READING AND WRITING SKILLS

Text Organization
Text organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader logically
through it. This property makes a text readable and its message clear.
Organization can be achieved through the following techniques:
 Physical Format - The format is an aspect of the organization that is immediately
apparent to the reader. It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings
and subheadings, bullet points or font emphasis. However, use this technique with
discretion as improper or superfluous formatting can be confusing.
Example: Marxist ideology has three main theories. Historical materialism purports that all the
features of society can historically be traced back to economic activity. Social class in capitalist
societies is what produces unjust structures of power that exist today. Socialism would be the
next rational step for the development of human society.
Explanation: The words in bold are the three most important Marxist theories that the first
sentence is referring to. By emphasizing these words, the reader can identify the correct term for
the concepts along with their definitions; this would also aid in remembering the theories since
they stick out from the rest of the text.
 Signal words - are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can
“signal” the transition from one point to another, the ordering of events and
concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type (e.g., linear narration, question and
answer).
Example: Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club greatly influenced me as a fictional writer. First,
his use of the unreliable narrator fascinated me, and I have written similar characters in my
works. Second, the theme of patriarchal oppression can also be found in the stories I write. Third,
the novel’s stunning twist is something that I have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am extremely
grateful to have encountered Palahniuk’s genius early in my writing career.
Explanation: By using sequential signal words (first, second and third) before the beginning of
every sentence, the reader can follow what seems to be the writer’s list of three reasons why the
novel influenced him. The word thus also signals the conclusion and the end of the list.
 Structure - The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized.
It consists of the following:
• Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
• Middle: supporting details
• End: conclusion, summary, final message
Example: Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an “aura,” this appears as a rainbow of
light around the body that can be seen by individuals with clairvoyant abilities. The colors
change depending on one’s mood, health, and thoughts. Some scientists believe that the
existence of the aura has something to do with the electromagnetic fields produced by cells and
tissues in the human body. Whether auras are real or not, the fact remains that there are forces
everywhere that are real even though we cannot see them.
Explanation: Organization in this paragraph is not readily noticeable as it does not use cues like
formatting or signal words. However, the text is organized in this way:
• Beginning: Introduce topic of aura
• Middle: Definition and evidence of existence of auras
• End: Ending message about forces in the world By adhering to the structure, the writer
can produce a text that is still easy to follow. The topic, supporting details and concluding
message is still clear to the reader.
Tips: Text organization makes a text easy to read. It prevents the reader from becoming
confused by a jumble of words, sentences, and paragraphs that are in no particular order.
• Organization can be achieved through the physical format, signal words, and structure.

Coherence and cohesion - make your text easier for your readers to follow and understand.
Cohesion is the connection of ideas to the central concept of a text while coherence is the
relationship of ideas between sentences. Both should be present in your text because having one
without the other will still create confusion for readers.
Cohesion without Coherence
A text with cohesion has a central concept or “glue” that holds all the different ideas
together. Although without coherence, there is no apparent logic to the way these ideas are
presented. The writer appears to move on to another related idea without a proper transition from
the previous idea.
Example: Cubism is an avant-garde art movement that started in the early 20th century
in Europe. A famous Filipino cubist painter is Vicente Manansala. He is a National Artist of the
Philippines in Visual Arts. Did you know that visual arts have different forms including
architecture, video, and textile?
Explanation: Every sentence is related to the next sentence in some way. The paragraph
stays on the topic of art, which is the “glue” that holds the text together and allows it to exhibit
cohesion. However, the way it was developed does not make sense. It began with the origins of
Cubism and through the artist Manansala was able to end with a seemingly unprovoked question
about visual art forms.
Coherence without Cohesion
A text with coherence has ideas that are logically sequenced in a way that is easy to follow for
the reader. Although without cohesion, no central concept links all these ideas together. The
main point of the text remains unclear for readers.
Example: My favorite painting is “The Weeping Woman” by Pablo Picasso, which is an
intriguing painting that symbolizes suffering. As a result, I love bright primary colors, so I wear
a lot of shocking yellows, blues, and reds. Also, as an outgoing person, I enjoy performing for
large crowds. In the end, people should not judge an artist’s talent based on one standard.

Explanation: Connecting words in the text suggest a sequence of ideas that the writer
wants to convey. “As a result” implies an effect of the previous statement while “in the end”
indicates the conclusion. However, the writer jumps from one topic to another resulting in a lack
of cohesion. For instance, the writer talks about his or her favorite colors “as a result” of
Picasso’s painting even though they are not connected in any way. It can be inferred that the
choice of favorite colors was inspired by the colors of the painting, but the writer does not make
this clear.
Cohesion and Coherence
A text with both cohesion and coherence has a central concept linking all the ideas in the text,
and these ideas are presented in a logical manner. The main point is clear, and the text is easy to
follow and understand.
Example: International Women’s Day is celebrated on the 8th of March of every year. It
began as a Socialist political event in several Western countries. Then, other countries also
started celebrating the holiday just as a way to express their love for women. Currently, the
United Nations observes the holiday as a way to bring to light women’s issues around the world.
Explanation: The main topic of the text is International Women’s Day, which was stated
in the first sentence. The paragraph proceeds to outline the history of the holiday starting from
some Western countries and its spread to other nations. It ends with the current way that the
whole world celebrates the day. The writer can present different ideas about the holiday in a
logical manner and without veering away from the topic.
Key Points: Remember the following when trying to evaluate if your text has cohesion and
coherence: A text with cohesion but no coherence is difficult to follow. A text with coherence
but no cohesion has no definite point. A text with both cohesion and coherence is logically
sequenced and stays on topic.
Proper Language Use
Proper language use allows you to capture the message that you want to convey to your
readers. It is all about choosing the right words that accurately capture your ideas. However,
writers sometimes encounter problems with the following:
 Words
 Words with Unwanted
 Misused Connotations
 Technical or Highfalutin Words
 Misused Words
 A writer might sometimes use a word incorrectly, and this occurs when the word does not
mean what he or she thinks it does. So, it is important to be certain of the definition of a word
before using it; this often happens with words that sound or look alike.
Example: There are many behaviors that past societies considered legal but are now
deemed amoral including slavery, sexism, and racism.
Explanation: The writer confused the word “amoral” with “immoral.” The former means
neither moral nor immoral (without moral quality) while the latter means not moral. Sometimes,
it is easy to guess the correct meaning of a word just by looking at how it is spelled. The prefix a-
signals that something is without such as in “anarachy” (without a government) or “atypical”
(without typical features). On the other hand, the prefix im- simply means not such as in
“imperfect” (not perfect) or “impossible” (not possible).
Words with Unwanted Connotations
There are words that take on a meaning specific to a context. Some writers might not be
aware of these connotations, so they end up using language that is unintentionally confusing,
comical or even offensive to readers.
Example: The coast guard salvaged Priscilla and her sister after their fishing boat was
damaged in the storm.
Explanation: The word “salvage” means to save usually from the wreckage of a marine
vessel. However, the Philippine media and police often use the term to mean a violent killing,
which is opposite from its traditional English meaning. It comes from the Spanish word “salvaje”
that has a meaning similar to “savage.” Thus, if the writer produced this text for a Filipino
audience, the meaning that he or she intended would be lost. Using the word “saved” or
“rescued” would remedy the issue.
Technical or Highfalutin Words
Writers want to sound smart by using words that are very technical or have deep
meanings. Though some writing genres require the use of such words, writers should still be
careful about using them since they make readers work harder to understand texts.
Example: There is an ongoing discourse about the antidisestablishment assemblage and
the administrative political body.
Explanation: The text is complicated because it is filled with words that are difficult to
understand. If the terms are important to use, then the writer could define what they mean.
Otherwise, the sentence could be rewritten simply this way: There is an ongoing discussion
between the opposition and the government. This sentence still “sounds smart” but it is easier for
most people to understand and it does not change the meaning of the original sentence in any
way.
Tips: When you use words improperly, readers are left confused as to what you are trying
to say. So, always choose words according to their correct definition and connotation. Also, keep
your language simple enough to make your text easier for readers to understand.
Language Use
It is important that you make good choices when it comes to language use because how
you use language affects the tone of the text and the readers’ interpretation of it. Before writing,
you have to think about and consider your target audience. Determine when it is appropriate to
use formal language or when informal language is acceptable. Informal language is usually used
in writing for oneself or in writing to family, friends, and colleagues. On the other hand, formal
language is used in writing academic, business, and official texts.
Examples: We asked the secretary to call the professor and get her permission for us to
continue our research. We requested that the secretary contact the professor and obtain her
permission for us to continue our research.
Explanation: In the first sentence, the writer used casual words such as asked, call, and
get permission, which made the sentence informal. The second sentence used more serious
words such as requested instead of asked, contact instead of call, and obtain permission instead
of get permission. This sentence is formal and is appropriate to use when talking or writing to a
person of authority. When you write, you should also make sure that the language you use is
*direct and simple rather than complicated so that readers would easily understand the
text.* If your readers are the youth, then you should use words that are familiar to young people.
Example: Why Sunglasses Are a Must-Have for Kids (An Excerpt) (NewsUSA) Most
parents know how damaging the effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) can be to our skin, which
is why they dutifully slather sunscreen on their kids during the summer. But one thing that often
gets overlooked is protecting their children’s eyes. According to vision-care experts, kids receive
three times more UV exposure than adults annually, yet less than 30 percent of parents currently
protect their children’s eyes with sunglasses. The reason for concern is that children and
adolescents are particularly vulnerable to the sun’s rays because their ocular lenses are not
mature enough to filter UV light as effectively as adults, causing damage to the retina.
“Everyone buys into what happens to your skin when it comes to sun damage, but many parents
are really surprised to learn about the cumulative UV damage to the eyes,” Dawn Hartman, an
optometrist at Columbus Ophthalmology Associates in Columbus, Ohio, told the Wall Street
Journal in an interview. But the right sunglasses can help, as parents become more aware that
protection from the sun is not just skin deep. Source: (USA, NEWS USA, 2016)
http://www.copyrightfreecontent.com/health/why-sunglasses-are-a-must-have-for-kids/
Explanation: The entire text uses simple words. This lets readers easily understand the
significance of letting kids wear sunglasses. There were a few technical scientific terms that were
necessary to mention in the text, such as ultraviolet radiation, ocular lenses, and retina. However,
the message of the text is still easy to grasp.
You should also be sensitive enough to use unbiased language so that you will not offend
any individual or any particular group of people. Unbiased language is language that is free of
racial bias, free of religious bias, and free of gender bias. Examples: A teacher should make it a
point to motivate her students. Teachers should make it a point to motivate their students.
 Explanation: In the first sentence, the pronoun used is she, but teachers may also be
male, so the statement shows gender bias. The second sentence, on the other hand, makes use of
the gender-neutral pronoun their, making it unbiased.
Mechanics
Mechanics are conventions that have to be considered in writing. Some of these
conventions are spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. It is important to know and observe
these conventions in writing to avoid confusion.
Spelling - When you write, always make sure that you are consistently using one
standard with regard to the spelling of your words. Remember that there are slight differences in
American English spelling and British English spelling.
Punctuation - is the act of using a system of symbols such as the comma, period,
quotation marks, question marks, etc. that are used to give structure to and organize a text. The
use of punctuation guides the reader regarding how the text should be read.
Examples: I love to paint portraits I would paint one every day if I had the time I love to paint
portraits. I would paint one every day if I had the time. This book is dedicated to my parents,
Noel and Corazon. This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel, and Corazon.
Explanation: The first example does not make use of proper punctuation marks, while the
second example presents two sentences that are correctly punctuated. In the third example, the
sentence denotes that the author’s parents are Noel and Corazon. In the fourth example, the use
of the serial comma denotes that the book is dedicated to four persons: the author’s mom, the
author’s dad, Noel, and Corazon. The simple act of adding a comma completely changed the
meaning of the statement.
Capitalization - is the act of writing the first letter of a word in uppercase while the rest
of the letters are in lowercase.

Critical Reading Leads to Significant Understanding: Readers interact with the material
through critical reading. When you practice critical reading, you are not just gathering
information; you are also judging the importance and legitimacy of the information you have
gathered by judging the purpose, manner of presentation, and holistic development of the
arguments presented in the text. To properly evaluate the ideas you have gathered while reading,
you must be able to know the different kinds of information which are explicit information and
implicit information.
Two Kinds of Information:
 Explicit Information is the information that is stated in the text. Readers can see
the piece of information stated in the given passage.
 Implicit information is the information not directly presented in the text. As
readers, we need to read between the lines to understand the details that the writer
is trying to tell us.
 Sometimes, we read because we need to perform a particular task after reading. The
different kinds of information we have gathered through reading may be used as a basis for our
next task. We can sufficiently discuss our opinion depending on the evidence that we have
collected from the texts we have read. Proofs, or claims can be used based on the type of
presentation or argumentation that you wish to do.

Three Kinds of Claims:

Claims of Fact - are pieces of information which are grounded on reliable authority such as
science or history.
Example: The devastation experienced by the Philippines during Typhoon Yolanda
shows the readiness of disaster relief protocols established by the government.
Explanation: This claim can be defended or refuted using events as proof, and the
existence or non-existence of the protocols may be discussed using specific incidences as
evidence.
Claims of Value – are pieces of information that are focused on relative judgment such as
goodness or badness, and these are usually addressed based on standards. Example: Stem cell
research is wrong.
Claims of Policy - are specific statements on procedures or laws that need to be modified based
on certain issues or conditions. Most of the time, claims of policy ask for plans of action to solve
current problems.
Example: Censorship in the Philippines must be strengthened.

Summary
Critical reading is necessary for judging the reliability of the text through the study of
implicit and explicit information. These pieces of information may lead to various claims such as
one rooted in history or science (claims of fact). There are claims that demand action because
the present conditions for certain policies are no longer effective (claims of policy). Also, claims
that assert the morality of an idea based on certain standards or preferences (claims of value).