TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS:

1. MULTIPLE CHOICES
2. STATEMENT ANALYSIS (TRUE OR FALSE)
3. LABELLING OF PARTS
4. ESSAY

LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY

ANATOMICAL POSITION

- Is a standard point of reference commonly used in human anatomy and physiology when
describing certain anatomical terms and positions.
 Standing upright
 Head and eyes directed straight ahead
 Upper limbs at the sides
 Upper limbs slightly away from the trunk
 Palms facing forward
 Thumbs pointing away from the body
 Lower limbs parallel
 Feet flat on the ground and facing forward

DIRECTIONAL TERMS

- These anatomical terms pertain to a location of a body part in comparison to other body parts.

 Superior (Cranial) – towards the head end

 Inferior (Caudal) – away from the head end; towards the lower part of the body
 Anterior (Ventral) – towards or at the front of the body
 Posterior (Dorsal) – toward or at the back of the body
 Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; inner side of
 Lateral – away from the midline of the body; outer side of
 Intermediate – between
 Proximal – closer to the point of origin/attachment
 Distal – farther from the origin/ attachment
 Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface
 Deep (internal) – away from the body surface

REGIONAL TERMS

- These anatomical terms define a specific body landmark or points in the human body.
BODY PLANES

- Are hypothetical geometric planes used to divide the body into sections. They are commonly
used in both human and zoological anatomy to describe the location or direction of bodily
structures.

SAGITTAL PLANE

- Also known as longitudinal plane. It is an anatomical plane that divides the body into right and
left parts.

CORONAL (FRONTAL) PLANE

- Divides the body into dorsal and ventral portions (anterior & posterior, back & front)

TRANSVERSE PLANE

- Also known as an axial plane or cross-section, divides the body into cranial and caudal (head &
tail, up & down) portions.

BODY CAVITIES

- Is a fluid-filled space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs.
DORSAL CAVITY

- Is a fluid-filled space that surrounds the brain and spinal cord and vertebrates. It is usually
considered as two semi-separate spaces, the cranial cavity, and the spinal cavity, housing the
brain and spinal cord, respectively.
- It protects what’s inside by providing cushion from damage and impacts on the environment
and other organisms. The space around the brain and spinal column is filled with fluid, which
acts as a buffer around the structures.
SPINAL BODY CAVITY

- The spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity or spinal canal) is the cavity that contains the spinal cord
within the vertebral column, formed by the vertebrae through which the spinal cord passes.

CRANIAL BODY CAVITY

- The cranial cavity is the anterior portion of the dorsal cavity consisting of the space inside the
skull. This cavity contains the brain, the meninges of the brain, and cerebrospinal fluid.

VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

- The ventral cavity is at the anterior, or front of the trunk. Organs contained within this body
cavity includes lungs, heart, stomach, intestines, and reproductive organs. The ventral cavity
allows for considerable changes in the size and shape of the organs within it as they perform
their functions.

THORACIC BODY CAVITY

- The thoracic body cavity contains organs and tissues that function in the respiratory,
cardiovascular nervous, immune and digestive systems.

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

- The abdominopelvic cavity fills the lower half of the trunk and is subdivided into the abdominal
cavity and the pelvic cavity. The abdominal cavity holds digestive organs and the kidneys, and
the pelvic cavity holds reproductive organs and organs of excretion.

CELLS AND TISSUES

CELL THEORY

 Cell is the basic unit of life

 All organisms are made up one or more cells
 Cells come from pre-existing cells
WHERE DID THE WORD CELL COME FROM?

 1665: Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound
microscope.
 He coined the term cell from latin word cella= small room

CELL DIVERSITY

- The difference in cell shapes and sizes leads to differences in function.

THREE BASIC PARTS OF THE CELL

 Cytoplasm
- Intracellular fluid containing organelles
- Cytosol and organelle
 Nucleus
- DNA containing control center; brain of the cell
 Cell membrane
- Flexible outer boundary

ANATOMY OF GENERALIZED CELL

1. Nucleus
 Largest organelle
 The “control center”
 Contains the genetic information (DNA)
 Has 3 main structures:
1. Nuclear envelope – double membrane barrier; nuclear pores allow substances to pass into
and out of nucleus
2. Nucleoli – dark-staining bodies; involved in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
3. Chromatin – 30% threadlike strands of DNA, 60% histone proteins, 10% RNA; chromosomes
are condensed chromatin

2. Plasma membrane
 Outer covering of the cell
 Acts as an active barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)
 Plays dynamic role in cellular activity by controlling what enters and what leaves the cell

3. Cytoplasm
 Holds organelles together
 Composed of
- Cytosol: gel-like solution made up of water and soluble molecules such as proteins, salts, sugars,
etc.
- Organelles: metabolic machinery structures of the cell

4. Mitochondria
 Power plant of cells because they produce most of cell’s energy molecules (ATP) via aerobic
(oxygen-requiring) cellular respiration
 Enclosed by double membranes; inner membrane has many folds, called cristae and has a fluid
matrix

5. Ribosomes
 Nonmembranous organelles that are site of protein synthesis
 Made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Two switchable forms found in cell:
- Free ribosomes
- Membrane-bound ribosomes

6. Endoplasmic reticulum
 ER is continuous with outer nuclear membrane
 Biosynthetic factory of the cell
 Two varieties:
- Rough ER
- Smooth ER

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum

- It is rough because it is studded with attached ribosomes
- Proteins enter cisterns as they are synthesized and are modified
- Final protein is enclosed in vesicle and sent to golgi apparatus for further processing

 Smooth ER
- Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based hormone synthesis; making lipids for
lipoproteins
- Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
- Detoxification of certain chemicals (drugs, pesticides, etc.)
- Converting of glycogen to free glucose
- Storage and release of calcium

7. Golgi apparatus
 Shipping and receiving center of the cell
 Structure resembles “stacked pancakes”
 Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids received from rough ER

8. Peroxisomes
 Membranous sacs containing powerful detoxifying substances that neutralize toxins
 Two main detoxifiers:
- Oxidase uses oxygen to convert toxins to hydrogen peroxide (H202), which is itself toxic;
however, peroxisomes also contains catalase, which converts H202 to harmless water

9. Lysosomes
 Suicide sac of the cell
 Spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
 Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins and degrade non-functional organelles
 Intracellular release in injured causes cells to digest themselves (autolysis)

10. Cytoskeleton
 Acts as cell’s bones, ligaments, and muscle by playing a role in movement of cell components
  Elaborate network of rods that run throughout cytosol

11. Centrosome and Centrioles

 It is a microtubule organizing center, consisting of a granular matrix and
 Centrioles – a pair of barrel-shaped microtubular organelles that lie at right angles to each other
 Microtubules aid in cell division, and some form cytoskeletal track system

CELLULAR EXTENSION

 Certain cells have structures extending from the cell surface:

- Cilia and Flagella – aid in the movement of the cell or of materials across the surface of the cell
- Microvilli – are finger like that extend from the surface of the to increase surface area; extension
& attachment of cell to a surface (glue)

CELL CYCLE

 Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it is formed until it reproduces
 Two major periods of cell cycle:
- Interphase: cell grows and carries on its usual activities
- Cell division (mitotic phase): cell divides into two

INTERPHASE

 Period from cell formation to cell division, when cell carries out its routine activities and
prepares for cell division
 During interphase, nuclear material is in uncondensed chromatin state
 Interphase consists of subphases, which include the process of DNA replication
- G1 (gap 1): vigorous growth and metabolism
- S (synthetic): DNA replication occurs
- G2 (gap 2): preparation for division
DNA REPLICATION (still under interphase)

 The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.
 Overview of the process:
1. Replication fork formation. Double-stranded DNA helices unwind unzip
2. Primer Binding. RNA starts replication by laying down short strand that acts as a primer
3. Elongation. DNA polymerase attaches to primer and begins adding nucleotides to form new
strands
4. Termination. DNA polymerase attaches to primer and begins adding nucleotides to form
new strands.
M-PHASE

 (Mitotic Phase) Phase in which cell division occurs;

 Consists of 2 distinct events:
1. Mitosis
2. Cytokinesis
 Control of cell division is crucial, so cells divide when necessary, but do not divide unnecessarily

MITOTIC PHASE (CELL DIVISION)

 Mitosis
- Mitosis is the division of nucleus, in which the duplicated DNA is distributed to new daughter
cells
- Four stages of mitosis ensure each cell receives a full copy of replicated DNA
1. Prophase – prepare
2. Metaphase – meet
3. Anaphase – away
4. Telophase - together

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

The organs of the integumentary system include the skin and its accessory structures including hair,
nails, and glands, as well as blood vessels, muscles and nerves

Dermatology is the medical specialty for the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the integumentary
system

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

 The skin (cutaneous membrane) covers and is the largest organ of the body by surface area and
weight
 Its area is about 2 square meters (22 square feet) and weighs 4.5-5kg (10-11 lb), about 16% of
body weight
 It is 1.5 – 4mm thick, thinnest on the eyelids, thickest on the heels; the average thickness is 1 -2
mm
 It consists of two major layers:
- Epidermis: outer, thinner layer, consists of epithelial tissue
- Dermis: inner, thicker layer
 - Hypodermis (subcutaneous (subQ) layer) – beneath the dermis, attaches the skin to the
underlying tissues and organs

EPIDERMIS

 The epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

 It contains four major type of cells:
1. Keratinocytes (90% of the cells) produce keratin which is a tough fibrous protein that
provides protection
2. Melanocytes: which produce the pigment melanin that protects against damage by
ultraviolet radiation
3. Langerhans cells: involved in immune responses, arise from red bone marrow
4. Merkel cells: which function in the sensation of touch along with the adjacent tactile discs

 The epidermis contains 4 major layers (thin skin) or five major layers (thick skin)
1. Stratum basale – (deepest layer) or stratum germinativum, where continuous cell division
occurs which produces all the other layers. Melanocytes are found here.
2. Stratum spinosum – 8-10 layers of keratinocytes. Irregularly shaped cells communicate
through dendritic cells. ex: langgam = kamot
3. Stratum granulosum – includes keratohyalin and lamellar granules. Helps form waterproof
barrier to prevent fluid loss. Monitors amount of water in the body.
4. Stratum lucidum – is present only in thick skin (protects areas that are common to damage
which are the skin of the fingertips, palms, and soles)
5. Stratum corneum – composed of many sublayers of flat, dead keratinocytes called
corneocytes or squames that are continuously shed and replaced by the cells from deeper
strata; constant friction can stimulate the formation of callus
 Keratinization, the accumulation of more and more protective keratin, occurs as cells move
from the deepest layer to the surface layer
 Dandruff – an excess of keratinized cells shed from the scalp

DERMIS

 It is composed of connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers

 Contains two layers
1. Papillary region – outer, consists of areolar connective tissue containing thin collagen and
elastic fibers, dermal papillae (including capillary loops, corpuscles of touch and free nerve
endings. Dermal papillae- intacts/ attachment; provide/nourish
2. Reticular region – deeper, consists of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen
and elastic fibers adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous (oil) glands, and sudoriferous
(sweat) glands
 Srtiae or stretch marks can appear if the skin is stretched too much
  Lines of cleavage – “tension lines” in the skin indicate the predominant direction of underlying
collagen fibers
 Epidermal ridges – reflect contours of the underlying dermal papillae and form the basis for
fingerprints (and footprints); their function is to increase firmness of grip by increasing friction
 Dermatoglyphics – the study of patterns of epidermal ridges

STRUCTURAL BASIS OF SKIN COLOR

 Variations in skin color arise from variations in amount of three pigments: melanin, carotene,
and hemoglobin
 Melanin – a yellow-red or brown-black pigments produces by melanocytes (located mostly in
the epidermis, where it absorbs UV radiation)
- The amount of melanin causes the skin’s color to vary from pale yellow to red tan to black
- The number of melanocytes are about the same in all people; difference in skin color is due to
the amount of pigment produced
- A benign localized overgrowth of melanocytes is a nevus or mole
- Albinism is an inherited inability to produce melanin
- Vitiligo is a condition which there is a partial or complete loss of melanocytes from patches of
skin
 Carotene – yellow-orange pigment (found in the stratum corneum, dermis, and subq layer)
 Hemoglobin – red color (located in erythrocytes flowing through dermal capillaries)

SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER (HYPODERMIS)

 It is not a part of skin but, among its functions, it attaches the skin to the underlying tissues and
organs; this layer (and sometimes dermis) contains lamellates (Pacinian) corpuscles which
detect external pressure applied to the skin

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN

 Include hair, skin glands, and nails

Hairs (pili) have a number of important functions:

- Protection
- Reduction of heat loss
- Sensing light touch
 Hair is composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells
 Hair consists of:
- Shaft which mostly projects above the surface of the skin
 - Root which penetrates into the dermis
- Hair follicle
- Epithelial root sheath (internal)
- Dermal root sheath (external)
 there are different types of hair including:
- Lanugo – thin hair covering babies; can be present with eating disorders (anorexia)
- Vellus hairs – face, arms, stomach (balahibo)
- Terminal hairs – thick (ex: scalp hair, eyelash, pubic hair, eyebrows, armpit hair)
- Sebaceous (oil) glands – are connected to hair follicles

SKIN GLANDS

 Sebaceous glands – secretes an oily substance called sebum which prevents dehydration of hair
and skin, and inhibits growth of certain bacteria
 Sudoriferous (sweat) glands – 2 types:
- Eccrine or merocrine sweat glands - Helps to cool the body be evaporating, and also eliminates
small amounts of wastes
- Apocrine sweat glands: located mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae, and bearded facial
regions of adult males.
-their excretory ducts open into hair follicles- this sweat is secreted during emotional stress and
sexual excitement
 Ceruminous glands
- Modified sweat glands located in the ear canal
- Along with nearby sebaceous glands, they are involved in producing waxy secretion call
cerumen(earwax) which provides a sticky barrier that prevents entry of foreign bodies into the
ear cannal

NAILS

 Nails are composed of hard, keratinized epidermal cells, located over the dorsal surfaces of the
ends of fingers and toes
 Each nail consists of:
- Free edge: French tip
- Nail body (plate): transparent; with a whitish lanula (half moon) at its base
- Nail root: embedded in a fold of skin
- Cuticle

TYPES OF SKIN

- There are 2 major types of skin:

  Thin (hairy) skin – covers all body regions except palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and soles
 Thick (hairy) skin – covers palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and soles

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

 Regulation of body temperature

 Blood reservoir
 Protection
 Cutaneous sensation
 Excretion and absorption
 Synthesis of vitamin

AGING AND THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Effects:

 Wrinkling
 Decrease of skin’s immune responsiveness
 Dehydration and cracking of the screen
 Decreased sweat production
 Decreased numbers of functional melanocytes resulting in gray hair and atypicak skin
pigmentation
 Loss of subcutaneous fat
 A general decrease in skin thickness
 An increased susceptibility to pathological conditions
 Growth of hair and nails decreases; nails may also become more brittle with age

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM (+GENERAL ANATOMY FOR LABELLING)

SKELETAL SYSTEM

 The skeletal system is your body’s central framework. It consists of bones and connective tissue,
including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called the musculoskeletal system.
 Two components of the skeleton:
- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton

FUNCTIONS OF THE BONES

 Allow movement
 Blood cell formation
 Protection
  Support
 Storage

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

Two Types of Osseus (Bone) Tissue:

- Compact bone
- Trabecular bone (spongy)

LONG BONE

 Typically longer than they are wide

 They have a shaft with enlarged ends
 Mostly compact bones but also contain spongy bones at the end

Ex: humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpal, metatarsal, femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges

FLAT BONE

 Thin, flattened, and usually curved

 Have two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them

Ex: cranial bones, sternum, scapulae, ribs

SHORT BONE

 Cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone

Ex: carpals, tarsals

IRREGULAR BONE

 Irregularly shaped
 Mainly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact bone

Ex: vertebrae, sacrum

STRUCTURE OF BONE

Gross anatomy

 Diaphysis or shaft – makes up most of the bone’s length and is composed of compact bone
  Periosteum – fibrous connective tissue membrane that covers and protects the diaphysis
 Sharpey’s fibers – connective tissue fibers which secure the periosteum to the underlying bone
 Epiphysis – ends of long bones which consists of a thin layer of compact bone enclosing an area
filled with spongy bone
 Articular Cartilage – glassy hyaline cartilage that covers the external surface of epiphysis, and
decreases friction at the joint when covered by lubricating fluid
 Epiphyseal line – thin line of bony tissue spanning the epiphysis
 Epiphyseal plate – a flat plate of hyaline cartilage that cause the lengthwise growth of a long
bone
 Endosteum – connective tissue that covers inner bony surface of the shaft
 Medullary cavity – cavity of the shaft, in infants, wherein red marrow is stored
 Bone markings – reveal where muscles, tendon, and ligaments attach and where blood vessels
and nerve pass
- Projections/processes – grow out from the bone surface. Protruding.
- Depressions/cavities – indentation in the bone

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY

 Trabeculae - small needle-like pieces of bone inside the spongy bone

 Lacunae – tiny cavities where mature bone cells (osteocytes) are found
 Lamellae – concentric circles where lacunae are arranged around Central (haversian) canals
 Osteon (Haversian System) – structural and functional unit of compact bone
 Canaliculi – form a transportation system that connects all the bone cells to the nutrient supply
and waste removal services through the hard bone matrix
 Volkman’s canals – completes the communication pathway from the outside of the bone to its
interior (and the central canal), which run in the compact bone at right angles to the shaft
(diaphysis) and central canals
 Calcium salts – are deposited in the matrix and give bone its hardness, which resists
compression
 Collagen Fibers – provide for bone’s flexibility and great tensile strength (ability to be stretched
without breaking)
AXIAL SKELETON

Skull

 Formed by two sets of bones:

- Cranium: encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue
- Facial bones – form a cradle for the eyes that is open to the anterior and allow the facial muscles
to show our feelings through smiles or frowns

Frontal Bone

 The frontal bone forms the forehead, the bony projections under eyebrows, and the superior
part of each eye’s orbit.

Parietal Bone

 The paired parietal bones form most of the superior and lateral walls of the cranium. The
sagittal suture is formed at the midline where the two parietal bones meet, and the coronal
suture is formed where the paired parietal bones meet the frontal bone.

Temporal Bone

 The temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones and join them at squamous sutures.

Occipital Bone

 The occipital bone is the most posterior bone of the cranium. It forms the base and back wall of
the skull.
Sphenoid Bone

 The butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of the skull and forms part of the floor of
the cranial cavity. In the midline of the sphenoid is a small depression, the sella turcica, or Turk’s
saddle, which forms a snug enclosure for the pituitary gland. The foramen ovale, a large oval
opening in line with the posterior end of the sella turcica, allows fibers of cranial nerve V (the
trigeminal nerve) to pass to the chewing muscles of the lower jaw (mandible)
 Parts of the sphenoid bone, seen exteriorly forming part of the eye orbits, have two important
openings, the optic canal, which allows the optic nerve to pass to the eye, and the slit-like
superior orbital fissure, through which the cranial nerves control the eye movement (III, IV, VI)
pass. The central part of the sphenoid bone is riddled with air cavities, the sphenoidal sinuses.

Ethmoid Bone

 The ethmoid bone is very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to sphenoid. It forms the roof of
nasal cavity and part of the medial walls of the orbits. Projecting from its superior surface is the
crista galli, literally “cock’s comb”. The outermost covering of the brain attaches to this
projection.
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM (+GENERAL ANATOMY FOR LABELLING)

SKELETAL, SMOOTH, CARDIAC

- Made up of muscle fibers

- All can shorten and contract

Skeletal & Smooth – elongated

SKELETAL MUSCLE

- Cigar shaped
- Striated
- Multinucleic cells that cover bones and cartilage framework
- Voluntary – can control
 Endomysium encloses muscle fiber
 Perimysium – groups muscle fibers (fascicle)
  Fascicle – bundle of muscle fibers
 Epimysium – covers whole muscle
 Tendon – connects muscle to bones
 Aponeurosis – muscle and connective tissue that allows the body to move and be flexible

SMOOTH MUSCLE

- Involuntary, non-striated, arranged in layers circularly

- Has the ability to contract and relax that causes change in size and shape of organs

CARDIAC MUSCLE

- Cardiac, striated, involuntary

- Cushioned by small amounts of endomysium
- Contract depending on the rate of the heart’s pacemaker

MUSCLE FUNCTIONS

- Produce movement
- Protects bones and internal organs
- Generate heat/maintains body temperature
- Stores fat and minerals
- Maintains body posture and body portion
- Communication – transfer minerals and substances
- Stabilizes joints

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (FOR LABELLING, STUDY STRUCTURE OF NEURON & ANATOMY OF BRAIN)

Neurons
SPECIAL SENSES

Rods - responsible for vision in low light and peripheral vision

Cones – color vision under bright light conditions

RETINA – Outer layer, absorbs light and prevent it from scattering inside the eye; acts a phagocytes to
remove dead/damaged receptor cells

BIPOLAR AND GANGLION CELLS – two-neuron chain where electrical signals pass from the
photoreceptors before leaving the retina via optic nerve and being transmitted to, and interpreted by
the optic cortex

OPTIC DISC – where optic nerve leaves the eyeball and has no photoreceptors; blind spot in our vision

FOVEA CENTRALIS – tiny pit that contains only cones; area of greatest visual acuity where anything we
wish to view critically is focused
 Auricle/pinna – “ear”; shell shaped structure surrounding the auditory canal opening
 External acoustic meatus/ auditory canal – short, narrow chamber carved into temporal bone of
the skull. Ends at the eardrum which separates the external from the middle ear
 Ceruminous glands – line the auditory canal; (tutuli) secrete waxy yellow cerumen, or earwax,
which provides sticky trap for foreign bodies and reflect insects
 Tympanic cavity – small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within temporal lobe,
 Pharyngotympanic/ auditory tube – normally flattened and closed, swallowing and yawning can
briefly open it
 Ossicles – transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear
 Cochlea – hollow, spiral shaped bone that transforms vibrations of the cochlear liquids and
associated structures into a neural signal; houses organ of corti (organ of hearing)
 Vestibule – sensory apparatus that helps the body maintain its postural equilibrium; organ of
balance
 Semicircular canals – 3 tiny, fluid-filled tubes that maintains balance
 Perilymph – plasma-like fluid that fills the bony labyrinth; suspends a membranous labyrinth
which contains a thicker fluid called endolymph