UNIT-1 APPROACH TO PROMOTING THE ACCURACY, VALIDITY, AND TIMELINESS OF THE DATA. WHILE THE DBMS 4.

OACH TO PROMOTING THE ACCURACY, VALIDITY, AND TIMELINESS OF THE DATA. WHILE THE DBMS 4. FREQUENT UPGRADE/REPLACEMENT CYCLES:
DATA DOES NOT GUARANTEE DATA QUALITY, IT PROVIDES A FRAMEWORK TO FACILITATE DATA QUALITY DBMS VENDORS FREQUENTLY UPGRADE THEIR PRODUCTS BY ADDING NEW FUNCTIONALITY. SUCH NEW
DATA IS A COLLECTION OF FACTS, FIGURES AND STATISTICS RELATED TO AN OBJECT. FOR EXAMPLE: INITIATIVES. FEATURES OFTEN COME BUNDLED IN NEW UPGRADE VERSIONS OF THE SOFTWARE. SOME OF THESE
STUDENTS FILL AN ADMISSION FORM WHEN THEY GET ADMISSION IN COLLEGE. THE FORM CONSISTS OF 7. INCREASED END-USER PRODUCTIVITY: VERSIONS REQUIRE HARDWARE UPGRADES. NOT ONLY DO THE UPGRADES THEMSELVES COST MONEY,
RAW FACTS ABOUT THE STUDENTS. THESE RAW FACTS ARE STUDENT'S NAME, FATHER NAME, ADDRESS THE AVAILABILITY OF DATA, COMBINED WITH THE TOOLS THAT TRANSFORM DATA INTO USABLE BUT IT ALSO COSTS MONEY TO TRAIN DATABASE USERS AND ADMINISTRATORS TO PROPERLY USE AND
ETC. THE PURPOSE OF COLLECTING THIS DATA IS TO MAINTAIN THE RECORDS OF THE STUDENTS DURING INFORMATION, EMPOWERS END USERS TO MAKE QUICK, INFORMED DECISIONS THAT CAN MAKE THE MANAGE THE NEW FEATURES.
THEIR STUDY PERIOD IN THE COLLEGE. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY. 5. APPOINTING TECHNICAL STAFF:
INFORMATION 8. CONTROLLING DATA REDUNDANCY: THE TRAINED TECHNICAL PERSONS SUCH AS DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR AND APPLICATION
PROCESSED DATA IS CALLED INFORMATION. OR THE MANIPULATED AND PROCESSED FORM OF DATA IS IN NON-DATABASE SYSTEMS (TRADITIONAL COMPUTER FILE PROCESSING), EACH APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS ETC ARE REQUIRED TO HANDLE THE DBMS. YOU HAVE TO PAY HANDSOME SALARIES TO
CALLED INFORMATION. FOR EXAMPLE: DATA COLLECTED FROM CENSUS IS USED TO GENERATE DIFFERENT PROGRAM HAS ITS OWN FILES. IN THIS CASE, THE DUPLICATED COPIES OF THE SAME DATA ARE CREATED THESE PERSONS. THEREFORE, THE SYSTEM COST INCREASES.
TYPE OF INFORMATION. THE GOVERNMENT CAN USE IT TO DETERMINE THE LITERACY RATE IN THE AT MANY PLACES. IN DBMS, ALL THE DATA OF AN ORGANIZATION IS INTEGRATED INTO A SINGLE SCHEMA
COUNTRY. GOVERNMENT CAN USE THE INFORMATION IN IMPORTANT DECISION TO IMPROVE LITERACY DATABASE. THE DATA IS RECORDED AT ONLY ONE PLACE IN THE DATABASE AND IT IS NOT DUPLICATED. A SCHEMA IS A COLLECTION OF NAMED OBJECTS. SCHEMAS ARE GENERALLY STORED IN A DATA
RATE. FOR EXAMPLE, THE DEAN'S FACULTY FILE AND THE FACULTY PAYROLL FILE CONTAIN SEVERAL ITEMS THAT DICTIONARY. ALTHOUGH A SCHEMA IS DEFINED IN TEXT DATABASE LANGUAGE, THE TERM IS OFTEN USED
ADVANTAGES OF THE DBMS: ARE IDENTICAL. WHEN THEY ARE CONVERTED INTO DATABASE, THE DATA IS INTEGRATED INTO A SINGLE TO REFER TO A GRAPHICAL DEPICTION OF THE DATABASE STRUCTURE. IN RELATIONAL DATABASE
DATABASE SO THAT MULTIPLE COPIES OF THE SAME DATA ARE REDUCED TO-SINGLE COPY. IN DBMS, THE TECHNOLOGY, SCHEMAS PROVIDE A LOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF OBJECTS IN THE DATABASE. SOME OF
1. IMPROVED DATA SHARING:
DATA REDUNDANCY CAN BE CONTROLLED OR REDUCED BUT IS NOT REMOVED COMPLETELY. SOMETIMES, THE OBJECTS THAT A SCHEMA MAY CONTAIN INCLUDE TABLES, VIEWS, ALIASES, INDEXES, TRIGGERS, AND
THE DBMS HELPS CREATE AN ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH END USERS HAVE BETTER ACCESS TO MORE AND
IT IS NECESSARY TO CREATE DUPLICATE COPIES OF THE SAME DATA ITEMS IN ORDER TO RELATE TABLES STRUCTURED TYPES.
BETTER-MANAGED DATA. SUCH ACCESS MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR END USERS TO RESPOND QUICKLY TO
WITH EACH OTHER. BY CONTROLLING THE DATA REDUNDANCY, YOU CAN SAVE STORAGE SPACE. INSTANCES
CHANGES IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
SIMILARLY, IT IS USEFUL FOR RETRIEVING DATA FROM DATABASE USING QUERIES. THE DATA IN THE DATABASE AT A PARTICULAR MOMENT OF TIME IS CALLED AN INSTANCE OR A
2. IMPROVED DATA SECURITY:
9. BACKUP AND RECOVERY PROCEDURES: DATABASE STATE. IN A GIVEN INSTANCE, EACH SCHEMA CONSTRUCT HAS ITS OWN CURRENT SET OF
THE MORE USERS ACCESS THE DATA, THE GREATER THE RISKS OF DATA SECURITY BREACHES.
IN A COMPUTER FILE-BASED SYSTEM, THE USER CREATES THE BACKUP OF DATA REGULARLY TO PROTECT INSTANCES. MANY INSTANCES OR DATABASE STATES CAN BE CONSTRUCTED TO CORRESPOND TO A
CORPORATIONS INVEST CONSIDERABLE AMOUNTS OF TIME, EFFORT, AND MONEY TO ENSURE THAT
THE VALUABLE DATA FROM DAMAGING DUE TO FAILURES TO THE COMPUTER SYSTEM OR APPLICATION PARTICULAR DATABASE SCHEMA. EVERY TIME WE UPDATE (I.E., INSERT, DELETE OR MODIFY) THE VALUE
CORPORATE DATA ARE USED PROPERLY. A DBMS PROVIDES A FRAMEWORK FOR BETTER ENFORCEMENT
PROGRAM. IT IS A TIME-CONSUMING METHOD, IF VOLUME OF DATA IS LARGE. MOST OF THE DBMSS OF A DATA ITEM IN A RECORD, ONE STATE OF THE DATABASE CHANGES INTO ANOTHER STATE.
OF DATA PRIVACY AND SECURITY POLICIES.
PROVIDE THE 'BACKUP AND RECOVERY' SUB-SYSTEMS THAT AUTOMATICALLY CREATE THE BACKUP OF
3. DATA INTEGRATION: DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
DATA AND RESTORE DATA IF REQUIRED. FOR EXAMPLE, IF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM FAILS IN THE MIDDLE
WIDER ACCESS TO WELL-MANAGED DATA PROMOTES AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF THE ORGANIZATION’S THE PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE FOR MANAGING DATABASES ARE CALLED DATABASE ADMINISTRATORS. EACH
(OR END) OF AN UPDATE OPERATION OF THE PROGRAM, THE RECOVERY SUB-SYSTEM IS RESPONSIBLE
OPERATIONS AND A CLEARER VIEW OF THE BIG PICTURE. IT BECOMES MUCH EASIER TO SEE HOW ACTIONS DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR, DUBBED DBA FOR THE SAKE OF BREVITY MAY BE ENGAGED IN PERFORMING
FOR MAKING SURE THAT THE DATABASE IS RESTORED TO THE STATE IT WAS IN BEFORE THE PROGRAM
IN ONE SEGMENT OF THE COMPANY AFFECT OTHER SEGMENTS. VARIOUS DATABASE MANIPULATION TASKS SUCH AS ARCHIVING, TESTING, RUNNING, SECURITY
STARTED EXECUTING
4. MINIMIZED DATA INCONSISTENCY: CONTROL ETC. ALL RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL SIDE OF THE DATABASES.
DATA INCONSISTENCY EXISTS WHEN DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF THE SAME DATA APPEAR IN DIFFERENT DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF A DBA
PLACES. FOR EXAMPLE, DATA INCONSISTENCY EXISTS WHEN A COMPANY’S SALES DEPARTMENT STORES 1. INCREASED COSTS: 1. DESIGNING THE LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL SCHEMAS, AS WELL AS WIDELY-USED PORTIONS OF THE
A SALES REPRESENTATIVE’S NAME AS “BILL BROWN” AND THE COMPANY’S PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT DATABASE SYSTEMS REQUIRE SOPHISTICATED HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE AND HIGHLY SKILLED EXTERNAL SCHEMA.
STORES THAT SAME PERSON’S NAME AS “WILLIAM G. BROWN,” OR WHEN THE COMPANY’S REGIONAL PERSONNEL. THE COST OF MAINTAINING THE HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, AND PERSONNEL REQUIRED TO 2. SECURITY AND AUTHORIZATION.
SALES OFFICE SHOWS THE PRICE OF A PRODUCT AS $45.95 AND ITS NATIONAL SALES OFFICE SHOWS THE OPERATE AND MANAGE A DATABASE SYSTEM CAN BE SUBSTANTIAL. TRAINING, LICENSING, AND 3. DATA AVAILABILITY AND RECOVERY FROM FAILURES.
SAME PRODUCT’S PRICE AS $43.95. THE PROBABILITY OF DATA INCONSISTENCY IS GREATLY REDUCED IN REGULATION COMPLIANCE COSTS ARE OFTEN OVERLOOKED WHEN DATABASE SYSTEMS ARE 4. DATABASE TUNING: THE DBA IS RESPONSIBLE FOR EVOLVING THE DATABASE, IN PARTICULAR THE
A PROPERLY DESIGNED DATABASE. IMPLEMENTED. CONCEPTUAL AND PHYSICAL SCHEMAS TO ENSURE ADEQUATE PERFORMANCE AS USER
5. IMPROVED DATA ACCESS: 2. MANAGEMENT COMPLEXITY: REQUIREMENTS CHANGE.
THE DBMS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO PRODUCE QUICK ANSWERS TO AD HOC QUERIES. FROM A DATABASE DATABASE SYSTEMS INTERFACE WITH MANY DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES AND HAVE A SIGNIFICANT USERS IN DBMS
PERSPECTIVE, A QUERY IS A SPECIFIC REQUEST ISSUED TO THE DBMS FOR DATA MANIPULATION—FOR IMPACT ON A COMPANY’S RESOURCES AND CULTURE. THE CHANGES INTRODUCED BY THE ADOPTION OF USERS ARE OF 4 TYPES:
EXAMPLE, TO READ OR UPDATE THE DATA. SIMPLY PUT, A QUERY IS A QUESTION, AND AN AD HOC QUERY A DATABASE SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY MANAGED TO ENSURE THAT THEY HELP ADVANCE THE 1) APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS OR ORDINARY USERS
IS A SPUR-OF-THE-MOMENT QUESTION. THE DBMS SENDS BACK AN ANSWER (CALLED THE QUERY RESULT COMPANY’S OBJECTIVES. GIVEN THE FACT THAT DATABASE SYSTEMS HOLD CRUCIAL COMPANY DATA 2) END USERS
SET) TO THE APPLICATION. FOR EXAMPLE, END USERS, WHEN DEALING WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF SALES THAT ARE ACCESSED FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES, SECURITY ISSUES MUST BE ASSESSED CONSTANTLY. 3) DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA)
DATA, MIGHT WANT QUICK ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS (AD HOC QUERIES) SUCH AS: 3. MAINTAINING CURRENCY: 4) SYSTEM ANALYST
▪ WHAT WAS THE DOLLAR VOLUME OF SALES BY PRODUCT DURING THE PAST SIX MONTHS? TO MAXIMIZE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE DATABASE SYSTEM, YOU MUST KEEP YOUR SYSTEM CURRENT. 1. APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS OR ORDINARY USERS:
▪ WHAT IS THE SALES BONUS FIGURE FOR EACH OF OUR SALESPEOPLE DURING THE PAST THREE THEREFORE, YOU MUST PERFORM FREQUENT UPDATES AND APPLY THE LATEST PATCHES AND SECURITY THESE USERS WRITE APPLICATION PROGRAMS TO INTERACT WITH THE DATABASE. APPLICATION
MONTHS? MEASURES TO ALL COMPONENTS. BECAUSE DATABASE TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES RAPIDLY, PERSONNEL PROGRAMS CAN BE WRITTEN IN SOME PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE SUCH A COBOL, PL/I, C++, JAVA OR
▪ HOW MANY OF OUR CUSTOMERS HAVE CREDIT BALANCES OF $3,000 OR MORE? TRAINING COSTS TEND TO BE SIGNIFICANT. VENDOR DEPENDENCE. GIVEN THE HEAVY INVESTMENT IN SOME HIGHER LEVEL FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE. SUCH PROGRAMS ACCESS THE DATABASE BY
6. IMPROVED DECISION MAKING: TECHNOLOGY AND PERSONNEL TRAINING, COMPANIES MIGHT BE RELUCTANT TO CHANGE DATABASE ISSUING THE APPROPRIATE REQUEST, TYPICALLY A SQL STATEMENT TO DBMS.
BETTER-MANAGED DATA AND IMPROVED DATA ACCESS MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE BETTER- VENDORS. AS A CONSEQUENCE, VENDORS ARE LESS LIKELY TO OFFER PRICING POINT ADVANTAGES TO 2. END USERS: END USERS ARE THE USERS, WHO USE THE APPLICATIONS DEVELOPED. END USERS
QUALITY INFORMATION, ON WHICH BETTER DECISIONS ARE BASED. THE QUALITY OF THE INFORMATION EXISTINGCUSTOMERS, AND THOSE CUSTOMERS MIGHT BE LIMITED IN THEIR CHOICE OF DATABASE NEED NOT KNOW ABOUT THE WORKING, DATABASE DESIGN, THE ACCESS MECHANISM ETC. THEY
GENERATED DEPENDS ON THE QUALITY OF THE UNDERLYING DATA. DATA QUALITY IS A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM COMPONENTS. JUST USE THE SYSTEM TO GET THEIR TASK DONE. END USERS ARE OF TWO TYPES:
1 2 3

A) DIRECT USERS • CONCEPTUAL LEVEL: 4. OBJECT-ORIENTED MODEL:

DIRECT USERS: DIRECT USERS ARE THE USERS WHO SE THE COMPUTER, DATABASE SYSTEM DIRECTLY, BY THIS LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION DEALS WITH THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENTIRE DATABASE AND IT IS OBJECT DBMSS ADD DATABASE FUNCTIONALITY TO OBJECT PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES. THEY BRING
FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS PROVIDED IN THE USER INTERFACE. THEY INTERACT USING THE APPLICATION ALSO KNOWN AS LOGICAL LEVEL. IT DESCRIBES WHAT DATA IS STORED IN THE DATABASE, THE MUCH MORE THAN PERSISTENT STORAGE OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE OBJECTS. A MAJOR BENEFIT OF
PROGRAMS ALREADY DEVELOPED, FOR GETTING THE DESIRED RESULT. E.G. PEOPLE AT RAILWAY RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE DATA AND COMPLETE VIEW OF THE USER’S REQUIREMENTS WITHOUT ANY THIS APPROACH IS THE UNIFICATION OF THE APPLICATION AND DATABASE DEVELOPMENT INTO A
RESERVATION COUNTERS, WHO DIRECTLY INTERACT WITH DATABASE. CONCERN FOR THE PHYSICAL IMPLEMENTATION. IT HIDES THE COMPLEXITY OF PHYSICAL STORAGE SEAMLESS DATA MODEL AND LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT. AS A RESULT, APPLICATIONS REQUIRE LESS
B) INDIRECT USERS: STRUCTURES. THE CONCEPTUAL VIEW IS THE OVERALL VIEW OF THE DATABASE AND IT INCLUDES ALL THE CODE, USE MORE NATURAL DATA MODELING, AND CODE BASES ARE EASIER TO MAINTAIN.
INDIRECT USERS ARE THOSE USERS, WHO DESIRE BENEFIT FORM THE WORK OF DBMS INDIRECTLY. THEY INFORMATION THAT IS GOING TO BE REPRESENTED IN THE DATABASE. 5. ENTITY RELATIONSHIP (ER) MODEL:
USE THE OUTPUTS GENERATED BY THE PROGRAMS, FOR DECISION MAKING OR ANY OTHER PURPOSE. • EXTERNAL LEVEL: THE ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP (E-R) MODEL IS THE MOST POPULAR CONCEPTUAL MODEL USED FOR
THEY ARE JUST CONCERNED WITH THE OUTPUT AND ARE NOT BOTHERED ABOUT THE PROGRAMMING IT IS THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION THAT DEALS WITH THE USER’S VIEW OF THE DATABASE AND IT DESIGNING A DATABASE. IT WAS ORIGINALLY PROPOSED BY DR. PETER CHEN IN 1976 AS A WAY TO UNIFY
PART. IS ALSO KNOWN AS VIEW LEVEL. MOST OF THE USERS AND APPLICATION PROGRAMS DO NOT REQUIRE THE NETWORK AND RELATIONAL DATABASE VIEWS. THE E-R MODEL VIEWS THE REAL WORLD AS A SET OF
3. DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA): THE ENTIRE DATA STORED IN THE DATABASE. THE EXTERNAL LEVEL DESCRIBES A PART OF THE DATABASE BASIC OBJECTS (KNOWN AS ENTITIES), THEIR CHARACTERISTICS (KNOWN AS ATTRIBUTES), AND
DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA) IS THE PERSON WHICH MAKES THE STRATEGIC AND POLICY DECISIONS FOR A PARTICULAR GROUP OF USERS. IT PERMITS USERS TO ACCESS DATA IN A WAY THAT IS CUSTOMIZED ASSOCIATIONS AMONG THESE OBJECTS (KNOWN AS RELATIONSHIPS). THE ENTITIES, ATTRIBUTES, AND
REGARDING THE DATA OF THE ENTERPRISE, AND WHO PROVIDE THE NECESSARY TECHNICAL SUPPORT ACCORDING TO THEIR NEEDS, SO THAT THE SAME DATA CAN BE SEEN BY DIFFERENT USERS IN DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIPS ARE THE BASIC CONSTRUCTS OF AN E-R MODEL.
FOR IMPLEMENTING THESE DECISIONS. THEREFORE, DBA IS RESPONSIBLE FOR OVERALL CONTROL OF THE WAYS AT THE SAME TIME. IT PROVIDES A POWERFUL AND FLEXIBLE SECURITY MECHANISM BY HIDING FILE SYSTEM VS. DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
SYSTEM AT A TECHNICAL LEVEL. IN DATABASE ENVIRONMENT, THE PRIMARY RESOURCE IS THE DATABASE THE PARTS OF THE DATABASE FROM CERTAIN USERS, AS HE USER IS NOT AWARE OF EXISTENCE OF ANY 1. FILES ACT LOCALLY WHERE AS DBMS SAVES DIRECTLY IN A DATABASE
ITSELF AND THE SECONDARY RESOURCE IS THE DBMS AND RELATED SOFTWARE ADMINISTERING THESE ATTRIBUTES THAT ARE MISSING FROM THE VIEW. 2. SAVES IN TEMPORARY LOCATIONS WHERE AS DBMS IN WELL ARRANGED AND PERMANENT
RESOURCES IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR (DBA). DATA MODEL: DATA BASE LOCATIONS.
4. SYSTEM ANALYST: A DATA MODEL IS A COLLECTION OF CONCEPTS THAT CAN BE USED TO DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF A 3. IN FILE SYSTEM TRANSACTIONS ARE NOT POSSIBLE WHERE AS VARIOUS TRANSACTIONS
SYSTEM ANALYST DETERMINES THE REQUIREMENT OF END USERS, ESPECIALLY NAIVE AND PARAMETRIC DATABASE. DATA MODELS CAN BE BROADLY DISTINGUISHED INTO 3 MAIN CATEGORIES- LIKE INSERT, DELETE, VIEW, UPDATING ETC R POSSIBLE IN DBMS
END USERS AND DEVELOPS SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRANSACTIONS THAT MEET THESE REQUIREMENTS. 1. HIERARCHICAL MODEL 4. DATA WILL BE ACCESSED THROUGH SINGLE OR VARIOUS FILES WHERE AS IN DBMS, TABLES
SYSTEM ANALYST PLAYS A MAJOR ROLE IN DATABASE DESIGN, ITS PROPERTIES; THE STRUCTURE 2. NETWORK MODEL (SCHEMA) IS USED TO ACCESS DATA
PREPARES THE SYSTEM REQUIREMENT STATEMENT, WHICH INVOLVES THE FEASIBILITY ASPECT, 3. RELATIONAL MODEL 5. A "FILE MANAGER" IS USED TO STORE ALL RELATIONSHIPS IN DIRECTORIES IN FILE SYSTEMS
ECONOMIC ASPECT, TECHNICAL ASPECT ETC. OF THE SYSTEM. 4. OBJECT-ORIENTED MODEL WHERE AS A DATA BASE MANAGER (ADMINISTRATOR) STORES THE RELATIONSHIP IN
3 LEVEL ARCHITECTURE / THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE: 5. SEMI STRUCTURED MODEL FORM OF STRUCTURAL TABLES
IN THIS ARCHITECTURE, THE OVERALL DATABASE DESCRIPTION CAN BE DEFINED AT THREE LEVELS 6. ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL 6. LAST.... BUT NOT THE LEAST.... DATA IN DATA BASES ARE MORE SECURE COMPARED TO
NAMELY INTERNAL, CONCEPTUAL, AND EXTERNAL LEVELS. THIS IS SHOWN BELOW: DATA IN FILES
1. RELATIONAL MODEL: DATABASE LANGUAGES:
PRINCIPLE IN A RELATIONAL DATABASE IS THE TABLE, A TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF DATA VALUES: DATABASE LANGUAGE A GENERIC TERM REFERRING TO A CLASS OF LANGUAGES USED FOR
• A TABLE IS CALLED A RELATION. DEFINING AND ACCESSING DATABASES. A PARTICULAR DATABASE LANGUAGE WILL BE ASSOCIATED
• THE ROW (OR RECORD) IN THE TABLE IS CALLED A TUPLE WITH A PARTICULAR DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.
• THE COLUMN (OR FIELD) IS CALLED AN ATTRIBUTE. THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF DATABASE LANGUAGES:
• THE NUMBER OF TUPLES IS CALLED THE CARDINALITY 1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL): STATEMENTS ARE USED TO DEFINE THE DATABASE
• THE NUMBER OF ATTRIBUTES IS CALLED THE DEGREE OF THE TABLE STRUCTURE OR SCHEMA.
2. NETWORK MODEL: SOME EXAMPLES:
NETWORK MODEL IS A COLLECTION DATA IN WHICH RECORDS ARE PHYSICALLY LINKED THROUGH LINKED • CREATE - TO CREATE OBJECTS IN THE DATABASE
LISTS .A DBMS IS SAID TO BE A NETWORK DBMS IF THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG DATA IN THE DATABASE • ALTER - ALTERS THE STRUCTURE OF THE DATABASE
ARE OF TYPE MANY-TO-MANY. THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG MANY-TO-MANY APPEAR IN THE FORM OF • DROP - DELETE OBJECTS FROM THE DATABASE
A NETWORK. THUS THE STRUCTURE OF A NETWORK DATABASE IS EXTREMELY COMPLICATED BECAUSE OF 2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML):
THESE MANY-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIPS IN WHICH ONE RECORD CAN BE USED AS A KEY OF THE ENTIRE STATEMENTS ARE USED FOR MANAGING DATA WITHIN SCHEMA OBJECTS.
DATABASE. A NETWORK DATABASE IS STRUCTURED IN THE FORM OF A GRAPH THAT IS ALSO A DATA SOME EXAMPLES:
• INTERNAL LEVEL: STRUCTURE. • SELECT - RETRIEVE DATA FROM THE A DATABASE
IT IS THE LOWEST LEVEL OF DATA ABSTRACTION THAT DEALS WITH THE PHYSICAL REPRESENTATION OF 3. HIERARCHICAL MODEL: • INSERT - INSERT DATA INTO A TABLE
THE DATABASE ON THE COMPUTER AND THUS, IS ALSO KNOWN AS PHYSICAL LEVEL. IT DESCRIBES HOW THE HIERARCHICAL DATA MODEL IS A WAY OF ORGANIZING A DATABASE WITH MULTIPLE ONE TO MANY • UPDATE - UPDATES EXISTING DATA WITHIN A TABLE
THE DATA IS PHYSICALLY STORED AND ORGANIZED ON THE STORAGE MEDIUM. AT THIS LEVEL, VARIOUS RELATIONSHIPS. THE STRUCTURE IS BASED ON THE RULE THAT ONE PARENT CAN HAVE MANY CHILDREN • DELETE - DELETES ALL RECORDS FROM A TABLE, THE SPACE FOR THE RECORDS REMAIN
ASPECTS ARE CONSIDERED TO ACHIEVE OPTIMAL RUNTIME PERFORMANCE AND STORAGE SPACE BUT CHILDREN ARE ALLOWED ONLY ONE PARENT. THIS STRUCTURE ALLOWS INFORMATION TO BE 3. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL): DCL STATEMENTS CONTROL ACCESS TO DATA AND THE
UTILIZATION. THESE ASPECTS INCLUDE STORAGE SPACE ALLOCATION TECHNIQUES FOR DATA AND REPEATED THROUGH THE PARENT CHILD RELATIONSHIPS. THIS DATABASE STRUCTURE WAS ONE OF THE DATABASE USING STATEMENTS SUCH AS GRANT AND REVOKE. A PRIVILEGE CAN EITHER BE
INDEXES, ACCESS PATHS SUCH AS INDEXES, DATA COMPRESSION AND ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES, FIRST USED BECAUSE IT LENDS ITSELF VERY WELL TO LINEAR TYPE STORAGE MEDIUMS, SUCH AS THE DATA GRANTED TO A USER WITH THE HELP OF GRANT STATEMENT. THE PRIVILEGES ASSIGNED CAN BE
AND RECORD PLACEMENT. TAPES THAT WERE USED WHEN DATABASE WERE FIRST CREATED. SELECT, ALTER, DELETE, EXECUTE, INSERT, INDEX ETC. IN ADDITION TO GRANTING OF PRIVILEGES,
YOU CAN ALSO REVOKE (TAKEN BACK) IT BY USING REVOKE COMMAND.

4 5 6

SOME EXAMPLES: • QUERY EVALUATION ENGINE UNIT-2

• GRANT - GIVES USER'S ACCESS PRIVILEGES TO DATABASE THE DDL INTERPRETER INTERPRETS DDL STATEMENTS AND RECORDS THE DEFINITION IN THE DATA ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL & BASIC CONCEPTS:
• REVOKE - WITHDRAW ACCESS PRIVILEGES GIVEN WITH THE GRANT COMMAND DICTIONARY. THE DML COMPILERS TRANSLATE DML STATEMENTS IN A QUERY LANGUAGE INTO AN IT IS A SEMANTIC DATA MODEL THAT IS USED FOR THE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE
4. TRANSACTION CONTROL (TCL): STATEMENTS ARE USED TO MANAGE THE CHANGES MADE BY DML EVALUATION PLAN CONSISTING OF LOW-LEVEL INSTRUCTIONS THAT THE QUERY EVALUATION ENGINE CONCEPTUAL DATABASE DESIGN. ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL DEFINES THE CONCEPTUAL VIEW OF
STATEMENTS. IT ALLOWS STATEMENTS TO BE GROUPED TOGETHER INTO LOGICAL UNDERSTANDS. THE DML COMPILER ALSO PERFORMS QUERY OPTIMIZATION, WHICH IS IT PICKS THE DATABASE. IT WORKS AROUND REAL WORLD ENTITY AND ASSOCIATION AMONG THEM. AT VIEW LEVEL,
TRANSACTIONS. LOWEST COST EVALUATION PLAN FROM AMONG THE ALTERNATIVES. QUERY EVALUATION ENGINE ER MODEL IS CONSIDERED WELL FOR DESIGNING DATABASES. THE ENTITY RELATIONSHIP (ER) MODEL
SOME EXAMPLES: EXECUTES LOW LEVEL INSTRUCTIONS GENERATED BY THE DML COMPILER. CONSISTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENTITIES. THE EXISTENCE OF AN ENTITY MAY DEPENDS ON THE
• COMMIT - SAVE WORK DONE 3. USER: EXISTENCE OF ONE OR MORE OTHER ENTITIES, SUCH AN ENTITY IS SAID TO BE EXISTENCE DEPENDENT.
• SAVEPOINT - IDENTIFY A POINT IN A TRANSACTION TO WHICH YOU CAN LATER ROLL BACK A) DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR: ENTITIES WHOSE EXISTENCE NOT DEPENDING ON ANY OTHER ENTITIES IS TERMED AS NOT EXISTENCE
• ROLLBACK - RESTORE DATABASE TO ORIGINAL SINCE THE LAST COMMIT DBA IS RESPONSIBLE FOR AUTHORIZING ACCESS TO THE DATABASE, FOR COORDINATING AND DEPENDENT. ENTITIES BASED ON THEIR CHARACTERISTICS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS.
OVERALL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE: MONITORING ITS USE AND ACQUIRING SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE RESOURCES AS NEEDED. ENTITY:
DBMS (DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM) ACTS AS AN INTERFACE BETWEEN THE USER AND THE SOPHISTICATED END USERS – ENGINEERS, SCIENTISTS, ANALYSTS WHO IMPLEMENT APPLICATIONS TO A REAL-WORLD THING EITHER ANIMATE OR INANIMATE THAT CAN BE EASILY IDENTIFIABLE AND
DATABASE. THE USER REQUESTS THE DBMS TO PERFORM VARIOUS OPERATIONS (INSERT, DELETE, MEET THEIR REQUIREMENTS. DISTINGUISHABLE, CALLED ENTITY. ENTITIES ARE REPRESENTED BY MEANS OF RECTANGLES. RECTANGLES
UPDATE AND RETRIEVAL) ON THE DATABASE. THE COMPONENTS OF DBMS PERFORM THESE REQUESTED B) APPLICATION PROGRAMMER: ARE NAMED WITH THE ENTITY SET THEY REPRESENT.
OPERATIONS ON THE DATABASE AND PROVIDE NECESSARY DATA TO THE USERS. THESE USERS WRITE APPLICATION PROGRAMS TO INTERACT WITH THE DATABASE. APPLICATION TYPES OF ENTITY:
A DATABASE SYSTEM IS DIVIDED INTO MODULES BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION. THE FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMS CAN BE WRITTEN IN SOME PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE SUCH A COBOL, PL/I, C++, JAVA OR STRONG ENTITY:
COMPONENTS OF A DATABASE SYSTEM CAN BE BROADLY DIVIDED INTO THE STORAGE MANAGER AND SOME HIGHER LEVEL FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE. SUCH PROGRAMS ACCESS THE DATABASE BY AN ENTITY SET THAT HAS A PRIMARY KEY IS CALLED AS STRONG ENTITY SET. STRONG ENTITY
THE QUERY PROCESSOR COMPONENTS. ISSUING THE APPROPRIATE REQUEST, TYPICALLY A SQL STATEMENT TO DBMS. REPRESENTED BY RECTANGLE WHICH IS SHOWN BELOW.
1. STORAGE MANAGER C) NAIVE USER: WEAK ENTITY:
2. QUERY PROCESSOR NAIVE USERS ACCESS DATA THROUGH APPLICATION PROGRAMS THAT HAVE BEEN WRITTEN FOR THEM. AN ENTITY SET THAT DOES NOT HAVE SUFFICIENT ATTRIBUTES TO FORM A PRIMARY KEY IS TERMED AS
THEY DO NOT NEED TO KNOW ANY DETAILS OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE OF THE DATABASE A WEAK ENTITY SET. WEAK ENTITY REPRESENTED BY DOUBLE RECTANGLE
1. STORAGE MANAGER: SYSTEM. THEY ARE TOTALLY UNSOPHISTICATED USERS WHO NEVER KNOW WRITING PROGRAMS OR EVEN ATRIBUTE:
THE STORAGE MANAGER IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE DATABASE TYPICALLY REQUIRE A LARGE AMOUNT OF SMALL QUERIES. ATTRIBUTES ARE PROPERTIES OF ENTITIES. ATTRIBUTES ARE REPRESENTED BY MEANS OF ELLIPSE. EVERY
STORAGE SPACE. SO IT IS VERY IMPORTANT EFFICIENT USE OF STORAGE, AND TO MINIMIZE THE ELLIPSE REPRESENTS ONE ATTRIBUTE AND IS DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO ITS ENTITY (RECTANGLE). FOR
MOVEMENT OF DATA TO AND FROM DISK. A STORAGE MANAGER IS A PROGRAM MODULE THAT EXAMPLE THE EMPLOYEE IS THE ENTITY AND EMPLOYEE’S NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY AND JOB ETC
PROVIDES THE INTERFACE BETWEEN THE LOW-LEVEL DATA STORED IN THE DATABASE AND THE ARE THE ATTRIBUTE. ATTRIBUTE IS REPRESENTED BY ELLIPSE.
APPLICATION PROGRAMS AND THE QUERIES SUBMITTED TO THE SYSTEM. THE STORAGE MANAGER IS TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES:
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INTERACTION WITH THE FILE MANAGER. THE STORAGE MANAGER TRANSLATES SIMPLE ATTRIBUTE:
THE VARIOUS DML STATEMENTS INTO LOW LEVEL FILE SYSTEM COMMANDS. THUS THE STORAGE SIMPLE ATTRIBUTE CONSISTS OF A SINGLE ATOMIC VALUE. A SIMPLE ATTRIBUTE CANNOT BE SUBDIVIDED.
MANAGER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR STORING, RETRIEVING, AND UPDATING DATA IN THE DATABASE. THE FOR EXAMPLE THE ATTRIBUTES AGE, SEX ETC IS SIMPLE ATTRIBUTES.
STORAGE MANAGER COMPONENTS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING. COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE:
• AUTHORIZATION AND INTEGRITY MANAGER A COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE IS AN ATTRIBUTE THAT CAN BE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED. FOR EXAMPLE THE
• TRANSACTION MANGER ATTRIBUTE ADDRESS CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO STREET, CITY, STATE, AND ZIP CODE.
• FILE MANAGER SINGLE-VALUED ATTRIBUTE:
• BUFFER MANGER A SINGLE VALUED ATTRIBUTE CAN HAVE ONLY A SINGLE VALUE. FOR EXAMPLE A PERSON CAN HAVE ONLY
AUTHORIZATION AND INTEGRITY MANGER TESTS FOR THE SATISFACTION OF INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS ONE 'DATE OF BIRTH', 'AGE' ETC. THAT IS A SINGLE VALUED ATTRIBUTES CAN HAVE ONLY SINGLE VALUE.
AND CHECKS THE AUTHORITY OF USERS TO ACCESS DATA. TRANSACTION MANAGER ENSURES THAT THE BUT IT CAN BE SIMPLE OR COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE. THAT IS 'DATE OF BIRTH' IS A COMPOSITE ATTRIBUTE;
DATABASE REMAINS IN A CONSISTENT STATE AND ALLOWING CONCURRENT TRANSACTIONS TO PROCEED 'AGE' IS A SIMPLE ATTRIBUTE. BUT BOTH ARE SINGLE VALUED ATTRIBUTES.
WITHOUT CONFLICTING. THE FILE MANAGER MANAGES THE ALLOCATION OF SPACE ON DISK STORAGE MULTI-VALUE ATTRIBUTES:
MANAGER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FETCHING THE DATA FROM DISK STORAGE INTO MAIN MEMORY AND MULTIVALVE ATTRIBUTES CAN HAVE MULTIPLE VALUES. FOR INSTANCE A PERSON MAY HAVE MULTIPLE
DECIDING WHAT DATA TO CACHE IN MAIN MEMORY. THE STORAGE MANAGER IMPLEMENTS THE PHONE NUMBERS, MULTIPLE DEGREES ETC. MULTIVALVE ATTRIBUTES ARE SHOWN BY A DOUBLE LINE
FOLLOWING DATA STRUCTURES AS PART OF THE PHYSICAL SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION. DATA FILE, DATA CONNECTING TO THE ENTITY IN THE ER DIAGRAM.
DICTIONARY, INDICES. DATA FILES STORES THE DATABASE ITSELF. THE DATA DICTIONARY STORES META STORED ATTRIBUTE:
DATA ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF DATABASE, IN PARTICULAR THE SCHEMA OF THE DATABASE. INDICES THE VALUE FOR THE DERIVED ATTRIBUTE IS DERIVED FROM THE STORED ATTRIBUTE. FOR EXAMPLE 'DATE
PROVIDE FAST ACCESS TO DATA ITEMS. OF BIRTH' OF A PERSON IS A STORED ATTRIBUTE. THE VALUE FOR THE ATTRIBUTE 'AGE' CAN BE DERIVED
2. QUERY PROCESSOR: THE QUERY PROCESSOR SIMPLIFIES AND FACILITATES ACCESS TO DATA. THE BY SUBTRACTING THE 'DATE OF BIRTH'(DOB) FROM THE CURRENT DATE. STORED ATTRIBUTE SUPPLIES A
QUERY PROCESSOR VALUE TO THE RELATED ATTRIBUTE.
INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING COMPONENT. DERIVED ATTRIBUTE:
AN ATTRIBUTE THAT’S VALUE IS DERIVED FROM A STORED ATTRIBUTE. EXAMPLE: AGE, AND IT’S VALUE IS
• DDL INTERPRETER
DERIVED FROM THE STORED ATTRIBUTE DATE OF BIRTH. IT IS REPRESENTED BY DOTTED ELLIPSE.
• DML COMPILER
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RELATIONSHIP: THE ELEMENTS OF AN ERD ARE: 2. FIND AND ORGANIZE THE INFORMATION REQUIRED - GATHER ALL OF THE TYPES OF INFORMATION
THE ASSOCIATION AMONG ENTITIES IS CALLED RELATIONSHIP. FOR EXAMPLE, EMPLOYEE ENTITY HAS • ENTITIES: A REAL-WORLD THING EITHER ANIMATE OR INANIMATE THAT CAN BE EASILY TO RECORD IN THE DATABASE, SUCH AS PRODUCT NAME AND ORDER NUMBER.
RELATION WORKS_AT WITH DEPARTMENT. ANOTHER EXAMPLE IS FOR STUDENT WHO ENROLLS IN SOME IDENTIFIABLE AND DISTINGUISHABLE. 3. DIVIDE THE INFORMATION INTO TABLES - DIVIDE INFORMATION ITEMS INTO MAJOR ENTITIES OR
COURSE. WORKS_AT AND ENROLLS ARE CALLED RELATIONSHIP. RELATIONSHIP IS REPRESENTED BY • ATTRIBUTES: ENTITIES ARE REPRESENTED BY MEANS OF THEIR PROPERTIES, CALLED SUBJECTS, SUCH AS PRODUCTS OR ORDERS. EACH SUBJECT THEN BECOMES A TABLE.
DIAMOND BOX. ATTRIBUTES. 4. TURN INFORMATION ITEMS INTO COLUMNS - DECIDE WHAT INFORMATION NEEDS TO BE STORED
MAPPING CONSTRAINTS / CARDINALITY: • RELATIONSHIPS: THE ASSOCIATION AMONG ENTITIES IS CALLED RELATIONSHIP. IN EACH TABLE. EACH ITEM BECOMES A FIELD, AND IS DISPLAYED AS A COLUMN IN THE TABLE.
WHILE CREATING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO ENTITIES. WE MAY OFTEN NEED TO FACE THE CREATING AN E-R DIAGRAM INCLUDES: FOR EXAMPLE, AN EMPLOYEES TABLE MIGHT INCLUDE FIELDS SUCH AS LAST NAME AND HIRE
CARDINALITY PROBLEM. THIS SIMPLY MEANS THAT HOW MANY ENTITIES OF THE FIRST SET ARE RELATED 1. IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING THE ENTITIES DATE.
TO HOW MANY ENTITIES OF THE SECOND SET. 2. DETERMINING ALL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE ENTITIES 5. SPECIFY PRIMARY KEYS - CHOOSE EACH TABLE’S PRIMARY KEY. THE PRIMARY KEY IS A COLUMN, OR
CARDINALITY CAN BE OF THE FOLLOWING FOUR TYPES. 3. ANALYZING THE NATURE OF INTERACTIONS/DETERMINING THE CARDINALITY OF THE A SET OF COLUMNS, THAT IS USED TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY EACH ROW. AN EXAMPLE MIGHT BE
ONE-TO-ONE: RELATIONSHIPS PRODUCT ID OR ORDER ID.
ONLY ONE ENTITY OF THE FIRST SET IS RELATED TO ONLY ONE ENTITY OF THE SECOND SET. EXAMPLE A 4. CREATING THE ERD 6. SET UP THE TABLE RELATIONSHIPS - LOOK AT EACH TABLE AND DECIDE HOW THE DATA IN ONE TABLE
TEACHER TEACHES A STUDENT. ONLY ONE TEACHER IS TEACHING ONLY ONE STUDENT. ENTITY FEATURES: IS RELATED TO THE DATA IN OTHER TABLES. ADD FIELDS TO TABLES OR CREATE NEW TABLES TO
ONE-TO-MANY: • SPECIALIZATION CLARIFY THE RELATIONSHIPS, AS NECESSARY.
ONLY ONE ENTITY OF THE FIRST SET IS RELATED TO MULTIPLE ENTITIES OF THE SECOND SET. EXAMPLE A • GENERALIZATION 7. REFINE THE DESIGN - ANALYZE THE DESIGN FOR ERRORS. CREATE TABLES AND ADD A FEW RECORDS
TEACHER TEACHES STUDENTS. ONLY ONE TEACHER IS TEACHING MANY STUDENTS. • ATTRIBUTE INHERITANCE OF SAMPLE DATA. CHECK IF RESULTS COME FROM THE TABLES AS EXPECTED. MAKE
MANY-TO-ONE: • AGGREGATION ADJUSTMENTS TO THE DESIGN, AS NEEDED.
MULTIPLE ENTITIES OF THE FIRST SET ARE RELATED TO MULTIPLE ENTITIES OF THE SECOND SET. EXAMPLE SPECIALIZATION: 8. APPLY THE NORMALIZATION RULES - APPLY THE DATA NORMALIZATION RULES TO SEE IF TABLES
TEACHERS TEACH A STUDENT. MANY TEACHERS ARE TEACHING ONLY ONE STUDENT. THE PROCESS OF DESIGNATING SUB GROUPINGS WITH IN AN ENTITY SET IS CALLED SPECIALIZATION. WE ARE STRUCTURED CORRECTLY. MAKE ADJUSTMENTS TO THE TABLES
MANY-TO-MANY: USE IS A RELATIONSHIP TO REPRESENT SPECIALIZATION. IS A RELATIONSHIP MAY ALSO BE REFERRED AS REDUCTION OF E-R SCHEMA TO TABLE:
MULTIPLE ENTITIES OF THE FIRST SET IS RELATED TO MULTIPLE ENTITIES OF THE SECOND SET. EXAMPLE SUPER CLASS-SUBCLASS RELATIONSHIP A DATABASE WHICH CONFORMS TO AN E R DIAGRAM CAN BE REPRESENTED BY COLLECTION OF TABLE’S
TEACHERS TEACH STUDENTS. IN ANY SCHOOL OR COLLEGE MANY TEACHERS ARE TEACHING MANY EXAMPLE: PERSON IS A EMPLOYEE .FOR EACH ENTITY SET AND FOR EACH RELATIONSHIP SET IN THE DATABASE, WE WILL CREATE UNIQUE
STUDENTS. THIS CAN BE CONSIDERED AS A TWO WAY ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP. PERSON IS A CUSTOMER TABLES, WHICH IS ASSIGNED THE NAME OF THE CORRESPONDING ENTITY SET OR RELATIONSHIP SETS.
KEYS: EMPLOYEE IS A MANAGER EACH TABLE HAS A NO. OF COLUMNS WHICH HAVE UNIQUE NAMES. EACH ROW IN THE TABLE
A KEY IS AN ATTRIBUTE OF A TABLE WHICH HELPS TO IDENTIFY A ROW. THERE CAN BE MANY DIFFERENT GENERALIZATION: CORRESPONDS TO AN ENTITY OR A RELATIONSHIP. A DATABASE THAT CONFORMS TO AN E-R DATABASE
TYPES OF KEYS: THE DESIGN PROCESS TAKES PLACE IN BOTTOM UP MANNER. MULTIPLE ENTITY SETS ARE SYNTHESIZED SCHEMA CAN BE REPRESENTED BY A COLLECTION OF TABLES. FOR EACH ENTITY SET AND FOR EACH
SUPER KEY OR CANDIDATE KEY: IT IS SUCH AN ATTRIBUTE OF A TABLE THAT CAN UNIQUELY IDENTIFY A INTO A HIGHER LEVEL ENTITY SET ON THE BASIS OF COMMON FEATURES. RELATIONSHIP SET, THERE IS A UNIQUE TABLE. A TABLE IS A CHART WITH ROWS AND COLUMNS. THE SET
ROW IN A TABLE. GENERALLY THEY CONTAIN UNIQUE VALUES AND CAN NEVER CONTAIN NULL VALUES. EXAMPLE: EMPLOYEE AND CUSTOMER ENTITIES CAN BE SYNTHESIZED INTO A HIGHER LEVEL ENTITY OF ALL POSSIBLE ROWS IS THE CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF ALL COLUMNS. A ROW IS ALSO KNOWN AS A
THERE CAN BE MORE THAN ONE SUPER KEY OR CANDIDATE KEY IN A TABLE EXAMPLE WITHIN A STUDENT PERSON. TUPLE OR A RECORD. A TABLE HAS AN UNLIMITED NUMBER OF ROWS. EACH COLUMN IS ALSO KNOWN
TABLE ROLL AND MOBILE NO. CAN BOTH SERVE TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY A STUDENT. ATTRIBUTE INHERITANCE: AS A FIELD. THERE ARE FEW POINTS TO REDUCTION OF ER SCHEMA.
PRIMARY KEY: IT IS ONE OF THE CANDIDATE KEYS THAT ARE CHOSEN TO BE THE IDENTIFYING KEY FOR THE THE ATTRIBUTES OF HIGHER LEVEL ENTITY SET ARE INHERITED BY LOWER LEVEL ENTITY SET. 1) STRONG ENTITY SETS:
ENTIRE TABLE. EXAMPLE ALTHOUGH THERE ARE TWO CANDIDATE KEYS IN THE STUDENT TABLE, THE AGGREGATION: IT IS COMMON PRACTICE FOR THE TABLE TO HAVE THE SAME NAME AS THE ENTITY SET. THERE IS ONE
COLLEGE WOULD OBVIOUSLY USE ROLL AS THE PRIMARY KEY OF THE TABLE. AGGREGATION IS AN ABSTRACTION IN WHICH RELATIONSHIP SETS ARE TREATED AS HIGHER LEVEL ENTITY COLUMN FOR EACH ATTRIBUTE.
ALTERNATE KEY: THIS IS THE CANDIDATE KEY WHICH IS NOT CHOSEN AS THE PRIMARY KEY OF THE TABLE. SETS. HERE A RELATIONSHIP SET IS EMBEDDED INSIDE AN ENTITY SET, AND THESE ENTITY SETS CAN 2) WEAK ENTITY SETS:
THEY ARE NAMED SO BECAUSE ALTHOUGH NOT THE PRIMARY KEY, THEY CAN STILL IDENTIFY A ROW. PARTICIPATE IN RELATIONSHIPS. THERE IS ONE COLUMN FOR EACH ATTRIBUTE, PLUS THE ATTRIBUTE(S) THE FORM THE PRIMARY KEY OF
COMPOSITE KEY: SOMETIMES ONE KEY IS NOT ENOUGH TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY A ROW. EXAMPLE IN A DESIGN OF AN E-R DATABASE SCHEMA: THE STRONG ENTITY SET THAT THE WEAK ENTITY SET DEPENDS UPON.
SINGLE CLASS ROLL IS ENOUGH TO FIND A STUDENT BUT IN THE ENTIRE SCHOOL MERELY SEARCHING BY DATABASE DESIGN IS THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING A DETAILED DATA MODEL OF A DATABASE. THIS 3) RELATIONSHIP SETS:
THE ROLL IS NOT ENOUGH BECAUSE THERE COULD BE 10 CLASSES IN THE SCHOOL AND EACH ONE OF THEM LOGICAL DATA MODEL CONTAINS ALL THE NEEDED LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL DESIGN CHOICES AND WE REPRESENT A RELATIONSHIP WITH A TABLE THAT INCLUDES THE ATTRIBUTES OF EACH OF THE
MAY CONTAIN A CERTAIN ROLL NO 5. TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY THE STUDENT WE HAVE TO SAY SOMETHING PHYSICAL STORAGE PARAMETERS NEEDED TO GENERATE A DESIGN IN A DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE, PRIMARY KEYS PLUS ANY DESCRIPTIVE ATTRIBUTES (IF ANY). THERE IS A PROBLEM THAT IF ONE OF THE
LIKE “CLASS VII, ROLL NO 5”. SO A COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE ATTRIBUTES IS COMBINED TO CREATE WHICH CAN THEN BE USED TO CREATE A DATABASE. A FULLY ATTRIBUTED DATA MODEL CONTAINS ENTITIES IN THE RELATIONSHIP IS A WEAK ENTITY SET. THERE WOULD BE NO UNIQUE INFORMATION IN
A UNIQUE COMBINATION OF VALUES SUCH AS CLASS + ROLL. DETAILED ATTRIBUTES FOR EACH ENTITY. THE TERM DATABASE DESIGN CAN BE USED TO DESCRIBE MANY THE RELATIONSHIP TABLE AND THEREFORE MAY BE OMITTED. ANOTHER PROBLEM CAN OCCUR IF THERE
FOREIGN KEY: SOMETIMES WE MAY HAVE TO WORK WITH AN ATTRIBUTE THAT DOES NOT HAVE A DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DESIGN OF AN OVERALL DATABASE SYSTEM. PRINCIPALLY, AND MOST IS AN EXISTENCE DEPENDENCY. IN THAT CASE YOU CAN COMBINE THE TWO TABLES.
PRIMARY KEY OF ITS OWN. TO IDENTIFY ITS ROWS, WE HAVE TO USE THE PRIMARY ATTRIBUTE OF A CORRECTLY, IT CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS THE LOGICAL DESIGN OF THE BASE DATA STRUCTURES USED 4) MULTIVALVE ATTRIBUTES:
RELATED TABLE. SUCH A COPY OF ANOTHER RELATED TABLE’S PRIMARY KEY IS CALLED FOREIGN KEY. TO STORE THE DATA. IN THE RELATIONAL MODEL THESE ARE THE TABLES AND VIEW. IN AN OBJECT WHEN AN ATTRIBUTE IS MULTIVALVE, REMOVE THE ATTRIBUTE FROM THE TABLE AND CREATE A NEW
E-R DIAGRAM (ERD): DATABASE THE ENTITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS MAP DIRECTLY TO OBJECT CLASSES AND NAMED TABLE WITH THE PRIMARY KEY AND THE ATTRIBUTE, BUT EACH VALUE WILL BE A SEPARATE ROW.
AN ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM (ERD) IS A DATA MODELING TECHNIQUE THAT GRAPHICALLY RELATIONSHIPS. HOWEVER, THE TERM DATABASE DESIGN COULD ALSO BE USED TO APPLY TO THE 5) GENERALIZATION:
ILLUSTRATES AN INFORMATION SYSTEM’S ENTITIES AND THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THOSE ENTITIES. OVERALL PROCESS OF DESIGNING, NOT JUST THE BASE DATA STRUCTURES, BUT ALSO THE FORMS AND CREATE A TABLE FOR THE HIGHER-LEVEL ENTITY SET. FOR EACH LOWER-LEVEL ENTITY SET, CREATE A TABLE
AN ERD IS A CONCEPTUAL AND REPRESENTATIONAL MODEL OF DATA USED TO REPRESENT THE ENTITY QUERIES USED AS PART OF THE OVERALL DATABASE APPLICATION WITHIN THE DATABASE MANAGEMENT WITH THE ATTRIBUTES FOR THAT SPECIALIZATION AND INCLUDE THE PRIMARY KEY FROM THE HIGHER-
FRAMEWORK INFRASTRUCTURE. SYSTEM LEVEL ENTITY SET.
1. DETERMINE THE PURPOSE OF THE DATABASE - THIS HELPS PREPARE FOR THE REMAINING STEPS.
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WEAK ENTITY THE OPPOSITE OF ONE-TO-MANY IS MANY-TO-ONE. ATOMICITY IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE ‘ALL OR NOTHING RULE’.
IN A RELATIONAL DATABASE, A WEAK ENTITY IS AN ENTITY THAT CANNOT BE UNIQUELY IDENTIFIED BY
ITS ATTRIBUTES ALONE; THEREFORE, IT MUST USE A FOREIGN KEY IN CONJUNCTION WITH ITS FOREIGN KEY JOIN(SQL)
ATTRIBUTES TO CREATE A PRIMARY KEY. THE FOREIGN KEY IS TYPICALLY A PRIMARY KEY OF AN ENTITY
IT IS RELATED TO. IN THE CONTEXT OF RELATIONAL DATABASES, A FOREIGN KEY IS A FIELD (OR COLLECTION OF FIELDS) IN AN SQL JOIN CLAUSE - CORRESPONDING TO A JOIN OPERATION IN RELATIONAL ALGEBRA - COMBINES
NORMALIZATION ONE TABLE THAT UNIQUELY IDENTIFIES A ROW OF ANOTHER TABLE OR THE SAME TABLE. IN SIMPLER COLUMNS FROM ONE OR MORE TABLES IN A RELATIONAL DATABASE.
WORDS, THE FOREIGN KEY IS DEFINED IN A SECOND TABLE, BUT IT REFERS TO THE PRIMARY KEY OR A
NORMALIZATION IS THE PROCESS OF MINIMIZING REDUNDANCY FROM A RELATION OR SET OF INNER JOIN
UNIQUE KEY IN THE FIRST TABLE. FOR EXAMPLE, A TABLE CALLED EMPLOYEES HAS A PRIMARY KEY CALLED
RELATIONS. REDUNDANCY IN RELATION MAY CAUSE INSERTION, DELETION AND UPDATION ANOMALIES. EMPLOYEE_ID. ANOTHER TABLE CALLED EMPLOYEE DETAILS HAS A FOREIGN KEY WHICH REFERENCES AN INNER JOIN REQUIRES EACH ROW IN THE TWO JOINED TABLES TO HAVE MATCHING COLUMN VALUES,
SO, IT HELPS TO MINIMIZE THE REDUNDANCY IN RELATIONS. NORMAL FORMS ARE USED TO ELIMINATE EMPLOYEE_ID IN ORDER TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWO TABLES. AND IS A COMMONLY USED JOIN OPERATION IN APPLICATIONS BUT SHOULD NOT BE ASSUMED TO BE
OR REDUCE REDUNDANCY IN DATABASE TABLES.
THE BEST CHOICE IN ALL SITUATIONS. INNER JOIN CREATES A NEW RESULT TABLE BY COMBINING COLUMN
TRANSACTION IN DBMS
1. FIRST NORMAL FORM – VALUES OF TWO TABLES (A AND B) BASED UPON THE JOIN-PREDICATE. THE QUERY COMPARES EACH ROW
A TRANSACTION CAN BE DEFINED AS A GROUP OF TASKS. A SINGLE TASK IS THE MINIMUM PROCESSING OF A WITH EACH ROW OF B TO FIND ALL PAIRS OF ROWS THAT SATISFY THE JOIN-PREDICATE. WHEN THE
IF A RELATION CONTAIN COMPOSITE OR MULTI-VALUED ATTRIBUTE, IT VIOLATES FIRST NORMAL FORM UNIT WHICH CANNOT BE DIVIDED FURTHER. JOIN-PREDICATE IS SATISFIED BY MATCHING NON-NULL VALUES, COLUMN VALUES FOR EACH MATCHED
OR A RELATION IS IN FIRST NORMAL FORM IF IT DOES NOT CONTAIN ANY COMPOSITE OR MULTI-VALUED PAIR OF ROWS OF A AND B ARE COMBINED INTO A RESULT ROW.
ATTRIBUTE. A RELATION IS IN FIRST NORMAL FORM IF EVERY ATTRIBUTE IN THAT RELATION IS SINGLED DATABASE TRIGGER
VALUED ATTRIBUTE. OUTER JOIN
A DATABASE TRIGGER IS PROCEDURAL CODE THAT IS AUTOMATICALLY EXECUTED IN RESPONSE TO
2. SECOND NORMAL FORM – CERTAIN EVENTS ON A PARTICULAR TABLE OR VIEW IN A DATABASE. THE TRIGGER IS MOSTLY USED FOR THE JOINED TABLE RETAINS EACH ROW—EVEN IF NO OTHER MATCHING ROW EXISTS. OUTER JOINS
MAINTAINING THE INTEGRITY OF THE INFORMATION ON THE DATABASE. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN A NEW SUBDIVIDE FURTHER INTO LEFT OUTER JOINS, RIGHT OUTER JOINS, AND FULL OUTER JOINS, DEPENDING
TO BE IN SECOND NORMAL FORM, A RELATION MUST BE IN FIRST NORMAL FORM AND RELATION MUST RECORD (REPRESENTING A NEW WORKER) IS ADDED TO THE EMPLOYEES TABLE, NEW RECORDS SHOULD ON WHICH TABLE'S ROWS ARE RETAINED: LEFT, RIGHT, OR BOTH (IN THIS CASE LEFT AND RIGHT REFER TO
NOT CONTAIN ANY PARTIAL DEPENDENCY. A RELATION IS IN 2NF IFF IT HAS NO PARTIAL DEPENDENCY, ALSO BE CREATED IN THE TABLES OF THE TAXES, VACATIONS AND SALARIES. TRIGGERS CAN ALSO BE USED THE TWO SIDES OF THE JOIN KEYWORD)
I.E., NO NON-PRIME ATTRIBUTE (ATTRIBUTES WHICH ARE NOT PART OF ANY CANDIDATE KEY) IS TO LOG HISTORICAL DATA, FOR EXAMPLE TO KEEP TRACK OF EMPLOYEES' PREVIOUS SALARIES.
DEPENDENT ON ANY PROPER SUBSET OF ANY CANDIDATE KEY OF THE TABLE. CARDINALITY
DEADLOCK IN DBMS
3. THIRD NORMAL FORM – IN THE CONTEXT OF DATABASES, CARDINALITY REFERS TO THE UNIQUENESS OF DATA VALUES CONTAINED
IN A DATABASE, A DEADLOCK IS AN UNWANTED SITUATION IN WHICH TWO OR MORE TRANSACTIONS IN A COLUMN. HIGH CARDINALITY MEANS THAT THE COLUMN CONTAINS A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF
A RELATION IS IN THIRD NORMAL FORM, IF THERE IS NO TRANSITIVE DEPENDENCY FOR NON-PRIME ARE WAITING INDEFINITELY FOR ONE ANOTHER TO GIVE UP LOCKS. DEADLOCK IS SAID TO BE ONE OF THE TOTALLY UNIQUE VALUES. LOW CARDINALITY MEANS THAT THE COLUMN CONTAINS A LOT OF “REPEATS”
ATTRIBUTES IS IT IS IN SECOND NORMAL FORM. MOST FEARED COMPLICATIONS IN DBMS AS IT BRINGS THE WHOLE SYSTEM TO A HALT. IN ITS DATA RANGE.
A RELATION IS IN 3NF IFF AT LEAST ONE OF THE FOLLOWING CONDITION HOLDS IN EVERY NON-TRIVIAL ACID PROPERTIES IN DBMS CONSTRAINTS IN DBMS
FUNCTION DEPENDENCY X –> Y.
A TRANSACTION IS A SINGLE LOGICAL UNIT OF WORK WHICH ACCESSES AND POSSIBLY MODIFIES THE DBMS. CONSTRAINTS ENFORCE LIMITS TO THE DATA OR TYPE OF DATA THAT CAN BE
IN SYSTEMS ANALYSIS, A ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP IS A TYPE OF CARDINALITY THAT REFERS TO THE CONTENTS OF A DATABASE. TRANSACTIONS ACCESS DATA USING READ AND WRITE OPERATIONS. INSERTED/UPDATED/DELETED FROM A TABLE. THE WHOLE PURPOSE OF CONSTRAINTS IS TO MAINTAIN
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO ENTITIES (SEE ALSO ENTITY–RELATIONSHIP MODEL) A AND B IN WHICH AN THE DATA INTEGRITY DURING AN UPDATE/DELETE/INSERT INTO A TABLE.
ELEMENT OF A MAY BE LINKED TO MANY ELEMENTS OF B, BUT A MEMBER OF B IS LINKED TO ONLY ONE IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN CONSISTENCY IN A DATABASE, BEFORE AND AFTER TRANSACTION, CERTAIN
ELEMENT OF A. FOR INSTANCE, THINK OF A AS BOOKS, AND B AS PAGES. A BOOK CAN HAVE MANY PAGES, PROPERTIES ARE FOLLOWED. THESE ARE CALLED ACID PROPERTIES. CONCURRENT EXECUTION
BUT A PAGE CAN ONLY BE IN ONE BOOK.
ATOMICITY CONCURRENT EXECUTION OF TRANSACTION” MEANS MULTIPLE TRANSACTIONS EXECUTE/RUN
ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP CONCURRENTLY IN RDBMS WITH EACH TRANSACTION DOING ITS ATOMIC UNIT OF WORK FOR THE
BY THIS, WE MEAN THAT EITHER THE ENTIRE TRANSACTION TAKES PLACE AT ONCE OR DOESN’T HAPPEN OPERATIONS ENCAPSULATED IN THE PARTICULAR TRANSACTION. ... TWO TRANSACTIONS _CANNOT_
IN A RELATIONAL DATABASE, A ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP EXISTS WHEN ONE ROW IN TABLE A MAY AT ALL. THERE IS NO MIDWAY I.E. TRANSACTIONS DO NOT OCCUR PARTIALLY. EACH TRANSACTION IS UPDATE THE SAME ROW AT SAME TIME.
BE LINKED WITH MANY ROWS IN TABLE B, BUT ONE ROW IN TABLE B IS LINKED TO ONLY ONE ROW IN CONSIDERED AS ONE UNIT AND EITHER RUNS TO COMPLETION OR IS NOT EXECUTED AT ALL. IT INVOLVES
TABLE A. IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT A ONE-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP IS NOT A PROPERTY OF THE FOLLOWING TWO OPERATIONS.
DATA, BUT RATHER OF THE RELATIONSHIP ITSELF. A LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR BOOKS MAY HAPPEN
—ABORT: IF A TRANSACTION ABORTS, CHANGES MADE TO DATABASE ARE NOT VISIBLE.
TO DESCRIBE BOOKS WITH ONLY ONE AUTHOR, IN WHICH CASE ONE ROW OF THE BOOKS TABLE WILL
REFER TO ONLY ONE ROW OF THE AUTHORS TABLE, BUT THE RELATIONSHIP ITSELF IS NOT ONE-TO-MANY, —COMMIT: IF A TRANSACTION COMMITS, CHANGES MADE ARE VISIBLE.
BECAUSE BOOKS MAY HAVE MORE THAN ONE AUTHOR, FORMING A MANY-TO-MANY RELATIONSHIP.
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