CO2- STRUCTURAL POLYMERS

Structural Polymers- Structural Plastics and Composites- Polymer Membranes - Coatings -

Adhesives, Non-Weathering Materials - Flooring and Facade Materials - Glazed Brick -
Photo Catalytic Cement - Acid Etched Copper and Composite Fibres (frp)
Structural Plastics and Composites
Polymer based material are finding an important role in building construction wherein they
have proved viable substitutes for wood metal and concrete. With the advent of new
developments, polymer product technologies are becoming reliable and their innovative
product design concepts are increasingly meeting the present and future challenges of
housing needs.
Composites bars & prestressed tendons, retrofitting laminates, plastics wood, shuttering and
formworks, crack bridging sealants, weather resistance coatings etc. are some of the recent
materials that push their applications in the civil infra-structural development.
Unlike the conventional materials, plastics and composites are relatively new and there
is a need to pursue intensive research and development to generate useful information to help
infuse confidence in the minds of the uses.
 Plastics building products
 Timber substitutes
 Polymers in construction
 Polymer composites based on natural / synthetic fibers
 Polymer modified bitumen• Water proofing compounds
 Sealants and adhesives
 Recycling and reuse of plastics waste
 Weathering of plastics/composites

MATERIALS / PRODUCTS DEVELOPED

 Composite door shutters
 WPC based profiles and frames
 Bituminous based waterproofing & sealing compounds
 Natural fibre based laminates / panels / sheets
 Pine needle composites boards
 Geo-polymer based bricks
 Processed fly ash
 Hydrated flexible waterproofing membrane/ coating
 Bitumen foam
 Hybrid polymer network core for sandwich composites

Products Evaluation Facilities

Routine & Instrumental testing and analysis of:
 Plastic tanks and pipes
 Doors and windows
 Prefabricated panels and shuttering plates
 Natural fibre composite products
 Waterproofing and sealing compounds
 Polymer latexes / fibres
 Polymer modified bitumen
 Timber and timber substitutes
Polymeric membranes

PVC membrane for the device of waterproofing of building structures and

engineering structures. PVC membrane with a textured surface for two-
layer waterproofing systems. PVC membrane reinforced with fiberglass,
with a fleece backing of laminated geotextile.

A polymeric membrane is defined as a thin, semipermeable barrier between two gaseous
phases.

Polymeric membranes have been widely used for water purification (such as desalination and
wastewater treatment), but the trade-off issue between water permeance and selectivity.The
materials used for such membranes are classified into (1) cellulosic material and (2) synthetic
polymers.The thickness of the layer in the commercial polymeric (gas separation) membranes
varies usually from 0.1 to 0.5 um.

Polymeric membranes lead the membrane separation industry market because they are very competitive in
performance and economics.
The most common polymers in membrane synthesis are cellulose acetate,
 Nitrocellulose, and cellulose esters (CA, CN, and CE), 
polysulfone (PS), polyether sulfone(PES),
 polyacrilonitrile (PAN),
 polyamide, polyimide,
  polyethylene and polypropylene 
(PE and PP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),
 polyvinylchloride (PVC).

Adhesives

Ahesive a substance used for sticking objects together, such as glue, cement, or paste.

Uses of adhesives

The adhesives and sealants are mainly used to bond the following substrates: metals, plastics
(thermosets and thermoplastics), composites, foams, elastomers, wood and wood products,
glass and ceramics and sandwich and honeycomb structures

Common adhesive- Polyvinyl Acetate Adhesive

Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is a widely-used thermoplastic (heat-sensitive) adhesive, also known

as white glue, school glue, craft glue, or wood glue. Sticking wood is the primary use of PVA
glue, which is available in liquid form and applicator pens and sticks.

Few examples of available chemical compositions.

Epoxy adhesives. Epoxies are a type of structural adhesive. ...

Polyurethane adhesives. Polyurethanes are polymer-based adhesives used for constructions
requiring high strength bonding and permanent elasticity. ...
Polyimide adhesives. ...
Paste. ...
Liquid. ...
Film. ...
Pellets. ...
Hot melt.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESIVES
Adhesives are classified by different classification systems: 
General classification of adhesives (classification by structure)
Classification of adhesives by curing method 
Classification of adhesives by origin
‘
Thermosetting adhesives - Thermosets molecules are cross-linked by strong covalent
intermolecular bonds, forming one giant molecule. Cross-linking is irreversible therefore
thermosets can not be reprocessed (re-melt). Crosslinking is achieved in curing process initiated
by heat, chemical agents, radiation or evaporation of Solvents. Curing results in sharp increase of
strength, elasticity and stability of thermosets. Most of thermosetting adhesives are based on
epoxies, polyesters, polyimides and phenolics.

Thermoplastic adhesives- Thermoplastics are Polymers, which soften (become pliable and
plastic) and melt when heated. No new cross-links form (no chemical curing) when a
thermoplastic cools and harden. Thermoplastics may be reprocessed many times by heating or
applying a solvent. Molecules of most of thermoplastics combine long polymer chains alternating
with monomer units. Polyamides, cyanoacrylates, polyacrylates, polyvinyl acetate (PVA) are
typical thermoplastic adhesives. 
Elastomeric adhesives -Elastomers are polymers possessing high elasticity - may be reversibly
stretched at high degree. Elastomers consists of long lightly cross-linked molecules. Elastomers
are set (strengthened) by thermal curing or solvent evaporation. Curing results in increase of
cross-linking of the molecules. Typical elastomeric adhesives are based on natural rubbers,
silicones, acrylonitride butadiene (nitrile), neoprene, Butyl, polyurethane, styrene-butadiene.

Classification of adhesives by curing method :

Heat activated curing adhesives. Adhesives of this type (epoxies, urethanes, polyimides)
consist of a ready mixture of two components. 

Light/UV activated curing adhesives (acrylics, cyanoacrylates, urethanes).

Light activated adhesives are cured under a visible or UV light of appropriate wave length.
Adhesives of this type usually contain photoinitiators enhancing curing reaction. 

Moisture activated curing adhesives.

(RTV silicones, cyanoacrylates, urethanes). These adhesives are cured when react with a
moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. 

Anaerobics - acrylic-based adhesives cured between metallic substrates, surfaces of which are
deprived of oxygen.

Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSA). Adhesives of this type do not cure. Adhesive bonding
forms as a result of a pressure applied to the substrates. The adhesion strength is determined by
the pressure applied to the substrates. Typical example of pressure sensitive adhesive is selfstick
tape. Two-part adhesives (epoxies, urethane, acrylics, silicones). A two-part adhesive is cured
when its two (or more) components are mixed. The components react chemically forming cross-
links of the polymer molecules.
Classification of adhesives by origin -
Synthetic adhesives. Typical synthetic adhesives are epoxies, polyurethanes, cyanoacrylates,
polyimides, silicones, acrylics, polyamides, cyanoacrylates, polyacrylates, polyvinyl acetate
(PVA), nitrile, neoprene.

Natural adhesives (glues)
Animal glue. Animal glue is prepared by boiling animal bones and connective tissues
containing protein. 
Casein. Casein is made of skimmed milk. The main component of casein is protein contained in
cow milk.
Fish glue. Fish glue is made of fish skin containing protein (collagen).  Vegetable-based glues
(tapioca paste, soybean glue, starch glue) - aqueous dextrine-based glues.
Natural rubber (latex) glue. Natural rubber glues are prepared from water-based latex emulsion
of plant origin.
Flooring and Facade Materials

Types of Flooring Materials and Applications in Building Construction

Cement or lime concrete.

-Concrete is most commonly used flooring material. It is suitable for any type of construction and is
cheaper than others and durable. Cement Concrete mix of 1:3:6 to 1:5:10 or lime concrete with 40% 1:2
lime sand mortar and 60% coarse aggregate is used as base course. After hardening, 1:2:4 cement concrete
mix with 40 mm thick layer is laid as topping. In industrial buildings, granolithic finish is provided to
obtain hard wearing surface. Granolithic finish can be obtained from rich concrete with tough quality
coarse aggregate mix.
Bricks can also be used for flooring purposes, but they are not suitable floor materials for residential or
public buildings. Brick floorings are generally used in unimportant rooms, godowns, etc. For this well
burnt bricks are preferable and bricks should be in uniform size and have same color.

Flagstones Flooring Material in Buildings

Flagstone is a type of sedimentary rock which is obtained by splitting along bed planes. It consists silica,
calcite and iron oxide. Flag stone is used to manufacture tiles of different sizes in different shapes.

Marble Flooring Material in Buildings

Marble is a type of metamorphic rock and is used widely for floorings in commercial buildings, kitchens,
bathrooms etc. they are stain proof and easily cleanable. Hence, they are used where extra cleanliness is
required especially in bathrooms. They are also available in different colors and designs. Ceramic.

Glass Flooring Material in Buildings

Glass is used as flooring material for special conditions like to transmit light from upper floor to lower
floor etc. They are available in tiles which are fixed in closely spaced frames. Even though it is very
costly it provides beautiful appearance.

Ceramic Flooring Material in Buildings

Ceramic tiles are famous floor covering materials. Ceramic is inorganic material and it possess
properties like good compressive resistance, brittleness and hardness etc.

Plastic Flooring Material in Buildings

Plastic tiles or poly vinyl chloride (PVC) tiles are widely used nowadays which are laid on concrete
base. These tiles are available in different shapes, sizes and colors. Plastic tiles are of slippery nature
and can get easily.

Mud and Murram Flooring

Mud is nothing but moist earth which is being used as flooring material in since olden days. It has
good thermal insulation property. Chopped straw is added to mud to prevent it from the cracking.
Sometimes cow dung is also used in this mixture.

Murram is also direct nature product which is obtained from the disintegration of rock. It also has
similar properties like mud. It is also be used as flooring material like mud.

Wood Flooring Material

Wood or timber is one of the most common method of flooring. It is preferred when the timber is
cheaply available, such as in hilly areas. Timber blocks or timber bards are provided as flooring
covers. Wooden floors are most suitable for dance floors, auditoriums etc. Damp proof course below
the flooring is necessary for wooden floors.
Cork Flooring
Cork is obtained from the cork oak tree. It is used as flooring material in the form of carpets. These
carpets are noiseless and are required mainly in libraries, theaters etc. Cork tiles are also available
which are made from high graded cork bar using compression in moldings.

Linoleum Flooring
Linoleum is the product obtained by oxidizing linseed oil in gum, resins, pigments, cork dust etc. It is
available in sheets which is generally used as covering for concrete or wooden flooring. The sheets
may be plain or design printed.

Asphalt Flooring Material

Asphalt is highly viscous liquid form of petroleum. Asphalt is used as flooring material in different
ways. If asphalt and sand are mixed in 1:2 proportion then it is called asphalt mastic which is poured
on concrete base as flooring cover. If sand is replaced by marble chips then it is called as asphalt
mosaic. Asphalt tiles are also available which are prepared from the asphalt fibers, inert materials and
mineral pigments.

Rubber Flooring Material

Rubber tiles or sheets are also available in market for flooring purposes. They are made from pure
rubber which is mixed with cotton fibers, asbestos fiber. Suitable adhesives are used to fix the rubber
tiles with concrete or wooden base. Rubber flooring is noiseless and provided in libraries, offices etc.

Factors Affecting Selection of Flooring Material

The selection of flooring material is done based on the following factors:

 Initial cost
 Durability
 Hardness
 Smoothness
 Cleanliness
 Appearance
 Sound insulation
 Thermal insulation
 Damp proof
 Fire resistance

Facade Materials

Different types of facades for building structures.

 Steel facade.
 Panel frame facade.
 Clay facade.
 Steel and glass facade.
 Double-skin facade.
 Solar shading facade.
 Glazing facade.
 Insulated wall facade.

What materials are used to build a facade?

Metals like steel or aluminium ACP panels. Stone. Glass. Brick.

Which material is mostly preferred for facade work?

Brickwork is often the preferred external facade material, but modern construction using light
steel walling (called infill walling) has effectively replaced traditional brickwork.

What metal is used in facades?

Aluminum 's light weight is what makes it useful. For structural elements like in curtain walls
and building facades, it is required that the material carries the weight of glazing and
withstand the force of the wind. When it comes to skyscrapers with glass panels, architects
prefer aluminum, the light solution.

Glazed brick

What is a glazed brick?

Glazed Brick are extruded clay, ceramic glazed masonry units for wall applications, structural
walls, partition walls, multi-wythe walls or veneers.

What are the benefits of glazed bricks?

Glazed bricks can be easily cleaned with detergent and water. These bricks are suited to
withstand almost any weather conditions, from below-freezing temperatures to exceptionally
hot climates. They require very little, if any, maintenance. Glazed bricks are resistant to
staining and graffiti.

What is the process of brick glazing?

There are two basic variations of glazing; single-fired and double-fired. Single-fired glazes
are sprayed on brick before or after drying and then kiln-fired at the normal firing
temperatures of the brick. Double-fired glazes are used to obtain colors that cannot be
produced at higher temperatures.

Features of Glazed Bricks-Glazed bricks are fired twice during their production
in kilns. Initially, they are fired as a part of the making process and secondly for fusing the ceramic

coating with the brick’s surface.

1. The ceramic finish provided for bricks are available in many standard and custom colors. 

2. The surface of glazed brick forms an impervious layer that is highly tolerant against impact
and abrasion.

3. They are resilient to staining and graffiti, water, and frost damage, ensuring to retain their
integrity for generations.

4. The code ASTM C 126-99: Standard Specification for Ceramic Glazed Structural Clay
Facing Tile, Facing Brick, and Solid Masonry Units gives the details of ceramic glazed

bricks used for walls.

5. The ceramic glaze is fused to the body of the brick at a temperature above 1500 oF, making
them an inseparable layer.

1. The properties of ceramic glaze used for the manufacturing. The major properties of glaze
material covered in the code are imperviousness, opacity, resistance to fading, resistance to

crazing, flame spread, fuel contribution and smoke density, toxic fumes, hardness, and

abrasion resistance. 

2. Glazed masonry units can be used for load-bearing and non-loadbearing wall applications.
 3. The ceramic glazed bricks are heavy due to the extra coat and are able to withstand most
harsh weather conditions. It has been used repeatedly in regions with below-freezing

temperatures and even in warmer regions.

4. The weights of glazed bricks vary based on the raw material, size, manufacturing process,
and amount of corning. The average weight of glazed brick that meets the requirements of

ASTM C 1405 is given in Table-2 below:

Considerations in Glazed Brick Masonry Construction

The durability of glazed brick is dependent on effective water management. As per

Brick Industry Association (BIA), glazed bricks must not be used in areas that are likely
to get saturated. When used in water-saturated areas, a drainage system that allows the
water entering the wall system to

penetrate, but the mortar joints, when prone to frequent water and moisture, have
chances to deteriorate. Therefore, along with the construction of the exterior glazed
brick wall, a vented drainage type wall system must be installed to properly collect
water coming inside the wall cross-section.

Glazed bricks are heavier compared to standard bricks. Hence, the foundation design
must consider this extra weight of glazed bricks.

Advantages of Glazed Bricks

 1. Glazed bricks are highly versatile. They are available in various shapes, sizes, colors, and
finishes.

2. Glazed bricks can be cleaned using simple soap water. Hence, it demands minimal
maintenance.

3. As glazed bricks are made out of burned clay and with fused ceramic, they possess high
resistance to fire.

4. The ceramic layer on bricks enhances the brick resilience and endurance. Hence, they are
highly durable.

5. Glazed bricks can be colored or shaded to match with the aesthetics of the surrounding
area. 

However, the production of glazed bricks demands a high temperature and requires two-
time firing. This consumes a lot of energy. In addition to this, the glaze material used for
the fusing is very costly, making glazed bricks an expensive product. 

What are glazed bricks?

Glazed bricks are extruded clay masonry units with ceramic coating fused on their
exterior surface.

What are the disadvantages of glazed bricks?

The main disadvantages of glazed bricks are
1. The manufacturing of glazed brick consumes a lot of energy.
2. The glazing applied to bricks is expensive.
3. Glazed bricks are expensive compared to normal bricks.
Acid etch copper

Acid etch copper-Etching is defined as the process of cutting a hard surface, such as metal,
using a specially formulated acid for etching (etchant) in order to create a design on the
metal.

Ferric chloride
Ferric chloride is mixed with water in a 1:1 ratio, forming a hydrochloric acid solution.
Hydrochloric acid is the most commonly used acid for copper etching. A solution of ferric
chloride crystals has long been known to etchers as a highly controllable etchant with the
most accurate bite for copper plates.

Copper Etching is the process of manufacturing complex metal components from copper or
copper alloys using a chemical etching process. Corrosive chemicals are used to dissolve the
metal until only the desired shape is left

Composites as High Performance

Building Solutions
What Is Green Construction?
In both new construction projects and renovation work, design professionals are
continuing to discover the advantages of green building solutions: plastic
composite building products, including durability, light weight, corrosion
resistance, high strength, and low maintenance requirements. These plastic
materials obtain much of their versatility because they can be engineered to
provide specific performance characteristics. Technically known as fiber-
reinforced plastics or fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP), plastic composites
generally comprise two components: a reinforcement fiber and a polymer binder
(often called a matrix).

The size, shape, proportional weight/volume, and material of the reinforcing fibers
typically determine the plastic composite’s mechanical properties, such as stiffness
and strength. The type and proportion of the plastic resin matrix, on the other hand,
lends the finished plastic composite its physical characteristics, including
resistance to impact.
In each case, the plastic composite is designed to provide a combination of
properties that are intended to be superior to the individual ingredient. Fillers or
additives such as epoxies and silicones can also be used to lend the final plastic
composite attributes such as resistance to ultraviolet (UV) rays or fire resistance.
Advances in plastic composite formulations and manufacturing technology offer
exciting opportunities to custom-design highperformance properties into a wide
variety of commercial and residential building applications, not only for new
designs, but also renovation projects.

Designers of plastic composites can choose from a wide variety of plastic resin
systems and fiber reinforcements when making a specific product. Resins, also
known as binders, are typically thermoset plastics (e.g. polyester, vinyl ester,
modified acrylic, epoxy, phenolic, urethane) that serve as the glue holding the
reinforcing fibers together in an orderly fashion. These fibers, which are embedded
in the plastic resin matrix, are structured to overlap and help transfer the load
within the plastic composite structure. Usually manufactured using a plastic
molding process, the combination of fibers and resin matrix cures into a solid
laminate.
The plastic composite’s structural properties depend primarily on the type of fibers
used. While glass fibers are the main ingredients for many plastic composites,
certain physical characteristics can be harnessed through the use of carbon, aramid,
or boron fibers. These materials impart stiffness and strength to the finished plastic
composite and can control, to varying degrees, the end product’s weight. A wide
range of properties and performance levels can be achieved to match the
requirements for a specific application.

Natural fibers
Agricultural and wood fibers have also generated interest in the last decade,
especially in the housing sector. Although polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
and polypropylene are the dominant polymers used with natural-fiber composites,
natural fibers can also be used with phenolics, polyester,
polystyrene, polyurethane, and other polymer matrixes.
Many plastic composite building products are now produced by embedding natural
fibers derived from the bast (i.e. outer stem) of certain plants—wheat-straw fiber,
flax, jute, kenaf, sisal, hemp, and coconut—in a polyester or polypropylene matrix.
The moderate mechanical properties of natural fibers typically prevent them from
being used in high-performance applications, but their low specific weight results
 in relatively high specific strength and stiffness, and is generally a benefit for parts
designed for bending stiffness.

Another natural fiber, wood, is used primarily in composite versions of building

products such as decking, window and door profiles, decorative trim, railings, and
panel products. These plastic composite building products can contain anywhere
from 30 to 70 percent wood, depending on the application, with about 50 percent
being typical. Regardless of the proportion, the fibers used in these plastic
composites most often take the form of a particulate (e.g. wood flour), rather than
the longer individual fibers commonly used with inorganic-fiber composites.
Commonly used species include pine, maple, and oak.

The polymer matrix or plastic resin used in wood-fiber composites can consist of:

 polyethylene (common in external building components and being investigated for

building profiles);

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (historically used in window manufacture and now also
being used in decking);

 polypropylene (PP);

 polystyrene; and/or

 acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS).
Some plastic products manufacturers use other thermoset plastic resins to produce
specialty plastic composites with high wood content.

As with inorganic-fiber composites, small amounts of other materials can be added

to wood-plastic composites (WPCs) to improve processing and performance.
Additives may include coupling agents, light stabilizers, pigments, lubricants,
fungicides, and foaming agents.

Wood-plastic composites are commonly used when it comes time to replace

exterior decking and moldings, doorjambs, fencing, and other applications where
durability is an important performance attribute when properly manufactured and
installed, wood plastic composite (WPC) lumber rarely rots, cracks, warps, or
splinters in most normal U.S. climatic conditions. (As with all building products,
the specifier should consult the manufacturer’s documentation.)
Typically stain-resistant, waterproof, ultraviolet (UV) light-resistant, and
impervious to insects, wood plastic composites can be made strong enough for
applications such as load-bearing deck boards. They also tend to have good
dimensional stability and a lower coefficient of expansion than solid plastics.
Wood fiber, wood flour, and rice hulls are common organic fillers used in these
applications.

Co-extruded wood composite railings— typically comprising a core of polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) or ABS resin and wood fiber capped by a weatherable polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) or acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate (ASA) protective layer—are
increasingly being offered as an additional measure of customization for
contractors and DIYrenovators. Along with a variety of color offerings to
complement wood plastic composite decks, these capped composite railings offer
water, stain, fade, and UV resistance.