for UAV systems was
Citation: Lee, J.-Y.; Lee, J.-H.; determined and manufactured. The reliability of the design result was confirmed through the test.
Nguyen, T.K. Axial-Flux
Permanent-Magnet Generator Design Keywords: axial flux generator; coreless; Halbach array; six phases; structure analysis
for Hybrid Electric Propulsion Drone
Applications. Energies 2021, 14, 8509.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14248509 1. Introduction
In existing small electric drone systems, the battery is mainly used as a power source
Academic Editor: Federico Barrero
and the operation time is several tens of minutes, so it needs to be charged frequently.
In contrast, a hybrid electric propulsion system that combines a gasoline engine and a
Received: 12 November 2021
Accepted: 13 December 2021
generator can dramatically increase flight time compared to a battery-only system. How-
Published: 17 December 2021
ever, longer operating times are still required; for this, it is necessary to reduce the weight
of all parts, including the generator, in order to increase the operating efficiency of the
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
drone system.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
Since axial-flux permanent-magnet (AFPM) generators are known to have a high
published maps and institutional affil- power density, which is defined as the ratio of output power to weight [1–3], the authors of
iations. this paper reviewed the development of an AFPM electric machine for 3 kW class drones.
Additionally, among the possible multiple rotor and stator combinations, a combination
consisting of NS-type double rotors and a yokeless single stator (DR-SS) was selected,
as shown in Figure 1. “NS type” refers to north pole and south pole magnets facing
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
each other at either side; thus, the flux can travel straight through this stator without any
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
circumferential flow [4]. This type of DR-SS is more commonly known as a yokeless and
This article is an open access article
segmented armature (YASA) motor or generator [5–7] and is often described as having a
distributed under the terms and relatively high power density because it does not require a stator yoke. However, to be
conditions of the Creative Commons precise, a structure in the form of a ‘stator yoke’ is not required as a magnetic flux path, but
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// is necessary to mechanically hold the teeth and coils of the stator [4]. Thus, the design of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ stator mechanical fixation in an NS-type DR-SS topology with a stator magnetic core (or
4.0/). stator teeth) becomes a critical part of the entire motor design process. Mechanically robust

Energies 2021, 14, 8509. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248509 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 8509 2 of 14

of stator mechanical fixation in an NS-type DR-SS topology with a stator magnetic core
(or stator teeth) becomes a critical part of the entire motor design process. Mechanically
robust structures are required to overcome the pull forces at both rotors, increasing the
structures
volume andare required
weight to overcome
of the stator [4]. the pull forces at both rotors, increasing the volume
and weight of the stator [4].

Figure 1. DR-SS
DR-SS generator configuration example.

Therefore, in
Therefore, in this
this study,
study, wewe selected
selected and
and designed
designed aa DR-SS
DR-SS topology
topology without
without aa stator
stator
core. For
core. For the
the rotors,
rotors, in
in order
order toto increase
increase the
the output
output power,
power, the
the characteristics
characteristics ofof the
the model
model
according to
according tothe
thecombination
combinationofof permanent-magnet
permanent-magnet (PM) polepole
(PM) arrangement
arrangement werewere
compared
com-
and reviewed, focusing on the so-called Halbach array structure [8,9]. For
pared and reviewed, focusing on the so-called Halbach array structure [8,9]. For the stator, the stator, a
coreless stator topology was used to reduce the weight of the stator itself and
a coreless stator topology was used to reduce the weight of the stator itself and at the same at the same
time reduce
time reduce the
the weight
weight of
of the
the structure
structure supporting
supporting it,it, by
by reducing
reducing thethe axial
axial attraction
attraction force
force
between the rotor and the stator.
between the rotor and the stator.
This paper
This paper focuses
focuses on
on the
the process
process ofof selecting the rotor–Halbach
selecting the rotor–Halbach arrayarray topology
topology andand
the coil specifications of the coreless stator, which have the most influence
the coil specifications of the coreless stator, which have the most influence on the power on the power
density among
density among the the various
various design
design variables
variables of the rotor
of the rotor and
and stator
stator in the generator
in the generator design
design
process. In other words, in the rotor design part of this paper, three types Halbach
process. In other words, in the rotor design part of this paper, three types of of Halbacharrays
ar-
are compared and analyzed according to the arrangement of the magnetization
rays are compared and analyzed according to the arrangement of the magnetization di- direction.
Moreover, in the stator design part, the loss generated from the coil due to the coreless
rection. Moreover, in the stator design part, the loss generated from the coil due to the
topology is analyzed in detail, and three cases of using a general conductor and a Litz
coreless topology is analyzed in detail, and three cases of using a general conductor and
wire conductor are compared and analyzed. After determining the topology of the rotor
a Litz wire conductor are compared and analyzed. After determining the topology of the
and stator, the mechanical stability against the electromagnetic force was investigated, and
rotor and stator, the mechanical stability against the electromagnetic force was investi-
the temperature stability due to the electromagnetic heat source was also evaluated. The
gated, and the temperature stability due to the electromagnetic heat source was also eval-
magnetic, mechanical, and thermal properties of all analysis processes for AFPM generator
uated. The magnetic, mechanical, and thermal properties of all analysis processes for
design are calculated using a three-dimensional (3-D) finite element method (FEM), and
AFPM generator design are calculated using a three-dimensional (3-D) finite element
the final determined model is experimentally verified.
method (FEM), and the final determined model is experimentally verified.
2. AFPM Generator Design
2. AFPM
2.1. Generator
Design Design
Specifications
2.1. Design
AFPMSpecifications
generator design specifications are shown in Table 1.
AFPM generator design specifications are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Design specifications for AFPM generator.
Table 1. Design specifications
Parameter for AFPM generator. Value Unit
Parameter
Max speed Value
≤7000 Unit
rpm
Output
Max power
speed ≥3000
≤7000 W
rpm
No-load voltage constant ≤11 mV/rpm
Output power ≥3000 W
Efficiency ≥93 %
No-loadPower
voltage constant
density ≤11
≤2.3 mV/rpm
W/kg
Efficiency
Cooling condition ≥93cooling
Natural %
Power density ≤2.3 W/kg
In consideration of the performance of Natural
Cooling condition the engine that is to be used with the generator,
cooling
the speed was limited to a maximum of 7000 rpm. Additionally, the maximum line voltage
constant at no-load was limited to 11 mV/rpm or less in consideration of the AC/DC
converter performance to be used for 48 V DC battery charging. The voltage and current
 In consideration of the performance of the engine that is to be used with the genera-
tor, the speed was limited to a maximum of 7000 rpm. Additionally, the maximum line
voltage constant at no-load was limited to 11 mV/rpm or less in consideration of the
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 AC/DC converter performance to be used for 48 V DC battery charging. The voltage3 of 14
and
current values in this paper all represent RMS (root mean square) and not peak value. For
the efficient operation of the maximum payload 3 kg UAV system, the efficiency and
power density requirements of the generator are required as shown in Table 1, and the
values in this paper all represent RMS (root mean square) and not peak value. For the
generator is operated without a separate cooling device.
efficient operation of the maximum payload 3 kg UAV system, the efficiency and power
Therequirements
density initial designofof the
the generator
generator areused a quasi-three
required as showndimensional
in Table 1, andanalysis model,
the generator
which is a model from 3D geometry to
is operated without a separate cooling device. a corresponding two dimensional model [1]. Table
2 shows the design results of the initial design model that satisfy the given
The initial design of the generator used a quasi-three dimensional analysis model, constraints,
which is3D
and the analysis
a model frommodel for a detailed
3D geometry design reviewtwo
to a corresponding of the rotor and model
dimensional stator is shown
[1]. Tablein
2
Figure
shows the design results of the initial design model that satisfy the given constraints,isand
2. Each of the six phases is indicated by the capital letters A to F, where LP the
phase
the 3Dinductance,
analysis model RP isfor
theaphase resistance,
detailed design and RL is
review ofthe
theload
rotorresistance.
and stator is shown in
Figure 2. Each of the six phases is indicated by the capital letters A to F, where LP is the
Table 2. Initial design results for the AFPM generator.
phase inductance, RP is the phase resistance, and RL is the load resistance.
Parameter Value Unit
Table 2. Initial
No. ofdesign results for the AFPM generator.
phases 6
No. of poles/slots
Parameter 14 poles/12 slots
Value Unit
Outer diameter of rotor 162 mm
No. of phases 6
Air-gap length
No. of (one-side)
poles/slots 0.5
14 poles/12 slots mm
TotalOuter
axialdiameter
thicknessof rotor 17 162 mm
mm
Air-gap length (one-side)
PM material 0.5
NdFeB(Br = 1.3T) mm
Total axial thickness 17 mm
PM material NdFeB(Br = 1.3T)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Three
Threedimensional
dimensionalFEMFEM analysis model
analysis modelforfor
AFPM
AFPMgenerator: (a) analysis
generator: periodic
(a) analysis model,
periodic (b) flux
model, (b)density distri-
flux density
bution, (c) external load-resistance circuit, and (d) six-phase winding pattern for stator.
distribution, (c) external load-resistance circuit, and (d) six-phase winding pattern for stator.

2.2. Rotor Design of the AFPM Generator

In the process of designing the rotor to increase the power density of the generator,
three rotor topologies were compared, as shown in Figure 3. The volume and dimensions
of the three rotors are all the same, and the thickness of the yoke used to increase the me-
chanical robustness of the rotor is also considered to have the same dimensions. The stator
specifications, dimensions, and weight conditions are all the same. The only difference is
the combination of the magnetization directions of the rotor’s PM.
 2.2. Rotor Design of the AFPM Generator
In the process of designing the rotor to increase the power density of the generator,
three rotor topologies were compared, as shown in Figure 3. The volume and dimensions
of the three rotors are all the same, and the thickness of the yoke used to increase the
mechanical robustness of the rotor is also considered to have the same dimensions. The
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 4 of 14
stator specifications, dimensions, and weight conditions are all the same. The only differ-
ence is the combination of the magnetization directions of the rotor’s PM.

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure
Figure3. 3.
Three rotor
Three models
rotor models according
accordingtotothe
thearrangement
arrangementofofthe
themagnetization
magnetization direction:
direction: (a)
(a) Type-I;
Type-I; (b) Type-II; and (c) normal array
(b) Type-II; and (c) normal array (NA). (NA).

AsAs shown
shownininFigure
Figure3a, 3a,the
theHalbach
Halbacharrangement
arrangement in which whichfour fourdifferent
differentmagnetization
magnetiza-
tion directions
directions formformoneone magnetic
magnetic polepole is defined
is defined as Type-I.
as Type-I. As shown As shown
in Figurein Figure 3b, a
3b, a Halbach
Halbach array composed
array composed of threeofdifferent
three different magnetization
magnetization directionsdirections
that canthat can be combined
be combined relatively
relatively
easily is easily
defined is as
defined
Type-II.as As
Type-II.
shownAs inshown
Figure in 3c,Figure 3c,pole
a typical a typical pole arrangement
arrangement that is mag-
that is magnetized
netized in only one in only one direction
direction to form one to form
pole is one pole isasdefined
defined a normalas aarrangement
normal arrange-(NA).
ment
The(NA).
efficiency presented in Table 3 considers only copper loss at the stator coil and iron
lossThe
at the back yoke
efficiency of the rotor
presented PM.3All
in Table models only
considers are designed
copper loss withatLitz
the wire
statorsocoil
only
andDC
copper
iron loss atloss
theisback
considered;
yoke ofeddy current
the rotor PM.lossAll ismodels
ignored.areEven though
designed all Litz
with threewire
models have
so only
DC similar
copper efficiency values, when
loss is considered; looking
eddy at the
current lossgenerated
is ignored.voltage, the voltages
Even though of Type-I
all three modelsand
Type-II
have are 38.5%
similar and values,
efficiency 24.8% higher
when than the NA,
looking at therespectively.
generated Additionally, for the same
voltage, the voltages of
current,
Type-I andthe outputare
Type-II power
38.5%and andoutput
24.8%power
higherdensity
than the are evaluated
NA, to be 39.6%
respectively. higher in
Additionally,
forType-I and 25.6%
the same current, higher in Type-II
the output thanand
power the NA.
output power density are evaluated to be
39.6% higher in Type-I and 25.6% higher in Type-II than the NA.
Table 3. Comparison
Despite having the of the analysis
same backresults
yokefor and therotor
three volume
rotor models.
for all three types, the rotor
core losses in Type-I and Type-II are significantly lower than the NA, demonstrating the
Parameter Type-I Type-II NA
advantage of using the Halbach array.
Since the output power 3982.4 3583.9 2853.6
Rated output power (W)of Type-I is excellent under the same conditions, the PM ar-
(139.6%) (125.6%) (100%)
rangement of the generator rotor was set as Type-I. Figure 4 shows the voltage and current
37.4 33.7 27
waveforms Phase
in thevoltage
stator(V)coil that were generated
(138.5%) when the Type-I (124.8%)model was analyzed.
(100%) In
the case of Type-II
Core lossand(W) the NA, the generated 1.5 voltage values 1.3are different as shown
3.7 in
Table 3, butCopper
the waveforms
loss (W) are the same as shown in Figure 4.89.8
112.0 The phase difference 57.8 of the
waveforms Efficiency
in Figure(%) 4 is due to the use 97.2 of two pairs of balanced 97.5 three-phase97.9 winding
arrays electrically shifted by 30° to each other; this is shown in Figure 5. This1.34
Weight (kg) 1.34 1.34 winding
2.97 2.67 2.13
arrangementPowerisdensity
also referred
(W/kg) to as a dual three-phase winding arrangement [10,11].
(139.6%) (125.6%) (100%)
Rated speed (rpm) 6500 6500 6500
Phase current (A) 18.1 16.2 13
Current density (A/mm2 ) 15.9 14.3 11.5
No. of parallel circuits 2 2 2
No. of turns per coil 42 42 42
No. of strands of wire 70 70 70
Conductor diameter (mm) 0.1 0.1 0.1
Rotor avg. flux density (T) 1.3 1.2 1.4
Rotor max. flux density (T) 2.3 2.3 2.8

Despite having the same back yoke and rotor volume for all three types, the rotor
core losses in Type-I and Type-II are significantly lower than the NA, demonstrating the
advantage of using the Halbach array.
 Copper
Efficiencyloss(%)
(W) 112.0
97.2 89.8
97.5 57.8
97.9
Efficiency
Weight (kg) (%) 97.2
1.34 97.5
1.34 97.9
1.34
Weight (kg) 1.34
2.97 1.34
2.67 1.34
2.13
Power density (W/kg) 2.97 2.67 2.13
Power density (W/kg) (139.6%) (125.6%) (100%)
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 (139.6%) (125.6%) (100%) 5 of 14
Rated speed (rpm) 6500 6500 6500
Rated
Phase speed
current(rpm)
(A) 6500
18.1 6500
16.2 6500
13
Phase
Current current
density (A) 2)
(A/mm 18.1
15.9 16.2
14.3 13
11.5
Current
No. density
of parallel
Since (A/mm
circuits
the output 2)
power of Type-I 15.9
2 is excellent under 14.3
2 the same conditions,11.5
2 the PM
No.
No.ofofparallel
arrangement turns circuits
of per
the generator rotor42
coil 2was set as Type-I.42 2Figure 4 shows the42 2
voltage and
No.
current of turns
waveforms per
No. of strands of wire coil
in the stator 42
coil
70 that were 42
generated
70 when the Type-I 42
70 model was
analyzed. Indiameter
the case
No. of strands
Conductor of wireof Type-II and
(mm) 70the NA, the generated
0.1 70
0.1 voltage values0.1are different
70
as shown
Conductor
Rotor in Table
diameter
avg. flux 3,
density but
(mm) the
(T) waveforms
0.1
1.3 are the same as
0.1
1.2 shown in Figure 4.
0.1The phase
1.4
difference
avg.offlux
Rotormax.
Rotor thedensity
waveforms (T) in Figure 1.3 4 is due to the use
2.3 1.2 of two pairs of balanced
2.3 1.4
2.8 three-
phase winding arrays electrically shifted by 30 ◦ to each other; this is shown in Figure 5. This
Rotor max. flux density (T) 2.3 2.3 2.8
winding arrangement is also referred to as a dual three-phase winding arrangement [10,11].

Figure 4. Voltage and current waveforms of rotor Type−I.

Figure 4.
Figure Voltage and
4. Voltage and current
current waveforms
waveforms of
of rotor
rotor Type −I.
Type−I.

Phasevectors
Figure5.5.Phase
Figure vectorsof
ofthe
thesix-phase
six-phasewinding
windingarrangement.
arrangement.
Figure 5. Phase vectors of the six-phase winding arrangement.
2.3. Stator Design of the AFPM Generator
In general, DC resistance loss is the main loss in the stator coil, and in the case of high-
speed operation, AC resistance loss is also considered. However, in the case of a slotless or
coreless stator that does not form teeth with a magnetic material (with or without a back
yoke), the magnetic flux change occurs directly in the coil; thus, even at a low frequency
of several hundred Hz, severe eddy current loss can happen in the coil depending on the
diameter of the conductor. Although DC resistance and AC resistance losses occur only in
the state of load operation with the current flowing, eddy current loss in the coil occurs not
only during load operation but also during no-load operation.
The best way to reduce the eddy current loss of a conductor is to use Litz wire that
divides the conductor into multiple strands. However, when using Litz wires with each
coated strand for winding, the number of turns that can be wound around the same coil
cross-sectional area is reduced by half compared to the normal conductor. Therefore, when
using Litz wire, an increase in the volume of the motor or generator is inevitable because
the coil cross-sectional area must be at least doubled or the rotor PM size and the number of
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 6 of 14

coil turns must be increased to achieve the same output power as a model using a normal
conductor.
For drone applications requiring a high power density, the trade-off between thermal
and weight reduction problems should be considered. Therefore, in the stator design of the
AFPM generator with the coreless stator, the characteristics of coil types under the same
volume and weight conditions were compared analytically and experimentally, as shown
in Table 4.

Table 4. Comparison of no-load characteristics for the three stator models.

Parameter Coil-I Coil-II Coil-III

Rotating speed (rpm) 5000 5000 5000
No. of parallel circuits 2 1 1
No. of turns per coil 72 36 36
No. of serial turns per phase 72 72 36
No. of strands 1 1 70
Conductor diameter (mm) 0.85 1.2 0.1
Slot fill factor (%) 62 62 31
Phase resistance (Ohm) 0.084 0.081 0.04
110.6 219.7 0.74
Calculated eddy-current loss power of coils (W)
(100%) (199%) (0.7%)
122 242 39
Measured loss power of each prototype (W)
(100%) (198%) (32%)
Max temperature (◦ C) 72.6 103.7 31.3

The Coil-I and Coil-II models use a general conductor, and the parallel circuit is
different in terms of the number of equivalent series turns; however, the phase resistance
is the same. Therefore, the diameter of the coil conductor used is different. In the Coil-III
model, a Litz wire that has a cross-sectional area equivalent to that of Coil-I was used, and
the number of turns in a series decreased due to the difference in the slot fill factor.
For the numerical calculation of the eddy current loss in the coils for each model, the
most basic formula cited in several related papers [3,12] is used, as shown in (1):

Pe = (πld4 Bpk 2 ω 2 )/(32ρ) (1)

where l is the coil side length, d is a round conductor diameter, Bpk is the peak value of flux
density, ω is the fundamental electrical angular speed, and ρ is the conductor resistivity.
For more detailed calculations, the magnetic flux density between the coil layers can
be calculated differently, or the direction component of the magnetic flux density and the
harmonic component can be divided and examined [3]. However, if the magnetic flux
density distribution in the target stator coil is analyzed, as shown in Figures 6 and 7, it has
the following characteristics:
• The change of magnetic flux density over time is sine, and the harmonic component is
negligible;
• Since the change in magnetic flux density from point P4 to point P7, which is the
straight side of the coil, is similar, it can be represented by one value. The magnetic
flux density variation between the layers of the coil is negligible;
• The magnetization directions of the rotor permanent magnets facing each other are
opposite to each other as shown in Figure 3a, and the axial length of the coil is short.
Therefore, it can be seen that the magnetic flux passing between points P4 to P7 of the
coil has only the axial component.
 •• The
The magnetization
magnetization directions
directions of of the
the rotor
rotor permanent
permanent magnets
magnets facing
facing each
each other
other are
are
opposite
oppositeto toeach
eachother
otherasasshown
shownin inFigure
Figure3a,3a,and
andthetheaxial
axiallength
lengthofofthe
thecoil
coilisisshort.
short.
Therefore,
Therefore, itit can
can bebe seen
seen that
that the
the magnetic
magnetic flux
flux passing
passing between
between points
points P4
P4 to to P7
P7 of
of
the
thecoil
coilhas
hasonly
onlythe theaxial
axialcomponent.
component.
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 7 of 14
In
In addition,
addition, the
the relative
relative comparison
comparison with with the
the coil
coil model
model isis important,
important, so
so itit was
was cal-
cal-
culated
culatedonly
onlyasasthe
themaximum
maximumaverage averagemagnetic
magneticflux
fluxdensity
densityininoneonestraight
straightconductor.
conductor.

Figure 6.6.Phase
Figure6.
Figure Phasevector
vectorof
ofthe
thesix-phase
six-phasewinding
windingarrangement.
winding arrangement.
arrangement.

Figure
Figure 7.7.Magnetic
Figure7. Magneticflux
Magnetic fluxdensity
flux densitychanges
density changesover
changes overtime
over timein
time inthe
in thecoils
the coilsduring
coils duringthe
during theno-load
the no-loadcondition.
no-load condition.
condition.

In addition, the relative comparison with the coil model is important, so it was
The
Thelower
lowermiddle
middlepartpartof
ofTable
Table44shows
showsthetheresults
resultscomparing
comparingthe theeddy
eddycurrent
currentlossloss
calculated only as the maximum average magnetic flux density in one straight conductor.
power
power of the coil calculated by (1) and the measured loss power for each model duringaa
of the coil calculated by (1) and the measured loss power for each model during
The lower middle part of Table 4 shows the results comparing the eddy current loss
no-load
no-load operation
operation atat aa rotational
rotational speed
speed ofof 5000
5000 rpm.
rpm. IfIf the
the eddy
eddy current
current lossloss in
in the
the seg-
seg-
power of the coil calculated by (1) and the measured loss power for each model during
mented
mentedpermanent
permanentmagnet
magnetisisneglected,
neglected,the themeasured
measuredvaluevaluecan canonly
onlybe
beevaluated
evaluatedby bythe
the
a no-load operation at a rotational speed of 5000 rpm. If the eddy current loss in the
mechanical
mechanicaland andconductor
conductoreddy eddycurrent
currentlosses.
losses.However,
However,since sincethe
theCoil-III
Coil-IIImodel
modelmakesmakes
segmented permanent magnet is neglected, the measured value can only be evaluated by
the
the stator
stator coil
coil with
with Litz
Litz wire
wire so
so that
that the
the conductor
conductor eddy
eddy current
current loss
loss isis also
also negligible,
negligible,
the mechanical and conductor eddy current losses. However, since the Coil-III model makes
the stator coil with Litz wire so that the conductor eddy current loss is also negligible, most
of the measured losses of the Coil-III model can be considered as mechanical losses. Since
all were made under the same conditions except for the stator winding, the mechanical
losses of the Coil-I and Coil-II models are evaluated similarly to those of Coil-III. After
subtracting the mechanical loss of Coil-III from the measured losses of Coil-I and Coil-II, it
can be seen that the eddy current loss values of Coil-I and Coil-II models are similar to the
calculated values.
At the bottom of Table 4, the temperatures in the coil measured during the no-load
test of each model are compared. The maximum temperature measured at the coil using
three thermocouples during the test held for 30 s at each speed point in increments of
500 rpm, from 500 rpm to 6000 rpm. The housing of the manufactured generator is as
shown in Figure 1, and the temperature of Coil-I and Coil-II was severely increased while
the room temperature was 25 degrees Celsius across the board. From the comparison of
Coil-I and Coil-II, it can be seen that the effect of the parallel circuit with the possibility
of a circulating current is not large; rather, the loss decreases as the conductor diameter
decreases. This can confirm that the loss is significantly reduced in Coil-III, which has the
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 8 of 14

smallest conductor diameter. Therefore, the stator was determined with the Coil-III model
that could completely reduce the conductor eddy current loss as a heat source.

3. Mechanical and Thermal Analysis

A mechanical analysis and thermal analysis were performed on the models that were
determined through rotor and stator design introduced in the previous chapter. That is,
when the rotor has the Type-I PM arrangement in Figure 3a and the stator has the Coil-III
specification in Table 4, the mechanical analysis related to the rotor yoke and shaft of this
model and the examination of temperature stability were performed. In order to reduce the
weight of the system to which the generator was to be attached, parts of the generator were
minimized by sharing parts with the system. Therefore, in the process of the mechanical
and thermal analysis of the model that was ultimately determined, the housing and cover
were omitted; instead, a jig for fixing the generator was considered for comparison with
the test results.

3.1. Mechanical Analysis

In a coreless AFPM generator, the main forces affecting the mechanical structure are
usually the centrifugal force and the attraction force of the PMs [13].
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW First, centrifugal force causes the deviation of PMs arranged in the circumferential
9 of 15
direction of the edges of the rotor yoke. The main cause is the occurrence of shear stress by
centrifugal force on the plane where the rotor frame and PM are bonded [14]. The upper
part
490ofMpa,
Figure
and8the
shows the cross-section
maximum of the was
stress that occurred designed generator
lower than rotor, which
this, meaning has rim
that it was
parts with a height that
mechanically stable. is 75% of PM thickness to prevent the deviations in the radial
direction of the PMs caused by centrifugal force.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 8. (a)
8. (a) Structure
Structure ofof therotor;
the rotor;and
and(b)
(b) stress
stress analysis
analysisresult
resultfor
forthe rotor
the frame.
rotor frame.

Finally,the
Second, theaxial
rotorattraction
dynamics were
forceperformed
due to thetomagnetism
confirm theof
dynamic
the PMs stability of the
attached to the
two rotors causes a bending moment with the hub part assembled on the rotaryThe
rotor system. Figure 9 is the Campbell diagram showing the result of the analysis. axis as
critical speed, which is when the natural vibration mode is the bending mode of the rotat-
a support, resulting in deflection [15,16]. The direction of deflection is the direction of
ing shaft, was shown to be 18,302 rpm. This is illustrated in the mode shape shown in the
reducing the air gap, which in turn reduces the performance and stability of the generator,
lower right-hand corner of Figure 10. More than 20% of the separation margin was secured
and a robust design of the rotor frame is required. To increase the stiffness in the axial
for the maximum operating speed of the generator at 7000 rpm, and no whirling vibration
direction of the
of the rotor rotorwas
system frame, the to
expected stiffener
occur. was designed as shown in the upper part of
Figure 8 and the thickness of the hub acting as the support was designed to be relatively
thicker than the outer part.
A stress analysis was performed to check the designed rotor frame’s deflection and
stress distribution by magnetic force, and the lower part of Figure 8 is the result of this
stress analysis. The maximum deflection was shown at the edge of the rotor frame at 0.11
mm, which means there was a maximum reduction of 22% in the designed 0.5 mm air-gap
length. The von Mises stress resulted in 196.44 Mpa in the same area where the maximum
deflection occurred. The yield strength of S45C, the material of the rotor frame, is 490
Mpa, and the maximum stress that occurred was lower than this, meaning that it was
mechanically stable.

Figure 9. Result of the rotor critical speed analysis (Campbell diagram).

 (a) (b)
(a) (b)
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 9 of 14
Figure 8. (a) Structure of the rotor; and (b) stress analysis result for the rotor frame.
Figure 8. (a) Structure of the rotor; and (b) stress analysis result for the rotor frame.
Finally, the rotor dynamics were performed to confirm the dynamic stability of the
Finally, the rotor dynamics were performed to confirm the dynamic stability of the
rotor system. Figure 9 isdynamics
the Campbell diagram showing the the
result of the analysis. The
rotor system.the
Finally, rotor
Figure were performed
9 is the Campbell to confirm
diagram showing dynamic
the result stability
of the of
analysis. the
The
critical
rotor speed,
system. which is
Figure when
9 is the
the natural
Campbell vibration
diagram mode
showingis thethebending
result mode
of the of the rotat-
analysis. The
critical speed, which is when the natural vibration mode is the bending mode of the rotat-
ing shaft,speed,
critical was shown to when
be 18,302 rpm. This is illustrated
mode isinthethebending
mode shape shown in the
ing shaft, waswhich
shownis to the natural
be 18,302 rpm. vibration
This is illustrated in the modemode
shapeofshown
the rotating
in the
lower
shaft,right-hand corner
to beof18,302
Figurerpm.
10. More thanillustrated
20% of thein separation
modemargin was secured
lower was shown
right-hand corner of Figure 10. This
Moreisthan 20% of the theseparation shape
margin shown in the
was secured
for the maximum operating
lower of speed of the generator at 7000 rpm, and no whirling vibration
for theright-hand
maximumcorner
operating Figure
speed10.
of More than 20%
the generator atof7000
the separation
rpm, and nomargin was
whirling secured
vibration
offor
thethe
rotor system
maximum was expected
operating to occur.
speed to
of occur.
the generator at 7000 rpm, and no whirling vibration
of the rotor system was expected
of the rotor system was expected to occur.

Figure 9. Result of the rotor critical speed analysis (Campbell diagram).

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Result
Result of
of the
the rotor
rotor critical
critical speed
speed analysis
analysis(Campbell
(Campbelldiagram).
diagram).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 10.10.
Figure (a)(a)
Three dimensional
Three analysis
dimensional analysismodel;
model;and
and(b)
(b)temperature
temperaturedistribution
distributionininthe
thecoils.
coils.
Figure 10. (a) Three dimensional analysis model; and (b) temperature distribution in the coils.
3.2. Thermal Analysis
A thermal analysis was performed under rated conditions to ensure the normal and
safe operation of the designed model. Since Litz wire and segmented PM were used, the
eddy current loss in the coil and PM was negligible, and the main heat source was the
DC copper loss. The other heat sources were core losses in the rotor yoke and mechanical
losses in the bearings. Although copper loss and iron loss can be calculated through pa-
rameters obtained through electromagnetic field analyses and empirical formulas [17–22],
respectively, mechanical loss varies depending on the parts and the manufacturing method
of the manufactured model. Therefore, it was assumed that the mechanical loss was about
7% of the 3 kW rated output power with reference to the prototype reviewed, until the
final model was decided. Moreover, it was assumed that the generator operated under
natural cooling conditions at a room temperature of 28 ◦ C. All input parameters for the
analysis are shown in Table 5.
The connection coefficient, defined in the boundaries of the model, used empirical
values. In the case of the rotor yoke, the values of 100 and 200 W/m2K were applied to
the inner and outer surfaces of the rotor, respectively, considering that rotation resulted in
a fan-like cooling effect. On the other hand, the jig was separated into a top plate and a
bottom plate, and the jig top plate to which the generator was attached had only a slight
flow of air, with a value of 10 W/m2K applied. The lower plate of the jig was defined as
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 10 of 14

infinite, assuming a situation in which heat could escape infinitely due to its connection to
the dynamo steel base.
Table 5. Input parameters for the thermal analysis.

Parameter Value
Output power (W) 3000
Speed (rpm) 7000
Current (A) 15.5
Copper loss (W) 96.6
Core loss (W) 1.5
Mechanical loss (W) 200
Room temperature (◦ C) 28
Convection coefficient on rotor yoke (inner/outer) (W/m2 K) 100/200
Convection coefficient on jig (W/m2 K) 10/Infinite

The final designed model including the test jig was modeled in 3D as shown in
Figure 10a, and the thermal analysis was performed using FEM [23–26]. When the temper-
ature was saturated, the highest temperature was the stator coil with the largest loss, as
shown in Figure 10b. Table 6 shows the range of temperature distribution by dividing the
generator into coils, rotor yokes, PMs, and bearings. Representatively, when looking at the
material used for coils and PMs that are most vulnerable to temperature, Litz wire has a
class F thermal index with a maximum operating point of 155◦ C, and PM with SH grade
has a maximum operating point of 150 ◦ C. It can be seen that the heat generated by the
generator during the rated operation is in the stable range.
Table 6. Thermal analysis results.

Parameter Value
Coil temperature range (◦ C) 65–66
Rotor yoke temperature range (◦ C) 39–51
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW PM temperature range (◦ C) 42–47 11 of 15
Bearing temperature range (◦ C) 56–67

4.
4. Experimental
Experimental Validation
Validation andand Conclusions
Conclusions
The prototype of the model
The prototype of the model was was finally
finally decided
decided basedbasedon onthe
theelectromagnetic
electromagneticfieldfield
design
design and mechanical thermal analysis that were produced as shown in Figure 11. InIn
and mechanical thermal analysis that were produced as shown in Figure 11.
order
order to
to check
check whether
whether thethe PM arrangement of
PM arrangement of the
the rotor
rotorcomposed
composedof ofthe
theHalbach
Halbacharray
array
was
was properly manufactured, the magnetic flux density of the PM surface was measured,as
properly manufactured, the magnetic flux density of the PM surface was measured,
shown
as shownin Figure 11a.11a.
in Figure As Ascompared
compared in Figure 12,12,
in Figure it can be be
it can confirmed
confirmedthat thethe
that trends of the
trends of
predicted values and the measured values match well through the electromagnetic
the predicted values and the measured values match well through the electromagnetic field
analysis. Higher
field analysis. harmonics
Higher appearing
harmonics in the
appearing analysis
in the analysiscompared
compared to to
thethe
measured
measured values
val-
can be regarded as calculation errors according to the element mesh
ues can be regarded as calculation errors according to the element mesh state. state.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Fabricated
Fabricated (a)
(a) rotor;
rotor; (b)
(b) stator;
stator; and
and (c)
(c) rotor–stator
rotor–statorassay.
assay.
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 (a) (b) (c) 11 of 14

Figure 11. Fabricated (a) rotor; (b) stator; and (c) rotor–stator assay.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Comparison
Comparisonofofflux
fluxdensity
densityon
onPM.
PM.

AsAsshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 13, 13, aadynamo
dynamoset setwas
wasconstructed
constructed to to
testtest
thethe generator.
generator. By
By con-
connecting a 2 ohm resistive load per phase to the generator, a power
necting a 2 ohm resistive load per phase to the generator, a power generation output of generation output
of
3.13.1
kWkW could
could bebe obtained
obtained at at 6500
6500 rpm.
rpm. A higher
A higher output
output powerpowercould could be achieved
be achieved by
by con-
connecting a resistor of 1 ohm per phase to the generator. Figure 14a
necting a resistor of 1 ohm per phase to the generator. Figure 14a shows the no-load test shows the no-load test
results
resultsaccording
accordingtotospeed.speed.Moreover,
Moreover, Figure
Figure14b,c shows
14b,c shows thethe
load testtest
load results according
results according to
speed for a resistive load of 2 and 1 ohm, respectively. In the no-load
to speed for a resistive load of 2 and 1 ohm, respectively. In the no-load operation, it can operation, it can be
seen thatthat
be seen the the
back EMF
back EMFis linear with
is linear speed,
with speed, whereas
whereas the thepower
power loss
lossisisnon-linear.
non-linear.When
When
the
the resistive load is 2 ohm, the rated power of 3 kW output occurs at around7000
resistive load is 2 ohm, the rated power of 3 kW output occurs at around 7000rpm,
rpm,
and
andthethemechanical
mechanicalloss lossatatthis
thistime
timeisisabout
about200 200W.W.OnOnthe theother
otherhand,
hand,when whenthetheresistive
resistive
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
load
loadisis11ohm,
ohm,the therated
ratedoutput
outputpowerpoweroccurs
occursatataround
around5000 5000rpm,
rpm,and andititcan
canbebeseen
seenthat
that
the mechanical loss at this time is about 100 W. It was confirmed
the mechanical loss at this time is about 100 W. It was confirmed through the test that the through the test that
the maximum efficiency was 93.2% at 3000 rpm when the resistive load was 2 ohm, and
maximum efficiency was 93.2% at 3000 rpm when the resistive load was 2 ohm, and the
maximum
the maximum output power
output was was
power 5 kW at 6500
5 kW rpmrpm
at 6500 when whenthe resistive
the resistiveloadload
was was
1 ohm. Ac-
1 ohm.
cordingly, the ratio of the maximum output power
Accordingly, the ratio of the maximum output power to the generator to the generator weight is 2.5 kW/kg,
2.5 kW/kg,
conditions required
which satisfies all the design conditions required in in Table
Table1.1.

Figure
Figure 13.
13. TEST
TEST set
set for
for the
the AFPM
AFPM generator.
generator.
 Energies 2021, 14, 8509 12 of 14

Figure 13. TEST set for the AFPM generator.

(a)

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure14.
14.No-load
No-loadand load
and loadtest results
test according
results to speed
according andand
to speed load resistance:
load (a) No-load
resistance: test;test;
(a) No-load
(b) 2-ohm/phase resistance load test; and (c) 1-ohm/phase resistance load
(b) 2-ohm/phase resistance load test; and (c) 1-ohm/phase resistance load test. test.

Figure
Figure1515shows
showsthe thetest results
test confirming
results confirming that it can
that be operated
it can be operatedfor more thanthan
for more 30
min while
30 min maintaining
while a constant
maintaining output
a constant powerpower
output of over
of3over
kW. 3ItkW.
can It
becan
seenbethat the
seen max-
that the
imum temperature of the measured coil is about 40 °C, ◦
which is lower than
maximum temperature of the measured coil is about 40 C, which is lower than the pre- the predicted
temperature in the analysis.
dicted temperature Errors may
in the analysis. have
Errors accumulated
may in various
have accumulated in assumptions during
various assumptions
the calculation
during process, but
the calculation one main
process, but cause
one mainis considered to be the value
cause is considered ofthe
to be the value
convection
of the
coefficient. If this is compensated by reflecting the test error, it is expected that more ac-
curate results can be predicted in a similar system. As a temperature lower than the pre-
dicted temperature is measured, it can be seen that the designed generator can be operated
stably with a greater margin for the temperature.
 Figure 15 shows the test results confirming that it can be operated for more than 30
min while maintaining a constant output power of over 3 kW. It can be seen that the max-
imum temperature of the measured coil is about 40 °C, which is lower than the predicted
Energies 2021, 14, 8509 temperature in the analysis. Errors may have accumulated in various assumptions during 13 of 14
the calculation process, but one main cause is considered to be the value of the convection
coefficient. If this is compensated by reflecting the test error, it is expected that more ac-
curate results can be predicted in a similar system. As a temperature lower than the pre-
convection coefficient. If this is compensated by reflecting the test error, it is expected that
dicted temperature is measured, it can be seen that the designed generator can be operated
more accurate results can be predicted in a similar system. As a temperature lower than
stably with a greater margin for the temperature.
the predicted temperature is measured, it can be seen that the designed generator can be
operated stably with a greater margin for the temperature.

Figure 15.
Figure Temperature saturation
15. Temperature saturation test
test (resistive
(resistive load
load is
is 22 ohm).
ohm).

ItIt isisjudged
judgedthat
thatthe
theabove
above design
design process
process and
and review
review results
results cancan be used
be used as refer-
as reference
ence materials for other studies of the design of an unmanned aerial vehicle
materials for other studies of the design of an unmanned aerial vehicle generator usinggenerator
using AFPM.
AFPM.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-Y.L.; methodology, J.-Y.L.; validation, J.-H.L.; writing—
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.-Y.L.; methodology, J.-Y.L.; validation, J.-H.L.; writ-
original draft preparation, J.-Y.L.; writing—review and editing, J.-H.L. and T.K.N.; All authors have
ing—original draft preparation, J.-Y.L.; writing—review and editing, J.-H.L. and T.K.N.; All authors
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the KERI Primary research program of MSIT/NST, grant
Funding: This research was funded by the KERI Primary research program of MSIT/NST, grant
number 21A01052.
number 21A01052.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the KERI Primary research program of MSIT/NST
(No. 21A01052).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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