Chauhan 2017

Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36
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Quaternary Science Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quascirev
Fluvial deposits as an archive of early human activity: Progress during

the 20 years of the Fluvial Archives Group
Parth R. Chauhan a, b, c, *, David R. Bridgland d, Marie-He
le
ne Moncel e, Pierre Antoine f,
Jean-Jacques Bahain g, Rebecca Briant h, Pedro P. Cunha i, Jackie Desprie e e,
Nicole Limondin-Lozoue , Jean-Luc Locht , Antonio A. Martins , Danielle C. Schreve l,
f j k
Andrew D. Shaw m, Pierre Voinchet g, Rob Westaway n, Mark J. White o, Tom S. White p
a
Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Sector 81, Mohali, Punjab 140 306, India
b
Stone Age Institute, 1392 W., Dittemore Rd., Gosport, IN 47433, USA
c
Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
d
Department of Geography, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
e
UMR 7194 CNRS, D epartement de Pr ehistoire, Mus
eum national d’Histoire Naturelle, Institut de Pal
eontologie Humaine, Paris, France
f
Laboratoire de Geographie Physique, UMR8591 CNRS-Univ. Paris 1, 1 place A. Briand, F-92195, Meudon Cedex, France
g
Laboratoire de Prehistoire du Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
h
Department of Geography, Environment and Development Studies, Birbeck University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
i
Marine and Environmental Research Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal
j
UMR CNRS 8591 - Laboratoire de G eographie Physique, INRAP Nord-Picardie, 518, rue Saint-Fuscien, 80 000, Amiens, France
k
Instituto de Ci^
encias da Terra (ICT), Departamento de Geoci^
encias, Universidade de Evora,
7000-671, Evora, Portugal
l
Centre for Quaternary Research, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
m
Faculty of Humanities (Archaeology), University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BF, UK
n
School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
o
Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
p
Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Fluvial sedimentary archives are important repositories for Lower and Middle Palaeolithic artefacts
Received 17 April 2016 throughout the ‘Old World’, especially in Europe, where the beginning of their study coincided with the
Received in revised form realisation that early humans were of great antiquity. Now that many river terrace sequences can be
10 March 2017
reliably dated and correlated with the globally valid marine isotope record, potentially useful patterns
Accepted 17 March 2017
Available online xxx
can be recognized in the distribution of the find-spots of the artefacts that constitute the large collections
that were assembled during the years of manual gravel extraction. This paper reviews the advances
during the past two decades in knowledge of hominin occupation based on artefact occurrences in fluvial
Keywords:
Fluvial archives
contexts, in Europe, Asia and Africa. As such it is an update of a comparable review in 2007, at the end of
Hominin occupation IGCP Project no. 449, which had instigated the compilation of fluvial records from around the world
River terraces during 2000e2004, under the auspices of the Fluvial Archives Group. An overarching finding is the
Lower Palaeolithic confirmation of the well-established view that in Europe there is a demarcation between handaxe
Middle Palaeolithic making in the west and flakeecore industries in the east, although on a wider scale that pattern is
Acheulian undermined by the increased numbers of Lower Palaeolithic bifaces now recognized in East Asia. It is also
Levallois apparent that, although it seems to have appeared at different places and at different times in the later
Lower Palaeolithic, the arrival of Levallois technology as a global phenomenon was similarly timed across
the area occupied by Middle Pleistocene hominins, at around 0.3 Ma.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Artefacts recovered from fluvial deposits, especially the Pleis-

* Corresponding author. tocene gravels forming aggradational river terraces, have provided
E-mail address: parthrc@iisermohali.ac.in (P.R. Chauhan).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.03.016
0277-3791/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Chauhan, P.R., et al., Fluvial deposits as an archive of early human activity: Progress during the 20 years of the
Fluvial Archives Group, Quaternary Science Reviews (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.03.016
2 P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36
much of the evidence for early human occupation of regions knapping technology, ‘Mode 3’ of Clarke (1969), is a more recent
throughout the ‘Old World’. In Europe, research on this topic ex- phenomenon globally, generally appearing during the Middle
tends back to the days of Victorian polymaths, who combined in- Pleistocene, although ‘precocious’ Levallois is seen in many
terests in many aspects of the Earth and natural sciences, as well as Acheulian assemblages before the full emergence of the former and
human history. Of considerable influence were the visits paid by Mode 3-type technologies are associated with Oldowan industries
the British geologist Joseph Prestwich (1860, 1864) and archaeol- in Africa as early as 1.5 Ma (e.g., White et al., 2011). Indeed, the
ogist John Evans (1863, 1872), later in the company of John Lubbock, widespread appearance of Mode 3 technology at ~300e250 ka is
to the artefact-bearing gravels of the River Somme, in northern used to define both the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic in
France, under the guidance of Jacques Boucher de Perthes Europe and the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Africa (Porat et al., 2002;
(1847e1864; cf. Grayson, 1983; Bridgland, 2014). As well as spark- Tryon, 2006; Tryon et al., 2006; White et al., 2011).
ing an awareness of the great antiquity of early humans in NW With the advent of mechanical aggregates extraction, coupled
Europe, this pioneering work was a prelude to over a century of with the development of new techniques such as for geochrono-
monitoring and recording of exposures in fluvial gravels, by logical dating, the attention of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic spe-
Palaeolithic archaeologists in the main, many of them amateurs cialists turned somewhat away from fluvial contexts, in which the
(e.g., Commont, 1909, 1910; Breuil, 1932, 1939; Breuil and artefacts are often more or less abraded and secondarily derived
Zbyszewski, 1945; Wymer, 1968; White et al., 2009). Such activity from previously inhabited land surfaces. Some fluvial sites, none-
was most productive during the time before mechanical extraction theless, yield primary-context archaeology, especially where
of aggregates began, with huge collections of artefacts being hominins have accessed river-bed gravel bars to obtain raw mate-
assembled and (in part) accessioned into museums. The above- rial for stone-tool making and/or to hunt and butcher animals. For
mentioned mechanization led to a significant decline in the rate example, Deve s et al. (2014) have demonstrated how the rela-
of new discoveries, since when attention has turned to using the tionship between hominin landscape behaviour and herbivore
existing collections as resources for study (e.g., Roe, 1968a, 1981; distribution during the Lower Palaeolithic in the southern Levant
Wymer, 1968, 1985, 1999; Lycett and Gowlett, 2008), supple- can be revealed by documenting various edaphic factors, including
mented with data from selected (sometimes targeted) excavations soils that retain water. River-terrace sites can have another benefit;
and investigations of various types (e.g., Martins et al., 2010a; they often occur within fluvial sequences that have great value as
Santonja and Pe rez-Gonza lez, 2010; Harding et al., 2012; Antoine regional templates for the terrestrial record of the Quaternary
et al., 2015, 2016a). (Wymer, 1999; Bridgland, 2000, 2006; Bridgland et al., 2004, 2006;
Thus Palaeolithic archaeologists were frequent earlier in- Mishra et al., 2007). For archaeologists, fluvial contexts are valuable
stigators of research on Pleistocene river-terrace gravels. Indeed, for another reason: to ascertain the contextual integrity of Palae-
before the development of geochronological techniques, the dating olithic sites and assess fluvial sorting of lithic assemblages using
of the Palaeolithic was closely linked to artefact occurrences in the various methods (e.g. Bertran et al., 2012; Byers et al., 2015). A
various terrace sequences of NW Europe. This approach was sub- unique benefit of secondary fluvial contexts is in pinpointing
sequently applied (both successfully and erroneously) to other provenance or locating primary contexts upstream or nearby from
parts of the Old World through historical/colonial impact in India, where the transported material may have originated and is eroding
Africa and other regions. With the condensed chronostratigraphies out. In fact, pinpointing contextual integrity may now have an even
that prevailed before the marine oxygen isotope (d18O) record larger role to play in helping to establish archaeological integrity in
became the global template, however, little sense could be made of some cases. For example, recent behavioural studies on wild
the complexities of these sequences, a problem that thwarted the bearded capuchin monkeys in Brazil indicate that they uninten-
prescient attempts by Roe (1968b, 1981), for example, to make tionally produce cores and sharp-edged flakes that are not utilized,
progress in that respect. Great advances have now been made in but are virtually indistinguishable from classic Oldowan flakes
terms of geochronology (see Rixhon et al., 2017/this issue), (Proffitt et al., 2016). Using proxies to reconstruct palaeoecological
although arguably the extended ‘climato-stratigraphy’ provided by conditions in association with such specimens may help confront
the d18O record (e.g. Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973; Bassinot et al., and mitigate such interpretative challenges.
1994; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) has been the most important There is also a strong tradition for archaeologically motivated
advance. This added the additional climate cycles that allowed study of river-terrace sequences in other regions of the Old World,
artefact-bearing river terraces to be correlated with gla- notably in the Levant and Turkey, where much of the work took
cialeinterglacial climatic cyclicity, in turn allowing a climatic place in the midelate 20th Century and was instigated by western
mechanism for terrace formation to be envisaged with confidence European and Russian researchers (see below, Section 5). A similar
(e.g. Zeuner, 1945, 1959; Wymer, 1968; Bridgland, 2000). observation can be made for the history of prehistoric research in
The origins of Lower Palaeolithic archaeology in NW Europe, Africa (see de la Torre, 2011) and India (e.g. de Terra and Paterson,
particularly Britain and France, was predicated by the occurrence 1939), where initial surveys were along major rivers and their
there of handaxes of the Acheulian industry, whereas further into tributaries. In India, the focus shifted to regions between river
the heart of Europe contemporaneous tool-making had relied on valleys comparatively late. Nonetheless, Palaeolithic archaeologists
smaller-sized, more impoverished raw material and thus the arte- continue to target fluvial contexts for multiple reasons: exposures
fact record, flakes and cores of Clarke's (1969) ‘Mode 1’ technology, of lithics and vertebrate fossils in primary context and the potential
is less conspicuous. Handaxe industries (Clarke's ‘Mode 2) also to date such contexts with new methods, especially luminescence
occur in Iberia, North Africa and the Levant, where their appearance tecniques (see Rixhon et al., this issue/2017). In India, the earlier
was evidently earlier and perhaps part of a south-to-north spread historical focus was on linking various lithic assemblages with
of technology (see Schreve et al., 2015 for a recent review and corresponding fluvial terrace deposits, not only for geochronolog-
source of references). In India and the wider S & E of Africa, ical purposes but also to understand and establish technological
Acheulian industries are perhaps largely separate from and of successions.
greater antiquity than those in Europe (see below), whereas the The FLAG organizers encouraged multi-disciplinary participa-
Mode 1 industries are globally more widespread and probably of tion in the activities of the group from its outset; archaeologists
the greatest longevity (e.g. Clark et al., 1994; Dennell, 2008; Barsky, were present at the inaugural meeting in Durham and Palaeolithic
2009; Chauhan, 2010a). The advent of prepared-core (Levallois) localities and assemblages have been included in many FLAG
P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36 3
meetings (e.g., those based on Cheltenham, Clermont Ferand, Siena went a step further and highlighted the relevance of groundwater
and Castelo Branco: see Cordier et al., 2017/this issue). In the early refugia to human evolution and adaptation during the driest parts
years of FLAG, and under the auspices of the group, those interested of the precessional cycle at Olduvai Gorge (~1.8 Ma). They also
in longer (glacialeinterglacial) timescale fluvial archives estab- suggested that springs might have facilitated longitudinal hominin
lished a project within the UNESCO-sponsored International dispersals between larger freshwater bodies or rivers during wetter
Geological Correlation Programme (later International Geocience periods. In a slightly older context at Olduvai Gorge, fossil tree-root
Programme) entitled ‘Global Correlation of Late Cenozoic Fluvial stumps from ~2 Ma were documented from an interval dominated
Deposits: Project IGCP 449, which ran for the five calendar years by low-viscosity mass-flow and braided-fluvial sediments. Associ-
2000e2004 (Bridgland et al., 2007). Throughout its life IGCP 449 ated with quartzite and rhyolite Oldowan artefacts, this represents
included a thematic geoarchaeological subgroup, contributors to wooded grasslands in association with freshwater drainage in
which disseminated their data at the end of the project in papers on Lower Bed I (W part of the gorge). Likewise, Archer et al. (2014)
the European (Bridgland et al., 2006) and global (Mishra et al., demonstrated the exploitation of aquatic fauna (catfish and tur-
2007) Lower and Middle Palaeolithic archives. The work of IGCP tles) by Oldowan hominins at ~1.95 Ma at FwJj20 in the Koobi Fora
449 was followed by IGCP 518 (Fluvial sequences as evidence for Formation, Lake Turkana. The archaeological material is situated
landscape and climatic evolution in the Late Cenozoic; 15 m below the KBS tuff (1.869 Ma) and capped by sand lenses.
2005e2007); this continued the work of compiling fluvial archive The most significant recent find from fluvial contexts in Africa in
data from around the globe but saw little Palaeolithic activity recent years is that from Lomekwi 3, in the West Turkana region of
(Westaway et al., 2009). With the cessation of IGCP support in 2007 Kenya, where the oldest-known stone tools have been reported
the compilation of such data has continued within the longer- (Harmand et al., 2015). These artefacts, from 3.3 Ma, are assigned to
timescale theme(s) of FLAG (cf. Cordier et al., 2017/this issue), the Lomekwian industry, based on distinct typo-technological
with continuing geoarchaeological activity, as has been reflected in traits (different from the classic Oldowan), and come from an
the topics covered at FLAG meetings and in special issues during 80 cm horizon of indurated sandy-granular sediments within a
the interim period. The present paper seeks to summarize the ad- thick bed of fine silts. The known hominin species in this region at
vances in the understanding of the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic that time is Kenyanthropus platyops, suggesting that a pre-Homo
during the 20-year life of FLAG, with emphasis on those made since species was extensively manufacturing and utilizing stone tools.
the previous (IGCP 449) review by Mishra et al. (2007). As with its Recent research by Domalain et al. (in press) may explain the
predecessor it will be organized regionally, the discussed evidence absence of stone tools in coeval deposits at Hadar, Ethiopia:
being situated in the following countries: Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania, A. afarensis did not seem to possess suitable hands to produce
Ethiopia, South Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Sudan, Malawi, Senegal, Mali, Lomekwian tools. Technological analysis of the assemblages, pro-
England, France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Syria, Turkey, duced on basalt, phonolite and trachy-phonolite, in combination
Israel, Saudi Arabia, India, China, Cambodia and Java. The general with experimental archaeology, indicates the use of passive-
location of sites and river systems highlighted here and in the hammer and/bipolar techniques as well as anvils or blocks.
predecessor review are depicted in Fig. 1. Summary data are also New palynological research has also been carried out at two
provided in Table 1. In general, sites with archaeology in contexts sites (OGS-6a and OGS-7) at Gona (Ethiopia), the oldest-known
other than fluvial have not been included in the review nor dis- occurrence of classic Oldowan evidence (if accepted that Lomek-
played on the map. This includes cave sites, rock shelters, desert wian is a distinct predecessor). Lo pez-S
aez and Domínguez-
sites in dune contexts, sites in colluvial fans, on bedrock exposures, Rodrigo (2009) recovered fossil pollen, amongst which Podo-
in quarry contexts and so forth. It is to be noted that additional sites carpus cf. gracilor is dominant, reflecting a mosaic of open and
might have been reported in regional journals across the Old World, closed habitats within a prominent wooded environment during
in languages other than English; not being easily accessible and/or hominin occupation. In addition to these older Mode 1 assem-
translated into English, these are not included in this review. blages, new (classic) Oldowan sites have also been reported. From
Zambia, Barham et al. (2011) used cosmogenic nuclide, palae-
2. Africa omagnetic and isothermal thermoluminescence methods for rela-
tive and radiometric dating of Mode 1 and Mode 3 lithic
Current African projects are almost all re-excavations of old sites assemblages (on quartzite) to the mid-Early Pleistocene (or no
(e.g., Olorgasailie, Olduvai, Isimila, Kalambo Falls) that have been older than ~1 Ma) and ~78 ka, respectively. The undiagnostic Mode
conducted to refine chronology, stratigraphy, etc. Little has 3 evidence might represent a continuing human presence into MIS
emerged to change understanding of the Acheulian since the 5, when other areas of south-central Africa were depopulated due
demonstration of this industry at Konso-Gardula at ~1.75 Ma to reduced rainfall. It is inferred that the Mode 1 evidence here may
(Beyene et al., 2012). Nonetheless, several new investigations have post-date the eastern and southern African Oldowan in general, a
taken place on this continent in the last decade and most recently phenomenon documented at comparably younger Oldowan oc-
investigated palaeoanthropological sites come from fluvial contexts currences elsewhere, such as the Middle Awash in Ethiopia (Clark
and so are worthy of review here. For example, at Olduvai Gorge, et al., 1994). The site of Manzi is represented by a ~4.7 m section
Ashley et al. (2009) have demonstrated that Oldowan lithic evi- comprising coarseemedium fluvial sands with discontinuous
dence (between ~1.79 and ~1.74 Ma) did not vary at spring sites but gravel layers containing well-rounded quartzite clasts; no Acheu-
was variable at lake-margin sites, between wet and dry periods, lian (Mode 2) artefacts were observed here. Cross bedding is visible
reflecting changing subsistence patterns during arid epsodes. This in all sedimentary types and the gravels are interpreted to repre-
work has been complemented by the collection of plant fossils from sent bars deposited by scouring during wet-season floods. Due to
Upper Bed I and Lower Bed II (~1.85e~1.7 Ma) of Olduvai Gorge, this high-energy fluvial context, a nearby gravel bar was system-
particularly from the HWK E and MCK localities (Bamford, 2012). atically sampled in surface contexts to identify natural modification
This helped reconstruct the Early Pleistocene ecological landscape, of clasts from exposure to high velocity floods. Although 9.6% of the
including fluctuations between marshes, dry grasslands and woody 468 collected clasts were found to be modified, deep scars with
plants, trees and palms on the palaeolake margin, ultimately clear negative bulbs of percussion were completely absent, con-
correlating it with behavioural adaptations in diverse fluvial or firming the artefactual nature of the archaeological material.
wetland contexts (see Stewart, 2014). Cuthbert and Ashley (2014) With regard to the Acheulian, several key discoveries and new
Fig. 1. Location of sites and river systems mentioned in the paper and/or in the previous review, by Mishra et al. (2007), of the data from the early years of FLAG.
interpretations have been put forward by workers in different parts there are five different sites with Acheulian at ~1.7 Ma in Africa:
of Africa. Not only have the age ranges of known Acheulian as- Konso Gardula and Gona in Ethiopia (see Diez-Martín et al., 2015),
semblages been extended, new occurrences have also yielded Kokiselei at West Turkana, Kenya (Lepre et al., 2011), the Rietputs
important palaeoanthropological information. For example, now Formation in South Africa and, added most recently, at Olduvai
Fig. 1. (Continued)
Gorge in Tanzania (Diez-Martín et al., 2015). The distribution of there by reporting a ~1.7 Ma AreAr age for Early Acheulian han-
these sites suggests an older origin, yet to be discovered (Lepre daxes in spatial and functional association with faunal remains
et al., 2011), followed by a rapid dispersal. In the Rietputs Forma- from FLK West. The handaxes occur in a series of diverse sedi-
tion on the Vaal River in South Africa, handaxes occur throughout a mentary layers at the bottom of Bed II, including conglomerates,
lengthy sequence of coarse gravel, sand and laminated and cross- coarse sands, fine sands and silts. The majority of the 2120 recov-
bedded fine alluvium, dated using cosmogenic nuclides (Gibbon ered artefacts were produced on Naibor Soit quartz and also include
et al., 2009). At Olduvai Gorge, Diez-Martín et al. (2015) have re- hammerstones, battered cobbles, anvils, percussion flakes and
addressed the historical issue of the evolution of the Acheulian unmodified cobbles, some of which may represent manuports. The
Table 1
Key Palaeolithic sites discussed in the text, together with summarized information.
Site Type Age Context Significance Reference
Lomekwi, Kenya Lomekwian ~3.3 Ma sandy sediments within silt Oldest known artefacts Harmand et al., 2015
Manzi, Zambia multiple 1 Ma; 78 ka sands and gravels young Oldowan Barham et al., 2011
Kokiselei, Kenya Acheulian ~1.7 Ma e among the oldest known Acheulian Lepre et al., 2011
Rietputs Formation, SA Acheulian ~1.7 Ma gravel, sand, alluvium among the oldest known Acheulian Gibbon et al., 2009
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Acheulian ~1.7 Ma conglomerates, sands, silts among the oldest known Acheulian Diez-Martín et al., 2015
Garba IVD, Ethiopia Acheulian ~1.5 Ma sand and fine gravels emergence of new chaine operatoire Gallotti 2013
Garba XIII, Ethiopia Acheulian ~1e0.8 Ma sand and gravels multiple behvioural attributes Gallotti et al., 2014
Es2-Loplosi, Tanzania Acheulian ~1.5e1.4 Ma e site formation reinterpreted Diez-Martín et al., 2014a
EN1-Noolchalai, Acheulian ~1.5e1.4 Ma e fluvial erosion and redeposition Diez-Martin et al., 2014b
Tanzania
Cornelia-Uitzoek, SA Acheulian ~1 Ma gravels & clays (Schoonspruit R.) fossil tooth of early Homo Brink et al., 2012
Mieso, Ethiopia Acheulian ~212 Ka multiple fluvial sediment types among youngest African Acheulian de la Torre et al., 2014
Kalambo Falls, Zambia Mode 2/3 ~500e300 ka channel & floodplain deposits e Duller et al., 2015
Birzgane, Algeria MP MIS 5e4 between silt and gravels Aterian Djerrab et al., 2014
Site 1017, Egypt MP ~83 ka Nile fluvial sediments variant of the Khormusan Goder-Goldberger 2013
Atbara, Sudan Acheulian ~16e92 ka gravels and sand of Atbara River multi-aspect environmental changes Abbate et al., 2010
eMP
Silali, Kenya MSA 135e123 ka medium sands preferential and recurrent Levallois Tryon et al., 2008
Rusinga Island, Kenya MSA >33e45 ka conglomerate, silstone, sandstone includes fossil fauna Tryon et al., 2010
Karungu, Kenya MSA e palesols and conglomerates includes fossil fauna Faith et al., 2015
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania MSA e e e Eren et al., 2014
Airport Site, Malawi MSA <285 Ka multiple types in Chiwondo Beds MSA technology is unique Thompson et al., 2012
Putslaagte 1, SA MSA ~60 ka alluvial terrace of Doring River confirms human presence during MIS 3 Mackay et al., 2014
Pinnacle Point area, SA MSA e associated with yellowish red extensive MSA landscape Oestmo et al., 2014
palaeosols
Multiple sites, Senegal multiple MIS 4e2 silts and gravels of Faleme Valley diverse evidence Chevrier et al., 2016
Multiple sites, Senegal MSA e multiple; Senegal River Valley ecological transitional zones Scerri et al., 2016
Ounjougou, Mali MSA ~75e30 ka multiple sites in Yame River 30 lithic assemblages documented Tribolo et al., 2015
Purfleet, Britain multiple e multiple contexts in Thames Valley Clactonian, Acheulian, Levallois Bridgland et al., 2013
Swanscombe, Britain Clactonian MIS 11 Thames-tributary deposits Wenban-Smith, 2014
Harnam, Britain Acheulian MIS 8 e late persistence of Acheulian here Bates et al., 2014
Dunbridge, Britain Levallois MIS 9b/8 gravel terraces of Test River e Harding et al., 2012
Warren Hill, Britain Acheulian MIS 9/8 Anglian gravels of Bytham River e Hardaker, 2012
Amiens, Rue du Manege, Acheulian ~550 ka terrace deposits in Somme Basin e
F
Carriere Carpentier, F Acheulian ~550e500 ka associated with White Marl oldest Acheulian in northern France Antoine et al., 2015, 2016a
Abbeville-Rue de Paris, F MP MIS 8? calcareous sands and silts; Somme Levallois Locht et al., 2013
Caours, F MP MIS 5 tufa, gravels, silts; Somme Basin human presence during Last Antoine, 2006
Interglacial
La Celle, F Acheulian ~400 ka tufa association in Seine Valley abundant fossils Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2010
St.-Pierre-les-Elbeuf, F Acheulian MIS 11 sands, tufa, loess; Siene Valley fauna present Cliquet, 2013
Lunery, F. Mode 1 1.1e0.93 Ma slope deposit with blocks and clasts located near Rosieres-Usine fossil site e et al., 2011
Desprie
Pont-de-Lavaud, F. Mode 1 ~1.1 Ma under alluvium in Creuse Valley pollen belonging to forest taxa Voinchet et al., 2010
La Noira, F. Acheulian ~655 ka top of slope deposit in Cher Valley hominins at beginning of cold period e et al., 2010
Desprie
Gievres, F. Acheulian ~700e650 ka within Fougeres Fm., Cher Valley e e et al., 2010
Desprie
La Morandiere, F. Acheulian ~370 ka in younger alluvium, Cher Valley e e et al., 2010
Desprie
Multiple sites, Portugal Multiple ~340e75 ka T4 and T5 of Lower Tagus Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic Rosina et al., 2014; Cunha et al.,
2017
Multiple sites, Spain Multiple e Upper Tagus terraces & cave Oldowan, Acheulian, MP, Mousterian Santonja et al., 2016
Toledo area, Spain Acheulian ~226e292 ka Tagus sediments (2 sites) associated with warm faunal pez-Recio et al., 2015
Lo
assemblage
Two sites, Spain Acheulian ~760 ka Rock shelter; fluvio-lacustrine Guadix Valley Scott and Gibert, 2009
Barranc de la Boella, S. Acheulian E. Pleistocene fluvio-deltaic; Francoli Basin Elephant butchery site Mosquera et al., 2015
Aridos 1, Spain Palaeolithic MIS 11 fluvio-lacustrine; River Jarama includes herpetofauna Blain et al., 2015
Notarchirico, Italy Acheulian ~640 ka fluvial sediments of Venosa Basin hominin fossil site Pereira et al., 2015
Schoningen, Germany Acheulian MIS 11a or 9 lacustrine deposits in tunnel valley well preserved spears; fossil fauna Conard et al., 2015
Homs region, Syria Multiple e conglomerates; Orontes Valley Acheulian, Levallois Bridgland et al., 2012
Latamneh, Syria Acheulian ~1.2e0.9 Ma gravels and silts associated with fauna Bridgland et al., 2012
El Kowm, Syria Oldowan ~1.8 Ma? loam capped by various sediments associated with fauna Le Tensorer et al., 2015
Nahr el Kebir, Syria Multiple MIS 10-2 multiple Kebir River terraces slope and fluvial deposits Bridgland et al., 2008
Multiple, Turkey Multiple ~1e0.9 Ma gravels; Euphrates Valley modern quarries contexts Demir et al., 2012
Kula region, Turkey ? ~1.24e1.17 Gediz River palaeomeander and lacustrine ponding Maddy et al., 2015
Ma
Revadim, Israel Acheulian e diverse fluvial conditions adaptation to microhabitats Marder et al., 2011
N.M. Outlet, Israel MP ~65 ka fluvio-lacustrine most tools in Levantine Mousterian Kalbe et al., 2015
Multiple sites, Yemen Multiple ? Multiple contexts including fluvial Mixed technological traditions Chauhan et al., 2008
Wadi Surdud, Yemen MP 55 ka Sand silt floodplain deposit Local and regional characters Delagnes et al., 2012
Dawadmi, Saudi Arabia Acheulian ? associated with dykes large number of handaxes Jennings et al., 2015a,b
Huojiadi, China Mode 1 ~1 Ma Nihewan Basin e Liu et al., 2010
Xihoudou, China Mode 1 ~1.4 Ma e e Kong et al., 2013
Madigou, China Mode 1 ~1.2 Ma Nihewan Basin wooded grassland and steppe habitat Li et al., 2016
Cenjiawan, China Mode 1 ~1.1 Ma Nihewan Basin Guan et al., 2016
Danjiangkou, China Mode 2 <800 ka e e Kuman et al., 2014
Fengshudao, China Mode 2 ~800 ka Bose Basin associated with tektites Zhang et al., 2010
Table 1 (continued )
Site Type Age Context Significance Reference
Jingshuiwan, China Mode 1? ~70 ka silt and sand; 2nd terrace late H. erectus in Changjiang Valley Pei et al., 2010
Matar, Java Mode 1? e sand and gravel terraces associated with fossil fauna Fauzi et al. in press
Mekong, Cambodia e e terraces of Mekong River early human dispersal? Forestier et al., 2014
Durkadi, India Multiple <100 ka silts and gravels of Durkadi Nala Oldowan label revises to MP and Chauhan et al., 2013
younger
Masol, India Oldowan? ~2.56 Ma fluvio-lacustrine sediments includes fauna and cut-marked bones? Dambricourt Malasse et al., 2016
Attirampakkam, India Acheulian ~1.5e1.01 Ma laminated clays; Kortallayar River preserves animal footprints; Pappu et al., 2011
multicultural
Bamburi 1, India Acheulian ~140e120 ka clast supported cobble band Son Valley Haslam et al., 2011
Dhaba, India Multiple e alternating sandy & silty clays Son Valley Haslam et al., 2012a
Hathnora. India Multiple >48 ka cemented gravels Narmada Valley Patnaik et al., 2009
Dhansi, India ? >780 ka thin sandy-pebbly gravel layer Narmada Valley Patnaik et al., 2009
Bikor area, India Acheulian <780 ka palaeo-meander cut-off Narmada Valley Patnaik et al., 2009
Tikoda, India Acheulian e clay, gravels, silt above bedrock extremely rich and extensive site Ota and Deo, 2014
Jonk Valley, India Acheulian e gravels and cliff surfaces Orissa/Chattisgarh border Padhan 2014a
Barpadar, India Acheulian e e Orissa Behera et al., 2015
Atit, India Acheulian e Urmodi River Maharashtra Joglekar and Deo, 2015
Toka, India Soanian <200 ka uplifted post-Siwalik terrace Tirlokpur Nadi, Siwalik Hills Chauhan, 2007
Jwalapuram, India MP ~77e38 ka Jurreru Valley associated with YTT Petraglia et al., 2007
Abbreviations: MP: Middle Palaeolithic; F: France; S: Spain.
faunal assemblage includes four cut-marked bones, 13 percussed Africa, which come from cave contexts, this is from a bone bed in an
bones and 14 tooth-marked specimens, indicating butchery. The open-air context and is the type locality of the Cornelian Land
equally old (~1.76 Ma) Acheulian from Kenya was reported from the Mammal Age. The bone bed, thought to result from accumulation
site of Kokiselei 4 from the Nachukui Formation at West Turkana by a large predator such as spotted hyaena, has also yielded
(Lepre et al., 2011). The artefacts include pick-like tools, crude Acheulian artefacts. The site represents a limited pocket of valley-
handaxes, cores and flakes (some refitting) and derive from an fill, alluvial and colluvial fossil-rich gravels (Banded Gravel Bed)
interbedded series of gravels, sands and muds. and clays (Mottled Yellow Clay), dissected and eroded by the
Another well-known Acheulian site, Melka Kunture in the Upper Schoonspruit River. The artefacts recovered in the excavations
Awash Basin of Ethiopia, has been re-studied and compared with include Acheulian handaxes and cleavers and biface-flakes, almost
previously well-dated (~1.7e1.5 Ma) assemblages (e.g. Garba IVD) all on hornfels.
in the region (Gallotti, 2013). The technological analyses demon- In contrast, palaeoanthropological data from the ~212 ka
strate the emergence of a new chaîne ope ratoire at ~1.5 Ma, focused (AreAr) Acheulian site at Mieso (Ethiopia) is rare and valuable, as
on large flake/large cutting tool production, and a large variability most recently investigated African Acheulian occurrences are of
of small de bitage modalities with systematic preparation of the Early Pleistocene age. This site preserves rich Late Acheulian lithic
striking platform. These assemblages are among the richest in East evidence (on obsidian, chert and lava) and fossil vertebrate speci-
Africa and Unit D at Garba IV (the source of the abundant lithic and mens and is among the youngest East African Acheulian localities,
faunal specimens) is represented by sand and fine gravels, with overlapping chronologically with the regional MSA (Benito-Calvo
dated tephra deposits in the region. One hypothesis for site for- et al., 2014; de la Torre et al., 2014). Technologically, the site pre-
mation is that the material was transported and deposited by a serves refits at locality Mieso 31 and standardized cleavers at Meiso
flood; another involves hominins exploiting a lag deposit for raw 7, and the sedimentary sequence includes three distinct units
material. Gallotti et al. (2014) also reported a new Acheulian site comprising layers of boulder, cobble and gravel conglomerates, silty
within the same Melka Kunture complex: Garba XIII. This site is clays, sands, marls, tufas and clays with calcretes. Mieso 31 pre-
stratigraphically situated between two dated tuffs and is thus serves a cyclic alluvial aggradation sequence, wheras at Mieso 7 the
chronologically constrained to between ~1 and ~0.8 Ma. It has artefacts were deposited over a clay palaeo-surface; the artefact
yielded diverse technological information such as the exploitation density at most of these localities suggests episodic and brief oc-
of large boulders for handaxe production, the use of the Kombewa cupations, unlike East African sites with long-term high-density
method and two different raw-material procurement strategies artefact accumulations. A comparable but historically well-known
related to different chaine operatoires. This site essentially fills a site is Kalambo Falls in northern Zambia, where Duller et al.
critical chrono-stratigraphical gap in the Acheulian sequence at (2015) have been re-investigating the geochronology and site for-
Melka Kunture, particularly between the Early Acheulian at Garba mation. Here, the lithic assemblages are associated with a
IVD and the early Middle Acheulian at Gombore II. complexity of channel and floodplain deposits, namely four phases
At nearby Lake Natron, Tanzania, re-investigation at the known of punctuated deposition by the Kalambo River (~500e300,
Early Acheulian site (~1.5e1.4 Ma) of Es2-Lepolosi has revealed that ~300e50, ~50e30 and ~1.5e0.49 ka), followed by deep incision and
the material was not oriented by post-depositional fluvial pro- renewed lateral migration at a lower topographic level. The Mode
cesses, as previously thought (Diez-Martín et al., 2014a). This was 2e3 transition is dated to ~500e300 ka and the formation of the
confirmed by a statistical analysis on the orientation and tilting of site is linked with meander dynamics as opposed to the older
105 artefacts, as well as a re-assessment of past interpretations and explanation of periodic blocking of the Kalambo River.
unpublished data. In contrast, similar contextual investigations at With regard to the Middle Stone Age (MSA), new data comes
the same time at nearby EN1-Noolchalai revealed a substantial from various parts of Africa. In northern Africa, Richter et al. (2010)
effect from fluvial erosion and redeposition (Diez-Martin et al., have reported new dates for the Ifri n’Ammar rock shelter, in the
2014b). A somewhat younger Early Pleistocene context (~1 Ma) at Western Maghreb region of Morocco, a site that has now extended
Cornelia-Uitzoek, South Africa, has yielded a fossil tooth of early the chronological range of Aterian technological attributes. Ther-
Homo (Brink et al., 2012). Unlike most hominin fossils from South moluminescence dates on associated heated artefacts indicate the
stratigraphical presence of tanged artefacts at ~145 and ~83 ka and also yielded Pleistocene palaeoanthropological evidence from
their absence at ~171 ka and ~130 ka, respectively (also see Bartz Wakondo, Nyamita and western Nyamsingula localities. The
et al., 2015, for a ~75 ka OSL estimate from the nearby Wadi Sel- Wasiriya Beds are indicative of extensive cut-and-fill activity, with
loum). The youngest dated context also includes personal orna- artefact and fossil evidence coming from conglomerate, siltstone
ments and the site represents the oldest known occurrence of and sandstone deposits. The diverse fauna includes one cut-marked
tanged Aterian artefacts. In a ~7 m section, lithic assemblages were specimen (a bovid cervical vertebra), while the lithic assemblage
stratigraphically associated with clayey sediments separated by (n ¼ 176, comprising chert, quartzite and quartz) includes Levallois
layers of secondary carbonates. The entire sequence preserves a cores and flakes, flake fragments and a few retouched specimens,
rich diversity of raw-material exploitation: flint, chert, chalcedony, including a small, bifacially flaked point.
quartzite and basalt. Middle Palaeolithic cave deposits elsewhere in A comparable MSA site was recently reported from Karungu in
Morocco (El Mnasra and El Harhoura 2) show discrete correspon- the nearby Lake Victoria Basin, SW Kenya, where Faith et al. (2015)
dence with periods of wetter climate and expanded grassland addressed the palaeoenvironmental contexts using stable isotopes.
habitat (Jacobs et al., 2012). The investigators were also able to The assemblages from here include points, blades and Levallois
pinpoint gaps in occupation during MIS 5 and 4, possibly associated flakes and cores, all on obsidian sourced from areas near Lake
with drier periods with reduced vegetation cover. Although this Naivasha (250 km east). The archaeological evidence is ecologically
trend of demographic responses to changing environments and/or contextualized within a semi-arid environment with seasonal
ecologies is not reflected at the continental scale, a multi-data precipitation and a dominance of C4 grasses. There is well-
synthesis gives support to the hypothesis of human occupation of preserved vertebrate evidence reflecting convergence of histori-
the Sahara during discrete humid phases at ~135, ~115 and cally allopatric ungulates from north and south of the equator. The
~105e75 ka (Blome et al., 2012). In nearby Algeria, Djerrab et al. lithic evidence comes from palaeosols and conglomerates strati-
(2014) have reported a Middle Palaeolithic Aterian site from Birz- graphically associated with the Nyamita Tuff, possibly suggesting
gane, using Senonian flint. The stratigraphical sequence from top to human dispersals in association with grassland occurrence, sup-
bottom includes silt capping the Aterian cultural horizon followed ported by the stable-isotopic results from the fossil bovid and ro-
by cobble beds, gravels and sand. The evidence is linked with the dent enamel. The vertebrates include large mammals, microfauna,
Saharan Pluvial or the MIS 5e4 transition. tortoise and unidentified reptiles, with crocodile conspicuously
In NE Africa, the Middle Palaeolithic variant of the Khormusan absent. While several localities and sections were documented, the
from Site 1017 in the Nile Valley has been re-analyzed and archaeological evidence comes primarily from Kisaaka and Aringo.
compared with other regional MSA occurrences. Goder-Goldberger Radiocarbon and AMS dating of ostrich eggshell from Kisaaka and
(2013) noted that it is situated within the Dibeira-Jer Formation, Aringo yielded ages of ~46 ka and >49 ka, respectively (minimum
representing an aggradation stage of the Nile, now re-dated to ~83 estimates). The maximum age-estimate is 94 ka, from U-series on
ka and thus coinciding with sapropel S3, which reflects higher Nile tufa. Stable-isotope studies of palaeosol carbonates and fossil
flow and stronger monsoonal rainfall. Further south, in Sudan, tooth-enamel from the Late Pleistocene (~100e45 Ma) MSA sites of
Abbate et al. (2010) have reported new Acheulian and MSA sites Rusinga and Mfangano islands reflect riverine woodland ecosys-
from a 50 m thick Pleistocene fluvial sequence along the Atbara tems surrounded by extensive C4 grassland (Garrett et al., 2015).
River. A ~10 m EarlyeMiddle transitional sequence (Butana Bridge Investigations in the Ndutu Beds in the eastern part of Olduvai
System) of braided stream gravel and high-sinuosity river sand Gorge (Tanzania) yielded over 72 findspots including in situ ma-
yielded fossil vertebrate specimens and Acheulian artefacts. Above terial; hundreds of artefacts were collected along with some fauna
that, the 40 m Khashm El Girba Synthem yielded Late Acheulian (Eren et al., 2014). This represents some of the first systematic work
and MSA artefacts from similar fluvial deposits dated to ~126e92 on the MSA archaeology of this site and the region in general, as
ka. The entire sedimentary sequence represents past changes in most work in the gorge has focused on the Early Stone Age. The
climate, river-network modifications from tectonic activity, and investigators recovered assemblages reflecting Levallois technology
lake-level variations. on basalt, quartz and phonolite.
Tryon et al. (2008) have reported new sites in stratigraphical Further south in the East African Rift Valley, new investigations
relation with the Kapedo Tuffs from the northern Kenyan Rift valley, have been carried out at known MSA sites in northern Malawi,
highlighting raw-material availability as an influencing factor in the yielding lithic assemblages preserved in diverse sedimentary con-
lithic variability in the region. Located in the Rift zone south of Lake texts (Thompson et al., 2012). Excavations and surveys at the
Turkana, the site of Silali is situated within a context of bedded Airport Site revealed a general sequence of Chiwondo Beds overlain
pumiceous tuffs and intercalated fluvial conglomerates. Supple- by cobbles within a very poorly-sorted coarse sandy matrix, fol-
menting previous geological work, the investigators also carried lowed by iron pan and fining-upwards sand in some of the docu-
out comparisons of the chemical compositions of the tephra, mented sections. The quartz-and-quartzite lithic evidence is yet to
helping to constrain the age of the associated artefacts (135e123 be dated and is not comparable to other MSA sites in the broader
ka). Artefact assemblages collected and studied from five localities region; for example, points and backed specimens are missing here,
came largely from medium sands (Loc 1 and 4) and are produced on although radial and Levallois reduction and the absence of han-
lava. Both preferential and recurrent Levallois techniques are daxes places it within the MSA. Based on absolute dates from other
evident in the represented core assemblages and large cutting tools MSA sites in eastern and central Africa, a lower age limit of 285 ka is
are absent. The main artefact types that overlap between the sites provisionally assigned to this site.
here and from the nearby Baringo and Turkana Basins include In South Africa, new MSA evidence dated to MIS 3 comes from
unifacial and bifacial picks produced on elongated lava cobbles and the site of Putslaagte 1 (Mackay et al., 2014) on an alluvial terrace of
diverse Levallois flakes and cores. Tryon et al. (2010) also reported the Doring River in the Winter Rainfall Zone. The excavated ma-
MSA evidence and abundant fossil fauna, dated to >33e45 ka terial is dated to ~60 ka (OSL) and the majority of the 6700 recov-
(radiocarbon AMS on gastropod shell) from the Wasiriya Beds of ered artefacts were produced on hornfels and quartzite cobbles and
Rusinga Island (western Kenya). Multiple sources of evidence, nodules. The site is situated in a back-flooding tributary mouth and
including sediment lithology and the fossil ungulates, suggest a represents a slackwater deposit, reflecting several large flood
local fluvial system with a riparian wooded habitat and arid events. Most interestingly, the results contradict previous in-
grasslands. Well known for its Miocene deposits, Rusinga Island has terpretations of the absence of human occupation during later MIS
Table 2
Palaeolithic projects supported by the UK Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund.
Project No. Key publication
Archaeological Potential of Aggregate Deposits in the SW 3351 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/

Archaeological potential of cave & fissure deposits in limestone 4996 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Archaeological potential of secondary contexts 3361 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Artefacts from the Sea 3322 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
BMAPA Protocol for reporting Finds of archaeological interest 3645 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Chronology of British Aggregates using AAR and degradation 3854 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Creswell Crags Limestone Heritage Area 3426 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Creswell Crags Pleistocene Archives 3502 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Happisburgh/Pakefield exposures 4600 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
J J Wymer Archive 5088 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Late Quaternary Environmental & Human History of the Lower Tees Valley 4814 Mitchell et al. (2010)
Late Quaternary Landscape history of the Swale-Ure Washlands 3333 Bridgland et al. (2011)
Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of the Fenland Rivers 5266 Boreham et al. (2010)
Lynford Quarry 3253/5881 Boismier et al. (2012)
Mapping the Sub-Surface drift geology of Greater London (Lea Valley) 3282 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Medway Valley Palaeolithic Project 3836 Briant et al. (2012b)
Middle Thames Northern tributaries 3310 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Monitoring & Modelling of the Palaeolithic Resource at Chard Junction Quarry 5695 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
National Ice Age Network 3790/3952 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Palaeolithic material from Dunbridge, Hampshire 5703 Harding et al. (2012)
Provenancing of Flint Nodules 3363 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Re-assessment of the archaeological potential of continental shelves 3362 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/.00
Seabed Prehistory R2 3876 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Seabed Prehistory: Site Evaluation Techniques (Area 240) 5684 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Somerset Aggregate Lithics Assessment 5285 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Stanton Harcourt Pleistocene material http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Stopes Palaeolithic Archive 3338 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Submerged Palaeo-Arun River: Reconstruction of Prehistoric Landscapes, 3277/3543 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Thames through Time Vol I 3263/3913 Morigi et al. (2011)
The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the Middle & Lower Trent 3495 Bridgland et al. (2014)
The Palaeolithic Archaeology of the Sussex/Hampshire Coastal Corridor 3279 Briant et al. (2012a)
The Palaeolithic Rivers of Southwest Britain 3847 Brown et al. (2010)
The Shotton Project: A Midlands Palaeolithic Network 3388 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Valdoe Assessment Survey 4620 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
Welton le Wold 3447 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/
3, which were based primarily on rock-shelter records. This work is attributes of previously collected MSA lithic assemblages from a
nicely complemented by the results of new MSA landscape-level ferruginous gravel in sandy clay in the Tiemassas River valley
surveys for open-air sites near Pinnacle Point caves (Oestmo (Niang and Ndiaye, 2016). In Mali, Tribolo et al. (2015) have inter-
et al., 2014). Much of the fresh quartzite lithic evidence is associ- preted OSL age estimates from Ounjougou, a large site complex
ated with yellowish red palaeosols at Vleesbai and Visbaai preserving evidence of human occupation during MIS 3 with
(although the original sedimentary context is thought to have different technological cultures in rapid successions or technolog-
eroded away) and the data are compared in the context of behav- ical instability. Over 30 lithic assemblages have been documented
ioural relationships between the open-air sites and the regional from a 16 m sedimentary sequence of the Yame River and 25 of
cave records. them were bracketed between 75 and 30 ka. The MSA evidence
Major geographic gaps have been filled by investigations in here includes classic modes of production, such as Levallois, dis-
western Africa, where multiple investigations by different teams coidal, unidirectional, blade and bifacial points.
have yielded new Palaeolithic data from Senegal and Mali,
respectively. In Senegal, Chevrier et al. (2016) report different lithic 3. NW Europe
assemblages belonging to pre-MIS4/5, MIS 3 and MIS 2 from fine-
grained (e.g. silts) and coarse-grained (gravels) contexts in the There has been considerable activity during the life of FLAG in
Faleme Valley. Key localities are documented from Toumboura, this founding region for fluvial Palaeolithic studies, particularly in
Missira and other surrounding sites, all of which yielded lithic in- southern Britain and northern France, as was highlighted, for the
dustries of varying types and ages and on diverse raw materials first half of FLAG's existence, by Bridgland et al. (2006) and Mishra
such as quartz and silexite, including refitting specimens from et al. (2007). Progress in these countries, as well as in Europe as a
Fatandi V. Scerri et al. (2016) report new MSA assemblages with whole, was reviewed in a conference in Paris in November 2014 on
high technological diversity from the Senegal River Valley, ‘European Acheuleans. Northern v. Southern Europe: hominins,
including centripetal methods of preferential and recurrent Leval- technical behaviour, chronological and environmental contexts’.
lois reduction. They consider Senegal as an important transitional Aspects of that review of particular relevance to this present
zone between sub-Saharan and Saharan Africa, through the pres- overview were published in a special issue of Journal of Quaternary
ence of basal lithic modification, which is equated with the process Science (Schreve et al., 2015), while more technological topics in
of tanging; prominent tanged assemblages are found in northern relation to handaxe form and manufacture have appeared in Qua-
Africa in the form of the Aterian. The key sites they mention are ternary International (Moncel and Schreve, 2016). Schreve et al.
Naye, Koungani, Dabia, Djammal Quarry, Ndiayene Pendao, Ndji- (2015) summarized thinking in relation to the chronology and
deri, Djierigaye, Madina Cheikh Oumar, Ngnith Quarry and Mbane, palaeoenvironments of the European hominins associated with
which come from surface, gravel or quarry-spoil contexts. Another handaxe making, with emphasis on patterns of occupation and
key study represents a reassessment of the typo-technological behaviour, offering a view of the origin and dispersal of the
Acheulian, from Africa through (western) Asia to Europe. The substantial research monograph (Ashton et al., 2011).
output from the Paris conference, given its theme, is of course The ALSF and AHOB initiatives were undertaken against a
concentrated on the ‘Atlantic side’ of the separation between background of a statutorily instigated developer-funding system
western Europe, with its ‘Mode 2’ (sensu Clarke, 1969) handaxe for archaeological assessment and rescue in connection with civil
industries, and eastern Europe, where such forms are lacking engineering and building projects, which has continued to provide
(Mode 1). In the NW, as exemplified in Britain, there has been important information on selected sites, many of them fluvial. The
interaction between Modes 1 and 2, at least twice (Bridgland, 1994, location of the Thames, indisputably the most important of Britain's
2006) with the suggestion (White and Schreve, 2000) that pop- LowereMiddle Palaeolithic archives, at the centre of the nation's
ulations from the east brought Mode 1 technology (i.e. Clactonian) commercial activity has ensured that numerous such projects have
to Britain early within interglacials (MIS 11 and MIS 9), to be fol- taken place during the life of FLAG. A prime example is Purfleet, in
lowed on each occasions by handaxe-makers from the south. What the Lower Thames ~10 km downstream from central London,
is less clearcut is the timing of the first appearance of the Acheulian renowned for a tripartite stratigraphical sequence encompassing
and the extent to which it was preceded, in one or more climate Modes 1, 2 and 3 of Clarke (1969): Clactonian, Acheulian and
cycles, by simpler Mode 1 technologies. Levallois (Fig. 2). The construction of the HS1 high-speed railway
between London and the Channel Tunnel engendered a substantial
3.1. Britain report (Bridgland et al., 2013) that summarized this and several
other civil engineering projects to have encroached on the Purfleet
The importance of fluvial archives as repositories for Lower and locality, designated as a geological ‘site of special scientific interest’
Middle Palaeolithic artefacts was acknowledged in Britain by the for its Quaternary interglacial evidence by the British government
funding, by the government agency then named English Heritage, agency ‘Natural England’ (Bridgland, 1994). The various developer-
of a substantial survey of Pleistocene fluvial sand and gravel de- funded projects at Purfleet facilitated assessment of the artefacts
posits in the various river valleys and their archaeological contents, and palaeontology from the site, as well as new analyses of stable
eventually summarized by Wymer (1999). This survey, which isotopes and geochronology, all of which confirmed the veracity of
commenced in 1991, was a response to the accelerating extraction the tripartite archaeological sequence and the attribution of the
of sand and gravel in Britain for road building and construction, interglacial to MIS 9 (Bridgland et al., 2013; cf. Schreve et al., 2002).
threatening to destroy much of the surviving Palaeolithic evidence On the opposite (southern) side of the river, HS1 construction
without records being made. It comprised successive projects: the brought about the discovery of a new Clactonian (Mode 1) locality
‘Southern Rivers Palaeolithic Project’ (1991e94) and ‘the English in MIS 11 south-bank Thames-tributary deposits at Southfleet
Rivers Palaeolithic Survey’ (1994e97). Few other countries will Road, Swanscombe (Wenban-Smith et al., 2006), as well as further
have experienced such pressures on surviving resources, but these appraisal of the MIS 8e5 Ebbsfleet tributary sediments, in the vi-
initiatives represent an exemplar for future consideration. The cinity of the celebrated Levallois site at Baker's Hole (Wenban-
resultant exhaustive survey provided a superb archive upon which Smith, 1995, 2014; cf. Bridgland, 1994).
much of the research on British Pleistocene archaeology during the Important advances that have been made in the application of
first two decades of the Fluvial Archives Group (FLAG) was built geochronological methodology to British Quaternary fluvial ar-
(e.g., Ashton and Lewis, 2002; White et al., 2006; Ashton et al., chives during the life of FLAG (Rixhon et al., 2017; this issue) are of
2011; Bridgland and White, 2014, 2015); the database, which in- considerable relevance to understanding the LowereMiddle
cludes a gazetteer of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic fluvial-context Palaeolithic. The amino-acid method, previously criticized for un-
find-spots and documentation and description of museum artefact reliability and inconsistency (McCarroll, 2002), perhaps unfairly (cf.
collections, has been digitized and archived online (http:// Bowen et al., 1989, 1995), has been overhauled and enhanced, with
archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/terps_eh_2009/). the highly successful application of the technique to the calcite
Research on the LowereMiddle Palaeolithic from fluvial con- opercula of aquatic gastropods of the genus Bithynia (Penkman
texts in Britain benefitted greatly during the early years of FLAG et al., 2007, 2011, 2013). For example, use of this technique on the
from resources provided by the Government's ‘Aggregates Levy sequence from Harnham in Wiltshire provided evidence in support
Sustainability Fund’ (ALSF). This fund, resourced from a levy on of late persistence of the Acheulian in southern Britain in an MIS 8
newly extracted minerals (introduced to enhance the economic interstadial (Bates et al., 2014). There has also been considerable
viability of recycled aggregate), funded numerous projects aimed at expansion of the use of luminescence dating methods for con-
enhancing understanding of fluvial Palaeolithic records (Table 2). straining the ages of British fluvial sequences, often making use of
Such projects ranged from studies of multiple (e.g., Palaeolithic ALSF funding for dating Palaeolithic contexts: e.g., in the Solent and
Rivers of South West England) or single fluvial systems (e.g. the its tributaries (Briant et al., 2006, 2012a; Bates et al., 2010), in the
Trent and Medway Palaeolithic Projects) to detailed examination of south-west rivers (Brown et al., 2010), in the Medway and Tha-
data from single sites (e.g. Welton-le-Wold, Lincolnshire). While meseMedway (Briant et al., 2012b) and in the Trent (Bridgland
the levy continues to operate, the ALSF was discontinued in 2011, et al., 2014). The method has been most successful for dating the
removing a valuable institutional and financial resource for this younger parts of these sequences, where the quartz OSL signal is
type of fluvial project. Nonetheless dissemination of the results of not saturated. For example, in the western Solent region the oldest
ALSF work has continued to the present day, building on, and inter- reliable ages were centered on ~250 ka (Briant et al., 2006) and in
connected with, other projects. the ThameseMedway ~300 ka (Briant et al., 2012b). Nonetheless,
Also active during the life of FLAG has been the ‘Ancient Human OSL dating holds further potential, with new protocols and more
Occupation of Britain’ (AHOB) project, funded by the Leverhulme reliable use of feldspars likely, in the next two decades, to enable
Trust (2001e2012), which oversaw research at a number of key dating of older sediments and thus artefact assemblages (Rixhon
fluvial localities, including important new discoveries of early evi- et al., 2016/this issue). In an Anglo-French study, Voinchet et al.
dence in East Anglia, at the extreme NW extremity of hominin (2015) have undertaken a programme of electron-spin resonance
occupation (Parfitt et al., 2005, 2010). Earlier AHOB activity was (ESR) dating of quartz grains and/or combined ESR and U-series
summarized by Bridgland et al. (2006) and Mishra et al. (2007). In dating of vertebrate teeth from a number of British fluvial sites,
addition to its copious journal output (cf. http://www.ahobproject. most of them of Palaeolithic significance: Brooksby, Maidcross Hill,
org/AllPubs.php), the AHOB project was disseminated in a Warren Hill, Beeches Pit (West Stow) and Pakefield, all in the
Fig. 2. The occurrence of different handaxe groups in the Thames terraces: A: Middle Thames; B: Lower Thames, downstream of London.
erstwhile Bytham system (although Beeches Pit post-dates Thus, in Britain at least, assemblages with significant numbers of
destruction of Bytham drainage), and Purfleet (see above) in the certain characteristic handaxe types are seen to date from partic-
Thames. Key outcomes include support for the pre-Anglian/early ular episodes within the Quaternary (Table 3). Uncertainties due to
Anglian fluviatile interpretation of the Warren Hill gravels, one of reworking and low artefact density must be taken into account
the richest sources of Lower Palaeolithic artefacts in Britain (cf. when interpreting such patterns (Ashton and Hosfield, 2010), but to
Wymer, 1985, 1999; Hardaker, 2012), as opposed to a younger, a large extent this is already accommodated by Roe's rigour in using
glacial outwash origin (cf. Gibbard et al., 2012, 2013). only assemblages of the highest contextual integrity. The associa-
Assessment of the museum archive, building on the fluvially- tion between significant numbers of twisted ovate handaxes and
based English Heritage projects of the 1990s (see above) as well MIS 11e10 (Roe's 1968b Group VI), as suggested by White (1998),
as the pioneering work of Roe (1968a, b), has led to the recognition was used as a potential means of age calibration for mathematical
of patterns of handaxe types that have potential chronological uplift/incision modelling of the erstwhile River Solent terrace
significance. This has essentially involved the updating and inter- sequence by Westaway et al. (2006). So too was the distribution of
pretation of Roe's (1968b) handaxe groups, as depicted in Table 3 ‘bout coupe ’ (flat-butted cordate) handaxes, which was taken as an
(White, 1998, 2015; Bridgland and White, 2014, 2015, Fig. 2). indicator for MIS 3. The modelling results proved to be closely
Table 3
An update of Roe's (1968b) British handaxe groups, with inferred ages after White (2015). Additions by White are in parentheses. Additions for this paper are in square brackets.
Pointed tradition Ovate tradition
Group I (with cleavers) Group II (with ovates) Group III (plano-convex) Group V (crude, narrow) Group VI (more pointed) Group VII (less pointed)
MIS 9e8 MIS 11 MIS 9 MIS 15e13 MIS 11 MIS 13
Furze Platt Swanscombe MG Wolvercote Fordwich Elveden High Lodge

Bakers Farm Chadwell St Mary Farnham terrace A Bowman's Lodge Warren Hill fresh
Cuxton (Hoxne UI) Warren Hill worn Swanscombe UL Highlands Farm (Black Park Terrace)
Stoke Newington Dovercourt (Kents Cavern Breccia) (Wansunt) Corfe Mullen
Hitchin [Black Park Terrace (worn)] (Foxhall Road Grey Clay) (Boxgrove)
(Foxhall Road Red Gravel) (Hoxne LI)
MIS 13e12
Caversham
Middle Palaeolithic
Shide, Pan Farm
Oldbury
comparable with those of an independent OSL-dating programme cruder handaxes are more abraded than the Boxgrove type, sug-
of that same terrace record by Briant et al. (2006), at least in the gesting that they might be older, perhaps derived from an earlier
lower terrace gravels, where such dating was reliable. Updates of episode of (warm-climate) occupation (White et al., in press). Given
the Solent modelling and geochronology were incorporated in the the conclusions of Candy et al. (2015) that the earliest Acheulian
dissemination of a long-term developer-funded watching brief at a occupation in Britain dates from MIS 13, it can perhaps be sug-
gravel quarry that exploited gravel known to be a Palaeolithic gested, as a hypothesis to be tested, that these groups represent the
resource (Harding et al., 2012). This was Kimbridge quarry, Dun- two warm peaks of MIS 13. Further collaborative work is antici-
bridge, which exploited two separate terrace formations of the pated to explore the extent to which such chronologically signifi-
River Test (a left-bank Solent tributary) over a period of 17 years, cant handaxe occurrence patterns can also be recognized on the
during which watching-brief visits were used to record and sample European continent (cf. Bridgland and White, 2015).
sections and collect artefacts (mainly from the gravel-washing
plant). An ALSF-funded OSL dating programme was added at the 3.2. France
latter stages of the work, the same resource being used to facilitate
dissemination. The principal findings were that the two gravel Research on fluvial deposits in NW France during the last decade
terrace formations have probable ages in MIS 9b and MIS 8, which has mainly focused on the Somme and Seine valleys and the Loire
fits well with evidence from other sites, including those on the near basin. Multidisciplinary projects studying fluvial archives have
Continent, for the timing of the earliest Levallois at around MIS 9, provided new data on both the chronological and the palae-
there being a small quantity of such Mode 3 material recovered oenvironmental framework for hominin occupation. These projects
from the younger of these formations. The data from the Dunbridge have been supported by the French Ministry of Culture (‘Projets
project demonstrate the considerable potential of watching-brief Collectif de Recherche’, Thematic projects), the Ministry of
monitoring, coupled with funded analyses, of commercial quarry Research (ANR) and regional institutions. The findings are sum-
enterprises. Further light is shed on the timing on Levallois in the marized below and in Fig. 3.
Solent region by detailed research in the Warsash area, one of the Research undertaken during the last 20 years on the fluvial
few sites in this region with good representation of Levallois terraces and loess sequences of the Somme Basin, and on the in-
technology (Hatch et al., 2017). In addition to confirming and OSL teractions between human settlement and environmental changes,
dating the suggested correlations in Harding et al. (2012), this have adopted interdisciplinary approaches combining the analysis
research suggested that the Levallois may have an even younger of Quaternary sequences and associated Palaeolithic settlements
age, given its fresh condition and stratigraphical position at the (Antoine et al., 2003, 2010, 2007; Bahain et al., 2007, 2010;
surface of Terrace 3. Meanwhile a case study from the Solent, at Bridgland et al., 2006). The studies, mainly targeting fluvial for-
Foxholes, Bournemouth, has shown that caution should be exer- mations, have highlighted the impact of cyclic climatic changes on
cised in using archival data. This site was previously suggested to sedimentation and river morphology, and especially the role of the
show the earliest appearance of the Acheulian in the region (cf. 100 kyr climatic cycles since ~1 Ma, giving rise to terrace formation
Wymer, 1999) but more recent work using a wider range of (Antoine et al., 2007). In this system the interglacial climatic opti-
contextual information has pointed to a different provenance for mum is recorded by calcareous tufa sequences, especially in the
the artefacts, from a younger terrace gravel (Davis, 2014). cases of MIS 11 and 5e. In the last decade several historical sites
There is now evidence to suggest that there are distinctive have been reinvestigated and new Acheulian and Middle Palae-
handaxe types that can be associated with the MIS 9e8 climatic olithic sites have been discovered.
cycle, based on the patterns of occurrence of narrow ‘ficron’ han- The Somme basin, of course, houses the type-locality of the
daxes and flat-tipped (?resharpened) ‘cleavers’ (Bridgland and Acheulian, at Saint-Acheul, which is a key area. In this terrace
White, 2014, 2015), as well as two different handaxe groups system, at Cagny-la-Garenne, in situ Acheulian occupation was
derived from pre-Anglian (pre-MIS 12) contexts (Table 3). The latter dated in the 1990s to early MIS 12, around 450 ka, but new field
are a crudely made ‘Early Acheulian’ type (Roe's Group V) and a discoveries such as at Amiens Rue du Mane ge, dated around 550 ka
well-made, generally ovate group, never twisted (Roe's Group VII), (ESR on optically bleached quartz and terrace stratigraphy), imply a
to which handaxes from the well-known Boxgrove raised beach significant increase in the age of the oldest evidence for human
belong (cf. Roberts and Parfitt, 1999). Both occur in the recently- occupation of the area (Antoine et al., 2015). In the Lower Somme
dated (see above) Anglian gravels of the erstwhile Bytham River basin, new interdisciplinary research has been undertaken
at Warren Hill (Bridgland et al., 1995; Hardaker, 2012), as well as in (Antoine et al., 2016a) at the Carriere Carpentier site at Abbeville,
the Anglian Black Park Gravel of the Thames; in both cases the famous for its Cromerian ‘White Marl’ and its chronological
correspondence with former discoveries of ‘Abbevillian bifaces’ bioclimatic studies, the Caours sequence clearly represents the first
(handaxes) by d’Ault du Mesnil at Carrie res Leon and Moulin record of the Eemian interglacial in the Somme basin. In addition,
Quignon. According to the synthesis of bio-proxies (molluscs, large the archaeological levels discovered at Caours are a unique example
vertebrates, small mammals), the ‘White Marl’ was deposited of human occupation during the Last Interglacial in Northern
during the early part of an interglacial phase in a low-flow aquatic France.
environment, as emphasized by the development of oncoliths and Moving to the Upper Seine valley, the artefact-bearing tufa de-
the presence of fishes and aquatic molluscs. The landscape was a posit at La Celle, known for more than a century for extensive
mosaic of open-area shrubs and woodland, in which wet and grassy collections of shells and leaf impressions, has been subject to new
vegetation developed on riverbanks. On the basis of terrace stra- studies. These have been undertaken in order to reappraise the
tigraphy, dating by ESR on quartz and ESR/U-series on teeth, and on palaeontological potential of the site and to improve its dating
biostratigraphical data, the fluvial deposits of the White Marl can (Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2010). Recent investigations show that
be securely allocated to MIS 15 (Antoine et al., 2015; Voinchet et al., the tufa accumulated under interglacial conditions and demon-
2015). Furthermore, some Acheulian handaxes have been discov- strate the progressive development of forest biotopes, culminating
ered in situ at the base of sandy slope deposits directly overlying in the climatic optimum. In the upper levels the reopening of the
the fluvial sequence. These artefacts are most likely coeval with the landscape is registered in the molluscan communities. The tufa at
end of MIS 15 or from an early part of MIS 14, between 550 and 500 La Celle has been correlated with MIS 11, based on the geomor-
ka, and represent, together with the artefacts from Amiens Rue du phological context of the site, together with the occurrence of the
Mane ge, the oldest in situ evidence of human occupation in ‘Lyrodiscus fauna’, a malacological assemblage characteristic of tufa
Northern France. However, no unquestionable artefacts have been deposits of this period in NW (Limondin-Lozouet and Antoine,
discovered within the White Marl or in the underlying gravel layer. 2006). This correlation is supported by radiometric dating (U-se-
In addition, new investigations on the collections from Moulin ries and ESR/U-series) which have produced a mean age of 400 ka
Quignon were undertaken. This celebrated site is well known for (Bahain et al., 2010). Mammalian remains include Macaca and
the discoveries in 1863e4 of human remains, which raised Hippopotamus, associated with flint artefacts that indicate human
considerable controversy (Dubois, 2011). The radiocarbon dating of occupation during the interglacial optimum (Limondin-Lozouet
the human remains leaves no doubt about their modern age (Vialet et al., 2010; Dabkowski et al., 2011). The La Celle tufa provides the
et al., 2016). New work at Carrie re Carpentier has shed light on the longest malacological succession from MIS 11 and allows a detailed
geological context, showing that the Moulin Quignon sequence reconstruction of the development of the forest cover during that
overlies the same terrace step at ± 40 m above the maximum stage. These data were used to reconstruct a precise environmental
incision level of the Somme. Characteristic aquatic mollusc species and chronological framework within which Acheulian occupations
(Tanousia cf. stenostoma and Borystenia naticina) indicate a Cro- dating from MIS 11 can be set (Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2015).
merian (Complex) age and confirm that the Moulin Quignon and New fieldwork at Saint-Pierre-le s-Elbeuf has provided supple-
Carriere Carpentier sequences are of the same age (Bahain et al., in mentary data on the chronology of the sequence at this important
press). There is an early collection of 12 handaxes from close to the Seine locality (Cliquet , 2013; Cliquet et al., 2009; Leroyer and
base of the terrace sequence at Moulin Quignon and Carrie re Le
on Cliquet, 2010), where four loess layers are interspersed with four
(Boucher de Perthes, 1847e1864; D'Ault du Mesnil, 1896) but it will interglacial soils, from Elbeuf IV to Elbeuf I (Eemian). The oldest soil
always be uncertain whether these artefacts were in situ or were (Elbeuf IV) is immediately overlain by white alluvial sands with
introduced into the deposits by quarry workers (Moncel et al., faunal and lithic remains in secondary position. It is also covered by
2016a). However, their technological features fit well with similar a calcareous tufa which includes faunal remains, occasional flint
Acheulian series of Cromerian age. artefacts and an interglacial molluscan Lyrodiscus fauna attributed
At Abbeville-Rue de Paris, an in situ Middle Palaeolithic Levallois to MIS 11 (Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2010), this age being confirmed
flint industry has been recovered from fluvial calcareous sands and by ESR and ESR/U-series dates (Voinchet et al., 2015). The recent
silts located at the top of a terrace sequence (Locht et al., 2013). fieldwork has investigated the white sands and tufa overlying the
According to its location within the terrace system, the basal Elbeuf IV palaeosol. One area of 45 m2 yielded in situ Acheulian
gravels of this sequence can be correlated with Alluvial Formation artefacts and faunal remains (Cliquet et al., 2009), while rolled ar-
III of the Somme, at ~15 m above the maximum incision of the tefacts and bones in secondary context were recovered from
valley, on which basis they would be allocated to MIS 8. However another area at the same level. Above the tufa is a loess attributed to
the first attempts at ESR dating of optically bleached quartz from MIS 10. Handaxes and flake-tools where found at the very base of
these deposits seem to provide overestimated results, perhaps a this loess, a few centimetres above the tufa contact. From the old
result of poor initial bleaching (Voinchet et al., 2015). and new collections, two occupation phases have been identified
The Caours tufa sequence has yielded evidence of human within and above the tufa. The flint raw material is derived from
occupation at the beginning of MIS 5 (White et al., 2017/this issue), nearby fluvial gravels and both phases of occupation indicate the
establishing human occupation during this period of time that had manufacture of handaxes. The lower assemblage is mainly
previously been considered as unfavourable (Antoine et al.,, 2006; composed of large pointed elongated handaxes with thin, well-
Bahain et al., 2010; Dabkowski et al., 2010, 2011, 2015). The tufa worked tips. Handaxes from the higher assemblage are varied in
sequence is separated from the underlying periglacial alluvial size and form.
gravels by fluvial calcareous silts. Both tufa and fluvial silts have The open-air site of Tourville-la-Rivie re in the Lower Seine
provided abundant malacological faunas, describing a climatic Valley was discovered in 1967 in a gravel quarry, where excavations
evolution contemporaneous of the initial phases of an interglacial, have yielded Early and Middle Palaeolithic faunal and lithic as-
followed by a climatic optimum and then declining temperatures semblages (Vallin, 1991; Cliquet et al., 2010; Faivre et al., 2014). The
(Limondin-Lozouet et al., 2015). Within these horizons, several archaeological sequence lies on the lower terrace of the Seine. The
Palaeolithic layers have been discovered in situ, in association with majority of the sequence was deposited during the Saalian (MIS
interglacial large mammal remains showing evidence of human 8e6). The lowermost deposits are composed of coarse periglacial
modification. Taking into account its relative position within the gravels and sands (layer C), overlain by fine-grained alluvial sedi-
Somme terraces system, the U-series ages (average ± 120 ka BP), ments (sands and silts), which are subdivided into three layers (D1,
OSL and ESR/U-series dates and the results of the various D2 and D3). The upper-part of the sequence contains laminated
Fig. 3.
P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36

Fig. 3. Updated summary of the French Lower and Middle Palaeolithic. Legend: 1 - Heterogeneous coarse slope deposits, including weakly reworked blocks (chalk and flint), only preserved at the margin of alluvial formations, close to
junction between alluvial plains and slopes (early-glacial climatic conditions); 2 - Heterogeneous coarse gravels, including sand lenses (generally braided river systems and periglacial environments; full glacial climatic conditions); 3 -
Homogeneous to finely laminated silts or sandy silts, forming the upper unit of alluvial formations (systematically calcareous in the Somme River; late-glacial to early interglacial climatic contexts); 4 - Calcareous freshwater tufa
deposits (including oncoliths, porous tufa and stromatoliths; fully interglacial climatic contexts; 5 - Estuarine silts (Lower Seine River; interglacial climatic contexts; 6 - Humic soil and soil complexes (Weichselian early-glacial).
e, J-J. Bahain, and P. Voinchet.
Figure by P. Antoine, J. Desprie
15
sands (layer E) topped by periglacial deposits (layers FeK) the earliest European industries, with or without bifacial technol-
composed of slope deposits and aeolian sands. The assemblage ogy, and the onset of hominin occupation. Current data indicate
comprises core-management flakes, rare non-Levallois cores, possible arrivals of new hominin groups or new traditions with
retouched tools or finished products (notably Levallois blanks and handaxes and other large tools as early as 900e500 ka, before a
non-Levallois blades). The corpus provides evidence of fragmen- large dispersal in Western Europe following the severe MIS 12
tation of the reduction sequence and importation of Levallois glacial stage. The Southern Caune de l’Arago record is one example
products to the site. Human remains discovered in layer D2 have among the earliest evidence for bifacial technology, albeit in a cave
been attributed to the Neanderthal lineage (Faivre et al., 2014). ESR/ context (Barsky and Lumley, 2010; Falgue res et al., 2015). New
U-series dates performed on layer D2 teeth provide an age between fieldwork and research projects on Menez-Dregan, La Grande
226 and 183 ka. e, Terra Amata, Alde
Valle ne, Prince Cave and Lazaret, among others,
In the middle Creuse, Cher and Loir River valleys, within the in addition to the sites in fluvial contexts, have further enriched the
Middle Loire Basin, the observed fluvial aggradations correspond to post-MIS 12 corpus (De Lumley, 2009; Herisson et al., 2012; Moncel
systems of 9e10 river terraces, interpreted as the response of the et al., 2012, 2015, 2016c; Baena et al., 2014; Ravon et al., 2015;
fluvial system to Pleistocene climatic cyclicity. Work during the last Rossoni-Notter et al., 2015; Schreve et al., 2015; Viallet, 2015;
two decades has improved the chronological and archaeological Voinchet et al., 2015). Between MIS 11 and 9, new appearances
frameworks for these three systems (Desprie e et al., 2004, 2011; suggest the imminent onset of behavioural changes that are seen to
Voinchet et al., 2010). In the Sables-de-Rosie res Formation of the have occurred between MIS 9 and 7 (Early Middle Palaeolithic)
Cher, the site of Lunery was discovered close to the Early Pleisto- with, for example, new core technologies such as Levallois, and new
cene palaeontological site of Rosie res-Usine (Desprie e et al., 2011). subsistence strategies and land-use patterns (Herisson et al., 2016;
At Lunery, three fluvial terraces are stacked on the western side of Moigne et al., 2015). After MIS 7, according to areal variation,
the current valley. The lowest unit (3) yielded a periglacial het- regional traditions were established, with continuous (southern
erogeneous slope deposit including large blocks, cobbles and peb- areas) or discontinuous (northern areas) occupation represented by
bles embedded in an unsorted matrix, resting on the bedrock slope. many well-dated Middle Palaeolithic sites but mainly preserved in
These blocks are derived from older coarse fluvial deposits located loessepalaeosol records (Locht et al., 2010; Goval et al., 2015;
upslope and are overlain by cross-bedded alluvial sands, dated by Antoine et al., 2016b).
ESR on quartz to 1.1 ± 0.12 Ma, reflecting both periglacial conditions
and deposition at the front of a fluvial bar during the Early Pleis- 4. Southern Europe
tocene. Three archaeological horizons including a coreeflake in-
dustry have been recovered within unit 3. The overlying unit 2 is 4.1. Iberia
composed of horizontal beds of coarse fluvial sands, which yielded
an ESR age of 930 ± 68 ka. Some artefacts (cores and choppers) have In Iberia, activity in relation to the Palaeolithic during the cur-
been discovered in coarse gravels deposited on the bedrock. rency of IGCP 449 was documented by Bridgland et al. (2006) and
In the Creuse valley, Early Palaeolithic archaeological remains Mishra et al. (2007). Subsequently the SW corner of the peninsula
(Mode 1) have been found at the Pont-de-Lavaud site (Eguzon- was the venue for the FLAG 2010 meeting, when sites and museum
Chanto ^ me, Indre) under the basal alluvial deposit of Aggradation collections in the Portuguese reach of the Tagus were visited
sheet I of the Creuse system, dated to around 1.1 Ma (Voinchet et al., (Stokes et al., 2012). As part of the dissemination of that meeting,
2010). The site clearly shows several episodes of hominin presence. Cunha et al. (2012) discussed the dating of the Tagus terraces in
The main record is of river-side occupation, directly on the bedrock Portugal and Palaeolithic sites associated with these. Modern work
or at the top of a coarse diamicton composed of pebbles and rolled here has used improved geomorphological mapping of the terraces
blocks, spreading across the micaschist river-bank following fluvial and integration of several types of absolute dating: C14, U-series,
incision during a periglacial episode. Pollen and phytolith analyses ESR and OSL. In the case of the last, quartz-OSL dating of detrital
carried out of the overlying archaeological sediments have revealed grains or rocky surfaces has allowed finite ages to be obtained only
the prevalence of forest taxa, including Tertiary relics, related to a for Late Pleistocene deposits (Sohbati et al., 2012), whereas
warm and wet climate (Marquer et al., 2011; Messager et al., 2011). infrared-stimulated luminescence (IRSL), using K-feldspar as
In the Cher valley, there has been regular work between 2003 dosimeter, has been able to date the three lower terraces in the
and 2014 at the la Noira Acheulian site (Desprie e et al., 2011; sequence, going back to ~ 300 ka, limited by the high sediment dose
Moncel et al., 2013). The artefacts here were recovered at the top rates (Cunha et al., 2008, 2017/this issue; Martins et al., 2009,
of a basal coarse slope deposit (stratum b), constituted by an 2010a, b; Oosterbeck et al., 2010). The same approach has been
accumulation of local ‘millstone’, a rock formed as slabs by diage- used, but with the more recent pIR-IRSL dating method, in other
netic silicification within Oligocene lacustrine limestone, with no Portuguese coastal and fluvial staircases containing Lower to Upper
trace of any fluvial transport. The position of the artefacts, depos- Palaeolithic industries (in the Minho, Douro, Mondego and Guadi-
ited after the slope materials and before phases of gelifluction and ana rivers; e.g. Ramos et al., 2012; Carvalhido et al., 2014).
cryoturbation, would suggest that hominins were present after the In the Lower Tagus six terrace levels (T1 to T6) have been
period of river incision at the beginning of a cold climatic stage. This recognized along the valley, with details as follows: T6 at þ7e10 m
has been correlated with the beginning of MIS 16 (Desprie e et al., (above river level), 64e32 ka, with Late Middle Palaeolithic (late
2011) on the basis of ESR dates of 655 ± 55 ka on overlying Mousterian); T5 at þ18e26 m, 136e75 ka, with Middle Palaeolithic
fluvial sands (Moncel et al., 2013; Voinchet et al., 2015). The industries and Mousterian knapping (Levallois); T4 at þ34e48 m,
assemblage recovered from stratum b consists of cores, flakes and ~340e160 ka, with Lower Palaeolithic (Early to Late Acheulian) to
bifacial tools considered as early evidence of the Acheulian (Moncel early Middle Palaeolithic; T3, T2 and T1 do not contain archaeo-
et al., 2013, 2016b). Other sites discovered in the same (Fouge res) logical materials and only T3 (þ43e78 m) and T1 (þ84e164 m)
formation of the Cher include Gie vres, at la Plaine-de-la- have been dated (ESR; Rosina et al., 2014). Thus it has been shown
Morandie re, dated to 700e650 ka. At the same locality, a younger that most of the previous TL ages used to date Lower to Middle
alluvial formation (370 ka) yielded handaxes (at the site of la Palaeolithic industries (in Portugal and Spain) were minimum ages
Morandie re). (luminescence signal in saturation). For example, the Acheulian
These new data from fluvial contexts enrich the debate about archaeological levels that occur within fine-grained organic
sediments (with palaeosos) in the T4 terrace at Alpiarça, previously Francolí and formed at a height of ~50 m above modern sea level. A
dated by Mozzi et al. (2000) as Late Pleistocene (Last Interglacial), butchered adult Mammuthus meridionalis was excavated here,
were later re-dated by pIR-IRSL to 340e160 ka (Martins et al., 2014; together with other faunal remains and 125 lithic artefacts,
Cunha et al., 2017/this issue). This is of potential significance in including retouched flakes and a large, well-fashioned schist pick,
connection with the new ideas about the chronological significance as well as smaller refitting material. Spatial analysis of zoo-
of handaxe patterns, as the assemblages from here include types archaeological and taphonomic evidence, together with technical
that in Britain would be suggestive of an age in MIS 9e8 (Bridgland and useewear analyses, confirm that the butchery of the mammoth
and White, 2014). carcass was the rationale for the occupation. Geochronology using
Further upstream in the Spanish reach of the (upper) Tagus, as palaeomagnetic and cosmogenic analyses, as well as micro- and
well as of the neighbouring (upper) Duero and Guadiana systems macro-faunal biostratigraphy (notable occurrences being Mimomys
and the Min ~ o and Guadalquivir beyond these, lithic artefacts are savini and Mammuthus meridionalis itself), conform with the late
common, as exemplified in recent reviews by Santonja and Pe rez- Early Pleistocene attribution, within the late Matuyama chron
Gonz alez (2010) and Santonja et al. (2016). According to these au- (Mosquera et al., 2015). The authors claim, from the various evi-
thors the Acheulian is typically well represented in terraces ~30 m dence obtained, that this is the oldest known Early Acheulian
above their respective rivers, with a mix of Acheulian and Middle butchery site in Europe.
Palaeolithic artefacts in contexts dating from after MIS 9. An earlier Also presented as part of the dissemination of the Paris
group of assemblages, dated to the Early Pleistocene (~1.3e1.2 Ma) ‘Acheulean’ conference (see above), Blain et al. (2015) have re-
and defined as Oldowan or Mode 1, is mainly from cave sites; it ported on new palaeo-environmental data derived from herpeto-
should be noted that a higher degree of technological complexity faunal evidence from three important Spanish Palaeolithic contexts
compared with the African Oldowan cannot be eliminated on the dating from MIS 11; these include cave deposits from Atapuerca but
basis of the presently available evidence (Santonja and Pe rez-
also fluvial overbank deposits from Aridos-1, on the left valley-side
Gonz alez, 2010). In more detail, in the upper Tagus and upper of the River Jarama, SE of Madrid, and fluvio-lacustrine sediments
Duero drainage basins a maximum of 17e16 ‘true’ river terraces at Ambrona, NE of the Spanish capital. The MIS 11 interglacial was
(not considering fan-head trench terraces) were identified and an important period for hominin occupation in Europe and also is
dated by combining absolute ages and palaeomagnetic data. The seen as the best analogue amongst the late Middle Pleistocene in-
first Palaeolithic materials here are represented by isolated large terglacials for the Holocene, without the anthropogenic influences
flint flakes of apparent Early Acheulian affinity, associated with that affect the records from the second half of the latter. Herpeto-
the þ100e107 m to þ80e85 m terraces (with ages ~1.4e1.2 Ma). fauna, which include numerous taxa of high environmental and
Acheulian sites have been found in terraces ranging climatic sensitivity, are able to provide valuable climatic indicators;
from þ70e78 m (~1.1e1.0 Ma) to þ18e22 m (~135e74 ka), this later thus the work on these three Spanish sites has provided valuable
terrace having upper stratigraphical levels containing Middle information about the environmental context for occupation of
Palaeolithic (Mousterian) artefacts; Mousterian sites were found in Iberia at this time using mutual climatic range analysis (cf.
terraces between þ13 and 15 m and þ8e10 m (~60e28 ka) (e.g. Martínez-Solano and Sanchiz, 2005). This shows mean annual
Santonja and Pe rez-Gonza lez, 2010; Pe rez-Gonza
lez et al., 2013; temperatures varying from ~2.7 to ~0.3 C and mean annual pre-
Panera et al., 2014; Lo pez-Recio et al., 2015; Roquero et al., 2015a, cipitation between ~311.7 and ~74.4 mm, also showing a progres-
2015b; Rubio-Jara et al., 2016). In both the Upper and Lower sive decrease in temperature and rainfall from the climatic warm
Tagus, Upper Palaeolithic materials are usually found associated peak of the early MIS 11 interglacial to the end of the stage.
with colluvium and aeolian sands (~30e12 ka; e.g. Martins et al.,
2010a; Lo pez-Recio et al., 2015). The largest artefact collections 4.2. Italy
associated with a warm faunal assemblage were found in the
Acheulian sites of Pinedo and Cien Fanegas (Tagus, near Toledo) in An Italian fluvial site of early Middle Pleistocene affinity at
the þ25e30 m terrace, its upper deposits dated to 226 ± 37 ka Notarchirico, Basilicata, also features in the output from the Paris
(AAR) and its basal deposits >280 ka and 292 ± 17 ka (pIR-IRSL) ‘Acheulean’ conference, in a contribution by Pereira et al. (2015).
pez-Recio et al., 2015).
(Lo This is the well-known hominin fossil and Acheulian site at Nota-
On the southern periphery of the Iberian peninsula are two sites vre et al., 1994). The
rchirico, near Venosa (Mallegni et al., 1991; Lefe
of considerable renown as potentially representative of the earliest archaeological and hominin site is within fluvial sediments ~7 m
handaxe making in Europe: La Solana del Zamborino and Cueva thick that form part of the fill of the Venosa Basin, a tectonic
Negra del Estrecho del Río Quípar (Scott and Gibert, 2009). While depression that formed a drainage route directed south-eastwards
the latter is a rock shelter, the former site is associated with a towards the Bradano River (Raynal et al., 1998; Lefe vre et al., 2010).
fluvio-lacustrine sequence, >150 m thick, in the valley of the Within this sequence have been found artefacts at various levels,
Guadix, a western tributary flowing from the Sierra Nevada into the including numerous handaxes, and a femur of Homo hei-
internally draining Baza Basin. The archaeology here was previ- delbergensis. Much of the sediment is derived from the nearby
ously thought to date from the late Middle Pleistocene, based on its Monte Vulture stratovolcano and consists of ash and volcanoclastic
typology, but analysis of the sequence suggests that the Matuya- material that had previously been dated by the K/Ar and thermo-
maeBruhnes palaeo-magnetic reversal occurs just below the luminescence methods and with reference to the tephro-
artefact-bearing horizons, which are now given an age of ~760 ka stratigraphy of the local volcanism, giving an age of ~640 ka,
(Scott and Gibert, 2009), although this has been questioned by within MIS 16 (Lefevre et al., 2010). Pereira et al. (2015) have pro-
Jimenez-Arenas et al. (2011). vided new combined Ar/Ar and ESR dates that have strengthened
A further site in the NE of the peninsula, again near the coast, is the geochronology of this site, placing both the archaeological
Barranc de la Boella (Catalonia, Spain), where deposits of the lower assemblage and the hominin fossil securely within MIS 16 and thus
River Francolí system have yielded artefacts and animal bones confirming this as one of the oldest Acheulian contexts in Europe
(Vallverdú et al., 2014). Work here was summarized for the and the oldest hominin fossil locality in Italy. Schreve et al. (2015)
November 2014 Paris conference (see above) by Mosquera et al. suggested, given the paucity of evidence for hominin presence
(2015), describing a late Early Pleistocene elephant-butchery site during this severe glacial further north, that the Italian peninsula
from a fluvio-deltaic context, incised below the 60 m terrace of the might have served as a refugium for human populations at that
time, from which more northerly parts of Europe were re- 6. Western Asia: the Levant, Turkey and the Arabian
colonization subsequently. Peninsula
Fluvial deposits in the northern Levant and Turkey have yielded

5. Central and Eastern Europe Palaeolithic material in varying quantities, much of what is known
resulting from extensive research in the late 20th Century (e.g., Van
Mishra et al. (2007) reported on a number of sites in the area Liere, 1961; De Heinzelin, 1965, 1967; Ponikarov et al., 1967;
lying east of the zone within which Acheulian industries are char- Besançon and Sanlaville, 1981; Besançon and Geyer, 2003;
acteristic of the Middle Pleistocene: Germany and the former Sanlaville, 2004). Access to much of the area is currently impos-
Warsaw Pact countries. They noted the prevalence of Mode 1 in- sible because of war in Syria, but significant new work was un-
dustries in this area, with artefacts that are dominantly small and dertaken on the Euphrates, Orontes and Kebir river systems in Syria
made from glacially-transported clasts of flint and other suitable prior to the onset of hostilities, while the Euphrates was studied
raw material, belonging to the ‘Lower Palaeolithic Microlithic further upstream, in southern Turkey, and the Orontes, which flows
Tradition’ (LPMT; e.g. Burdukiewicz and Ronen, 2003). Indeed, northwards, further downstream, in its lowest reach through Hatay
Kozlowski (2003) had identified a ‘demarcation line’, approxi- Province, Turkey. A review of the fluvial stratigraphy in these sys-
mately running along the Rhine and the Alps, between the area to tems is provided elsewhere in this issue (Bridgland et al., 2017/this
the south and west where ‘Mode 2’ (handaxe) industries are issue), showing that they are more variable than the earlier (20th
widespread and that further east and north where the Acheulian is Century) workers supposed (see Oguchi et al. (2008) for informa-
absent and only ‘Mode 1’ pebble and flake industries occur. Lithic tion on late Quaternary fluvial deposits in relation to archaeological
assemblages from fluvial contexts in Central Europe belonging to sites and Schrøder et al. (2012) on spring deposits as proxies for
the LPMT Mode 1 tradition, described in the IGCP 449 reviews interstadials at the Palaeolithic site of Yabroud in Syria). The Lower
(Bridgland et al., 2006; Mishra et al., 2007), include those from and Middle Palaeolithic archaeological records of these regions
Bilzingsleben II, Ehringsdorf and Taubach, in Germany, have also been reassessed in detail (Shaw, 2012); a brief summary
Vertesszo
€ lo
€ s, Hungary (cf. Fluck and McNabb, 2007), and Racinĕves, of the repercussions of this new work for the Palaeolithic archives is
Czech Republic (Tyra cek et al., 2001, 2004). provided below. Much further west in Turkey, a new artefact dis-
The complex fluvio-lacustrine site at Scho €ningen is another that covery has been reported from the River Gediz (Maddy et al., 2015;
has yielded lithic artefacts conforming to the LPMT tradition. Two see below), location of the FLAG plenary meeting of 2006 (Cordier
substantial recent publications have provided much new infor- et al., 2017/this issue), whereas further south, in the Arabian
mation about this site: an edited volume (Behre, 2012) and a special Peninsula, well-dated Lower and Middle Palaeolithic archaeological
issue in the Journal of Human Evolution (Conard et al., 2015). The assemblages have recently been recovered from sites in Saudi
geological context for the complex site at Scho €ningen is now Arabia, Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates (see below).
interpreted as a series of largely lacustrine deposits formed within a
former Elsterian glacial tunnel valley (Lang et al., 2012, 2015; 6.1. New age model for the river Orontes terrace sequence in Syria
Stahlschmidt et al., 2015). In the 2015 compendium the
consensus view of the age of the main archaeological levels, rep- Cemented river terrace deposits were identified in the higher
resenting the Reinsdorf Interglacial deposits (Scho € ningen II) with Syrian reaches of the Orontes, above Homs, as a result of work
their famous multiple wooden spears (Thieme, 1997), holds that carried out from 2001 as part of an archaeological survey of the
this represents MIS 9, based on U-series dating of organic sediment Homs region (Bridgland et al., 2003, 2012; Philip et al., 2005). Field
(Sierralta et al., 2012) and TL dating of burnt flints (Richter and walking as part of that survey recovered 283 Lower and Middle
Krbetschek, 2015). This interpretation fits well with the ‘short- Palaeolithic artefacts, made from a variety of cherts and flint,
chronology’ view that sees the Esterian as equivalent to MIS 10 including 72 Levallois cores, 15 Levallois products and 27 handaxes.
(Eissmann, 2002; Geyh and Müller, 2005, 2006), although that idea Sporadic exposures showed that the upper parts of the conglom-
is not widely accepted (cf. Kukla, 2003; Desprat et al., 2005; eratic deposits were subject to carbonate solution at the base of the
Scourse, 2006; Preece et al., 2007; Penkman et al., 2011, 2013) soil, potentially liberating artefacts from the gravel bodies into the
and differs from earlier ascription of the Reinsdorf deposits to MIS soil; whether such material could realistically be differentiated
11 (Mania, 2006, 2007). The nature of the mammalian fauna, which from surface archaeology other than by condition and/or typo-
includes the extinct giant beaver Trogontherium cuvieri and certain technology is doubtful. The original dating model for the underly-
rare and exotic taxa, such as Homotherium latidens and Bubalus ing widespread terraces was based on uplift modelling (cf.
murrensis (Serangeli et al., 2015; Van Kolfschoten et al., 2015), has Westaway, 2002; Westaway et al., 2002, 2006), calibrated with
affinity with assemblages attributed to MIS 11 (Schreve, 2001, reference to the previously known sequence in the Middle Orontes,
2012). Furthermore, although the proponents of the MIS 9 inter- where the important fossil- and (Lower Palaeolithic) artefact-
pretation do not claim that the thermal maximum is represented by bearing sequence at Latemneh (Hooijer, 1961; Clark, 1966a, b; Van
Scho€ ningen II, the palaeo-climatic evidence (Urban and Bigga, Liere, 1966; De Heinzelin, 1966, 1968; Copeland and Hours, 1993)
2015) would appear to have more in common with the lenthy was taken to date from the mid-Middle Pleistocene (Bridgland
and cooler MIS 11 interglacial, particularly its later warm substage et al., 2003). A subsequent adjustment was required when U-se-
11a (such as is represented in the Thames at Swanscome: White ries dating of the lowest (þ10 m) Arjun terrace gave an age within
et al., 2013), than with the shorter, warmer MIS 9(e) event, MIS 6, older than the modelling had previously suggested
thought to be represented by the Purfleet Thames locality (see (Bridgland et al., 2012).
above). Whether Scho € ningen II dates from MIS 11a or MIS 9, the Later work further downstream, with the support of the Syrian
claim that its has yielded “the oldest spears in human history” can National Earthquake Center (Bridgland et al., 2012), led to recon-
be refuted, given that the yew-wood spear-tip from the Tha- sideration of the ages of the Middle Orontes sequence in the
meseMedway site at Clacton-on-Sea, SE England (McNabb, 1989; HamaeLatemneh area, building on a detailed reappraisal of the
Allington-Jones, 2015), unequivocally dates from the early inter- artefact collections and site archives from the latter site by Shaw
glacial subtsage of MIS 11 (Bridgland, 1994, 2006; White et al., (2012). The Latamneh locality incorporates a number of separate
2013). gravel quarries dating from the latter half of the 20th and into the
present century, although there is no reason to suppose that same 1988), so the recent studies of this river have also included the
sequence of mammal-bearing fluvial deposits was not exposed in reach extending ~100 km upstream of the Syrian border (Demir
all of them (Bridgland et al., 2012; Shaw, 2012). Surviving exposures et al., 2008, 2012). As part of this work, numerous abraded arte-
observed during the first decade of the 21st Century revealed a facts, included handaxes, have been recovered ex situ from quarries
thick gravel sequence extending from ~260 m to ~280 m above sea at Birecik exploiting the thick Bayındır gravel, interpreted as the
level (a.s.l.), the top being ~55 m above the level of the modern river infill of a deep incision by the Euphrates, to within ~10 m of its
Orontes, although there is a further ~10 m of silt above the gravel present level (Demir et al., 2008; Bridgland et al. (2017/this issue;
(Bridgland et al., 2012). The mammal-bearing levels are the ‘lower Fig. 4B). The Bayındır gravel aggradation, which took the river to a
gravels’ within the thick aggradational succession here (cf. Shaw, level ~55 m above the modern river, is dated 1.2e1.0 Ma, with the
2012), although faunal remains have also been observed in fine- handaxes from Birecik seemingly occurring near the base of the
grained ?floodloam deposits within this lower part of the sequence. The dating is by uplift modelling (cf. Westaway, 2002)
sequence (Bridgland et al., 2012). calibrated with reference to dated volcanicity within the Syrian
The Latamneh fauna includes Crocuta crocuta, Hippopotamus cf. reach of the Euphrates (Demir et al., 2007a, b). In that reach there
behemoth, Camelus cf. dromedarius, Giraffa camelopardalis, Prae- are numerous handaxe sites (e.g., Ain Abu Jemaa, near Deir ez-Zor;
megaceros verticornis, Bos primigenius, Bison priscus, Bovidae ‘de Fig. 4C) associated with deposits that can be considered equivalent
type antilope', gen. et sp. indet., cf. Pontoceros (?), Equus cf. altidens, to the upper part of the Bayındır Gravel at Birecik area, and can thus
Stephanorhinus hemitoechus, Mammuthus trogontherii, Stegodon cf. be dated to ~1.0e0.9 Ma. In the Syrian reach the lower part of this
trigonocephalus, Dama cf. mesopotamica and Gazella (?) soemmering aggradation is below the modern river-level and thus inaccessible.
(Gue rin and Faure, 1988; Gue rin et al., 1993). It was thought by Further upstream in the Turkish reach, around Karaba bridge (on
Bridgland et al. (2003) to be of Middle Pleistocene affinity, the Şanliurfa to Adiyaman road), the upstream equivalent of the
combining mammoth and giant deer species that are unknown in Bayındır Gravel has been termed the Kavşut Gravel (Demir et al.,
Europe after the Elsterian with a rhinoceros (S. hemitoechus) un- 2012). Handaxes have been recovered from the quarries here, of
known before that glacial. Their interpretation, which placed the generally similar techno-typology and in comparable condition to
Latamneh deposits at ~ MIS 12, owed much to the occurrence of S. those from Birecik, but it is uncertain whether they are from the
hemitoechus and is now regarded as untenable. Bar-Yosef and Kavşut Gravel or from later (Middle Pleistocene) terrace deposits
Belmaker (2010), in their review of Early and Middle Pleistocene that have been inset into the older much thicker deposit. Demir
faunas and archaeological evidence from the wider region, grouped et al. (2008) considered that there were older artefact-bearing
Latamneh with sites dating from 1.2e1.0 Ma, being influenced by deposits in the Euphrates, notably the Tilmag ara gravels (separate
the small-mammal assemblage (cf. Mein and Besançon, 1993), upper and lower terraces) of southern Turkey, disposed up to ~80 m
which includes the pre-Middle Pleistocene Lagurodon arankae (cf. above the modern river and which they tentatively dated to ~1.8 Ma
Markova, 2007). Bar-Yosef and Belmaker (2010) positioned (Fig. 4B).
Latamneh between the Israeli sites of ‘Ubeidiya (von Koenigswald A unique occurrence of a substantial Lower Palaeolithic core and
et al., 1992) and Gesher Benot Yaaqov (Goren-Inbar et al., 2000) flake (Mode 1) assemblage in Syria is reported from El Kowm (or
in a sequence of descending age, but all within the Early Pleisto- Ain al Fill), where the artefacts and fauna come from a detrital loam
cene. Bridgland et al. (2012) also took account of a further faunal horizon capped by multiple layers of carbonate-rich sediments,
record from Sharia, near Hama: a mandible, with teeth, of Mam- sand, gravels, clayey beds and loam (Le Tensorer et al., 2015). The
muthus meridionalis (Van Liere and Hooijer, 1961), an elephant that evidence (790 artefacts) was estimated to be ~1.8 ma in age, based
is regarded as an evolutionary precursor of the M. trogontherii at on geological, tectonic, palaeomagnetic and associated faunal data.
Latamneh. This occurred in gravel, 10 m thick, aggraded to ~40 m
above the modern Orontes and thus within the height range of the 6.3. New understanding of the lower and Middle Palaeolithic of the
sequence at Latamneh, 25 km further downstream. Bridgland et al. Orontes and Euphrates
(2012, 2017/this issue) therefore reinterpreted the age of the
sequence at Latamneh, and thus of its Acheulian assemblage, as The new field investigations, described above, in combination
~1.2e0.9 Ma (Fig. 4A). with reassessment of extant artefact collections (Shaw, 2012), have
greatly enhanced understanding of the Lower and Middle Palae-
6.2. Early Palaeolitic material from the Euphrates olithic archaeological record from the Orontes and Euphrates val-
leys. Key findings are:
Of direct relevance to the new interpretation of Latamneh is the
Palaeolithic record from the River Euphrates. The terrace archives 1. There is evidence for a regional hominin presence dating back to
of the Syrian reach of this river have been studied from the mid- at least 1 Ma. This early occupation is associated with handaxes,
20th Century, with considerable collections made of Lower and the lack of which, from some small collections, is probably a
Middle Palaeolithic artefacts from fluvial contexts (Van Liere, 1961; reflection of assemblage size and not of itself a chronological
De Heinzelin, 1965, 1967; Ponikarov et al., 1967; Besançon and indication.
Sanlaville, 1981; Copeland, 2004; Sanlaville, 2004). Understand- 2. Lower and early Middle Pleistocene assemblages are techno-
ing of the record from this reach, particularly that part between logically similar, being characterized by handaxes and simple ad
Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, has been enhanced following recent re- hoc core working. There are occasional examples of ‘simple-
survey of the terrace outcrops and new dating of interbedded prepared’ cores (cf. White and Ashton, 2003), but these are
basalt lavas (Demir et al., 2007a, b; Bridgland and Westaway, 2014). sporadic, fortuitous occurrences (the earliest examples are from
An important outcome is that much of the sequence is now gravels at Ain Abu Jemaa on the Euphrates in Syria, probably
regarded as significantly older than previously supposed. Mean- older than MIS 22; see Fig. 4C). They certainly do not reflect the
while the Palaeolithic record from the Syrian Euphrates has been lasting adoption of prepared-core working strategies.
reviewed and updated, incorporating the above-mentioned 3. Latamneh, now assigned to ~ MIS 22 (Fig. 4A) is unique in the
geological findings (Shaw, 2012). Just as earlier French workers Orontes and Euphrates valleys in having significant numbers of
extended their research on the Euphrates upstream into Turkey trihedral ‘large cutting tools’, although they occur sporadically at
(e.g., Minzoni-De roche, 1987; Minzoni-De roche and Sanlaville, other localities. Often regarded as chronologically significant
20
P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36

Fig. 4. Artefact-bearing river systems in Syria and Turkey. AeC modified from Bridgland and Westaway (2014). The main handaxe-bearing deposits are indicated in each case. A e The Middle Orontes, showing new suggested MIS
correlations. B e The Euphrates reach at Birecik. C e The Euphrates reach between Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor, showing AreAr dating of basalts. D e The Nahr el Kebir, showing the concentration of handaxes in slope deposits.
(e.g. Copeland, 2004), their prevalence here can be argued to be assemblages that were suggested to show subtle, chronologically
contextually specific and reflects hard-hammer flaking of locally distinct differences (Copeland and Hours, 1978) in fact exhibit
available tabular flint blanks, without recourse to extensive uniform characteristics. Detailed appraisal of this work, and of the
thinning. Euphrates deposits regarded as broadly contemporary new terrace stratigraphical evidence from this valley, must await
or earlier in age have produced fairly refined ovate bifacial future publication. The implications for understanding are clear,
handaxes and few trihedrals. however, given that Copeland and Hours (1978) regarded the
4. Large concentrations of late lower/Middle Palaeolithic stone artefact record from this system as the most complete expression of
tools are found on the surface and within colluvial deposits in an evolutionary framework for a coastal facies of the Levantine
valley-side locations; these are situated on sources of lithic raw Acheulian. Neither the geological framework nor the stone-tools
material: relict terrace gravels and bedrock. assemblages support this claim for a regionally distinctive ‘cul-
5. Assemblages from these late Lower/Middle Palaeolithic local- tural’ evolution. These differences might now be explicable in terms
ities reflect cyclical, logistical use of these places and of the of differences in age, since the more slowly uplifting areas drained
wider landscape. Many (particularly in the Orontes) display by those inland rivers have artefact-bearing terraces considerably
evidence of both handaxes and Levallois core working; this may older than anything preserved in the Kebir (see Fig. 4).
imply a late Lower/early Middle Palaeolithic age.
6. Collections containing fewer Middle Palaeolithic artefacts, and 6.5. Fluvial archives of the Palaeolithic in Israel
which reflect more ephemeral activity, are associated with fine-
grained sediment bodies within what were, at the time of There are many important karstic Palaeolithic sites in Israel
occupation, active floodplains. (Tabun, Qafzeh, Qesem, etc.) but significant fluvial examples are
relatively rare. The earliest Palaeolithic evidence from Israel is
found within the thick lacustrine and fluvial deposits of the
6.4. The Palaeolithic of the Nahr el-Kebir ‘Ubeidiya Formation in the central Jordon Valley, dated to ~1.4e1.2
Ma. Over 30 archaeological horizons have been identified here,
The Nahr el Kebir ash Shamali, which enters the Mediterranean the oldest of which has yielded only Mode 1 chopper assemblages
near Latakia and is Syria's third largest river, has a valuable (Bar Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993; Bar-Yosef, 1998). Handaxes and
sequence of river terraces from which significant assemblages of other large cutting tools appear in small numbers in the fourth
artefacts have been recovered (e.g., Hours, 1981, 1994; Besançon oldest archaeological horizon, Level II-26, but it is not until level
et al., 1988; Sanlaville, 1977, 1979; Besancon and Sanlaville, 1981, K-30 that they are found in larger numbers and become more
1984, 1993). Research here between 2004 and 2009 has led to re- persistent. Mode 1 is also found at Bizat Ruhama, Israel (Ronen
evaluation of the terrace record (Bridgland et al., 2008, 2017/this et al., 1998), dated to ~1.0e0.8 Ma, comparable with the simi-
issue). Prior to this recent work the accepted template for the larly dated Mode 1 site at Dursunlu, Turkey (Kuhn, 2002). At
sequence was that of Sanlaville (1979), who recognized four Kebir Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, dated to ~750 ka, a rich assemblage of
river terraces that he correlated with the four Alpine Pleistocene handaxes, cleavers, other large cutting tools, together with a form
cold stages (glacials), noting their interdigitation near the coast of Mode 3 technology on huge boulders, has been recovered from
with a staircase of interglacial raised beaches. Whereas Sanlaville fluvial deposits of the River Jordon (Goren-Inbar et al., 2000).
reconstructed his four terraces with longitudinal profiles that Goren-Inbar and colleagues have suggested that the technology at
diverge downstream, the revised interpretation envisages four Gesher Benot Ya'aqov indicates African affinities (Goren-Inbar and
broadly parallel terraces, all significantly steeper than the modern Saragusti, 1996; Goren-Inbar et al., 2000; see Mischke et al. (2014)
floodplain. Furthermore, the second highest of Sanlaville's terraces regarding the use of ostracods in understanding the environ-
and one of the most important in terms of artefact content, the mental impact on Palaeolake Hula during Acheulian occupation
Jabal Berzine Formation, has not been confirmed as a fluviatile here), perhaps recording a wider dispersal event involving
formation; it has been shown instead to consist of erosional rem- handaxe-making hominins around this time, which would fit with
nants of slope deposits capping isolated hills, although what is the appearance of handaxes in Europe ~650ka. In situ signatures
probably the same suite of slope deposits, again rich in artefacts, at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov also show the persistent use of fire
has also been observed capping the next terrace in the sequence (Goren-Inbar et al., 2004) and nut-cracking on anvils (Goren Inbar
(Fig. 4D). The newly recognized sequence has four terraces because et al., 2002), while lithic scatters containing handaxe thinning
an additional formation has been identified just above the modern flakes but no handaxes show the transport of large cutting tools
Kebir floodplain, from quarry workings ~15 km upstream of Latakia materials away from the site (Goren Inbar and Sharon, 2006). At
(Bridgland et al., 2008). It is suggested that this terrace system is Revadim, Marder et al. (2011) used multi-proxy data to demon-
much younger than was supposed by Sanlaville (1979), having strate that the Acheulian assemblages accumulated in an active
formed in synchrony with the last four 100 kyr (glacialeintergla- fluvial environment that included channelling, overbank flooding
cial) climatic cycles in an area of relatively rapid uplift (Bridgland and episodic inundation. Essentially, hominin populations were
and Westaway, 2014; cf. Bridgland et al., 2012, 2017/this issue), attracted to this location by favourable microhabitats.
thus representing MIS 10, 8, 6 and 4e2 (Fig. 4D). Less than 1 km NE of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov is a Middle Palae-
The Palaeolithic assemblages from the Kebir, divided into four olithic (Mousterian) site within a fluvio-lacustrine context in the
separate industrial traditions by the earlier workers (Copeland and Jordan valley as it extends through the Hula Basin. This is the site at
Hours, 1978, 1993; Copeland, 2004), are now seen to be largely, Nahal Mahanayeem Outlet, on the eastern bank of the River Jordan
although not entirely, derived from slope deposits rather than from at its southern exit from the Hula Valley, although when the main
the fluvial gravels. The very clear fluvial abrasion of many of them occupation level was active (~65 ka: OSL) this was a short-term
suggest derivation from older, higher-level Kebir terraces that have hunting location at the shore of the palaeo-Lake Hula, according
been lost to erosion, although some may come from the Sitt Marko to the interpretation of recent research there (Kalbe et al., 2014,
Formation, which could not be found in exposure during the recent 2015; Sharon and Oron, 2014). The site has yielded a small
surveys. Reanalysis of the extant artefact collections has demon- assemblage of flint artefacts along with well-preserved animal
strated that they are broadly technologically homogenous, bones and other fossils. Although the assemblage is small (~1000
regardless of their previous terrace attribution; handaxe artefacts) it has the highest percentage of tools of any Levantine
Mousterian site and appears to represent a non-Levallois blade- the Pleistocene and early Holocene (Powers et al., 1966; Chapman,
core knapping technology (Sharon and Oron, 2014). 1971; Anton, 1984; Edgell, 1989, 2006), although some are now
choked in places by dunes (Holm, 1960), suggesting that they have
6.6. New artefact discovery from the Gediz, Turkey been inactive as continuous systems for a considerable period of
time. At a smaller scale, more localized alluvial fans have formed
The recovery of a quartzitic worked flake from Lower Pleisto- around the bases of steep-sided jebels and dykes, from which
cene fluvial deposits of the River Gediz in the volcanically active intermittent streams flowed during wet phases (e.g. Parton et al.,
Kula region of western Turkey has extended the known extent of 2010, 2015b; Jennings et al., 2015b). It has been suggested that
early Quaternary hominin occupation of western Asia (Maddy et al., most of the trans-Arabian wadi systems were incised in their cur-
2015). The periodic Quaternary basaltic volcanism of this region has rent configurations by the early Quaternary, based on relationships
provided a means for geochronological constraint of the Gediz between basal gravel deposits and dated lava flows (Al-Sayari and
fluvial archives here, making use of KaeAr and AreAr methodol- Zo€ tl, 1978; Anton, 1984). Younger terraces have also been dated
ogies to data the lavas flows. Emplacement of these lavas has using radiocarbon (e.g. Jado and Zo € tl, 1984) but, given the unreli-
sometimes disrupted the evolution of the river, forming temporary ability of early radiocarbon methods, these ages require verifica-
lacustrine ponded reaches, and has also protected some of the tion. More recent dating programmes have applied OSL and
unconsolidated Quaternary fluvial sediments from erosion. Indeed, UraniumeThorium techniques to fluvial deposits in south-central
‘mesa’-like uplands capped with lava have been shown to preserve, Arabia (e.g. Maizels, 1987, 1990; Blechschmidt et al., 2009;
beneath the volcanic capping, staircases of weakly separated gravel Mclaren et al., 2009; Parton et al., 2010, 2013; Rose et al., 2011;
terraces that are attributable to 41 ka climatic cycles in the Early Sitzia et al., 2012; Atkinson et al., 2013), contributing to an
Pleistocene (Maddy et al., 2005, 2012, 2017 [this issue]). increasingly detailed chronology for the Late Pleistocene and Early
The worked flake is the only artefact discovered during the Holocene. However, the general absence of substantial fluvial ar-
lengthy period of research in this system by the Maddy team. Its chives in Arabia is reinforced by the fact that the most significant
preservation probably owes much to the fact that it was in silty stratified archaeological assemblages reported in recent years have
alluvial (overbank) deposits within the infill of a meander loop that been found in association with either lacustrine sequences, repre-
existed temporarily between different eruptions from a nearby senting a source of fresh water, or raw materials suitable for stone
volcanic neck. The palaeo-meander was incised through a pre- tool production (e.g. Armitage et al., 2011; Delagnes et al., 2013;
existing staircase of eleven Early Pleistocene Gediz terraces and Groucutt et al., 2015; Jennings et al., 2015b; Scerri et al., 2015).
lined with gravel and finer-grained fluvial sediments before being In Saudi Arabia, most Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites have
inundated by a lake that is attributed to the damming of the river by been found on the deflated landscapes of central Arabia or on the
a further eruption. The artefact occurred in the uppermost fluvial shores of palaeolakes that formed at various times within inter-
deposits. Maddy et al. inferred that its age lies between that of the dunal basins in the major sand seas (the Nefud and Rub al' Khali
lava capping the terrace staircase and that which they suppose deserts). The shifting nature of such dune fields has meant that
ponded the lake in the meander, leading to its eventual abandon- these basins are seldom stable enough to record more than one
ment. These dates, ~1.24 and ~1.17 Ma, respectively, provide episode of lake formation, although examples of multiple lake
maximum and minimum ages for the occupation of the region, phases preserved in superposition have now been recorded;
allowing for the incision of the meander at the older boundary and luminescence dating has shown that lake formation coincided with
the possibility that the lake was ponded by an earlier eruption than peak interglacial conditions during MIS 13, 11, 9, 7, 5e and 5c, and
that dated. possibly during MIS 3 (Mclaren et al., 2009; Petraglia et al., 2011;
Parton et al., 2013; Rosenberg et al., 2013; Groucutt et al., 2015).
6.7. New knowledge of LowereMiddle Palaeolithic occupation of Archaeological assemblages have now been found in association
fluvial environments in the Arabian Peninsula with all but the earliest of these dated sequences, suggesting that
hominin populations were able to occupy Arabia repeatedly during
In recent years the Arabian Peninsula (primarily Saudi Arabia, times of climatic and environmental amelioration. The Acheulian
Oman, Yemen and the United Arab Emirates) has emerged as an landscape surrounding Dawadmi, located on the central Nejd
important region for research into low-latitude Quaternary envi- plateau of the Arabian shield, occupies a region largely free of
ronmental change and hominin demography (e.g. Rose and Quaternary sediments (Jennings et al., 2015b). Thousands of han-
Petraglia, 2009; Groucutt and Petraglia, 2012). Expansion of hu- daxes are preserved here on a well-developed desert pavement, in
man populations into and through the interior of Arabia is widely close proximity to prominent intrusive dykes of relatively recent
accepted to have occurred on more than one occasion and to have igneous rock. These are the source of many of the fine-grained raw
been linked to humid climatic phases during the Pleistocene, when materials used for handaxe manufacture, but also provided suffi-
savanna-type landscapes prevailed in what are now hyper-arid cient relief for ephemeral wadis to form during periods of wet
regions (Vaks et al., 2007; Rosenberg et al., 2011, 2013; Breeze climate, which incised shallow valleys into the bedrock surface. The
et al., 2015; Jennings et al., 2015a; Parton et al., 2015a). However, precise of age of these assemblages remains to be ascertained,
the highly fragmentary nature of Arabian terrestrial sequences, however (Shipton et al., 2014; Jennings et al., 2015b). Assemblages
coupled with the fact that most Palaeolithic sites consist of mixed recovered from lacustrine contexts in northern Saudi Arabia are
lithic scatters from surface contexts, has hampered the construc- better constrained, with Acheulian assemblages recorded from the
tion of chronological and palaeoenvironmental frameworks with late Middle Pleistocene (MIS 11 and 9), superseded by Levallois-
which to understand the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic record. dominated assemblages from MIS 7 onwards (e.g. Crassard et al.,
A further problem for regional understanding of the Arabian 2013; Scerri et al., 2015; Groucutt et al., 2016), further extending
Palaeolithic is the lack of perennial fluvial systems, the evidence for a chronological pattern of occurrence that was first established in
which consists largely of poorly-dated gravels and alluvial deposits Europe. Possible palaeohydrological connections between north
(for recent reviews, see Breeze et al., 2015, 2016). The principal Africa, the Levant and north-western Arabia during MIS 7 and 5e
drainage across central Arabia consists of several eastward-flowing have been explored by Breeze et al. (2016), highlighting the po-
wadis that presently carry water only seasonally. It is likely that tential for a 'northern route' out of Africa and into Arabia at various
these systems were repeatedly activated during humid periods in times in the late Middle and Late Pleistocene. Bailey et al. (2015)
have demonstrated the need for integrating submerged coastal of lithics (Gaillard et al., 2016), fossil fauna (Moigne et al., 2016) and
records with terrestrial records in southwestern Saudi Arabia. In alleged stone-tool cut-marked fossils (Dambricourt Malasse et al.,
terms of inland fluvial contexts, they documented two stratified 2016). The remaining papers are on geology and geomorphology,
lithic occurrences in fluvial sediments in the Jizan area: in channel stratigraphy and litho-stratigraphy, palaeomagnetic dating, and
deposits at Wadi Sabiya and in fine-grained floodplain sediments palaeoenvironments. Except for a few specimens, the majority of
underlying a lava flow at Wadi Jizan. In the Tihama region of SW the lithics and all of the vertebrate fossils come from surface con-
Yemen, Chauhan et al. (2008) located several Lower and Middle texts. In addition, there are key methodological and interpretative
Palaeolithic open-air find-spots and surface scatters in association issues regarding the alleged cut-marks, both with the original
with fluvial gravels and on top of terrace deposits. However, the specimens as well as the experimental butchery used as a
contextual integrity of some of these occurrences may be ques- comparative analogy. The lithics, although not classified as Old-
tionable if they have had multiple cycles of exposure and burial in owan, have been interpreted to be techno-morphologically
an arid coastal setting. Nearby, at Wadi Surdud, Delagnes et al. different from the regional Soanian evidence (which is abundant),
(2012) excavated a 55 ka Middle Palaeolithic site within an allu- as the quartzite choppers are ‘simple’ instead of ‘classic’. The
vial sedimentary basin in the hills between the Yemeni highlands associated stratigraphical sequence is dominated by alternating
and the Tihama coastal plain. The recovered assemblages include strata of sand, silt, clay and sandstone. However, if it turns out to be
pointed blades, pointed flakes and Levallois-like flakes with long a legitimate find, this would revolutionize our understanding of the
unmodified cutting edges, produced from local rhyolite. The inve- temporal, behavioural and environmental contexts of early-human
tigators infer broad cultural connections with other sites in the dispersals from Africa. For instance, if scientifically legitimate, it
region but also highlight the distinctivness of the assemblages, would collectively situate expert butchery behaviour, meat eating
possibly reflecting local innovations. and associated hominin dispersal from Africa prior to the appear-
ance of the Oldowan (~2.6 Ma) and soon after the emergence of the
7. India earliest Homo (~2.8 Ma) in East Africa. This new discovery also has
other empirical issues: currently no lithic evidence is known be-
There has been a recent surge of palaeoanthropological research tween 3.3 and 2.6 Ma in Africa and no Mode 1 sites older than 1.8
in India, addressing a wide range of topics and problems; thus the Ma have been recovered outside Africa (and more specifically be-
last decade has witnessed numerous publications (journal articles tween India and Africa). In short, new and more secure evidence is
and edited volumes spanning the disciplines of Palaeolithic and needed from both Masol and elsewhere to support these claims.
Mesolithic archaeology) describing the results of new surveys, ex- While it is not impossible that Mode 1 technology was innovated
cavations and laboratory-based work. India has a lengthy history of more than once within and outside Africa, there is currently neither
the study of prehistoric occurrences in various fluvial contexts (e.g. evidence nor a reliable methodological approach to confirm it.
de Terra and Paterson, 1939) including silts, sands and conglom- Regarding the Indian Acheulian, the site of Attirampakkam has
erates. Indeed, numerous surveys over the decades, combined with been investigated since the late nineteenth century. In fact, this
new methodological approaches such as GIS (e.g. Field et al., 2007), region is historically famous in the Indian Palaeolithic for yielding
suggest that river valleys and associated environments such as the first known handaxes, discovered by R.B. Foote (Pappu, 2007).
floodplains were frequently exploited in the past as corridors for Multiple researchers have excavated or studied the prehistoric
mobility as well as for various resources. Thus, due to this contex- evidence in this region, with different results and interpretations,
tual attention, the majority of palaeoanthropological sites in India but most recently (since the early 1990s) S. Pappu and her col-
have come from fluvial contexts. Research into the Lower and leagues have been studying the evidence at Attirampakkam using a
Middle Palaeolithic since the review by Mishra et al. (2007) in- comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach. Their efforts have
cludes not only a diverse range of sites and evidence but also ad- revealed that the lowermost Acheulian is dated to ~1.5 Ma, using
dresses fundamental research issues and existing gaps in palaeomagnetic and cosmogenic nuclide dating (Pappu et al., 2011),
knowledge. The most relevant data and publications are outlined making it the oldest unequivocal Palaeolithic evidence from the
below, from the oldest to the youngest in age. subcontinent. This multicultural site also preserves post-Acheulian
With the possible exceptions of Riwat and the Pabbi Hills in the Palaeolithic assemblages and Mesolithic evidence. More intrigu-
Pakistan Siwaliks, no unequivocal or well proven evidence ingly, the sedimentary context of the site represents one of the
currently exists for the presence of Oldowan-like or pre-Acheulian lengthiest stratigraphical sequences known in South Asia (>6 m)
technology in the entire Indian subcontinent (Chauhan, 2009a). For and has even preserved Pleistocene mammalian footprints. The
example, one re-investigated claim of an Oldowan to Acheulian Early Acheulian evidence is predominantly found in alternating
transition, made in the 1970s, at Durkadi in the central Narmada layers of silt and clay without palaeosols, which represent low-
basin, turned out to preserve a much younger sequence: Middle velocity laminar overbank stream-flow. The Late Acheulian and
Palaeolithic to Mesolithic (Chauhan et al., 2013). The revised Dur- Middle Palaeolithic evidence is found in association with a dis-
kadi sequence appeared to preserve an alternating series of silt and conformable upward-fining sequence of coarse lateritic gravels,
sandyepebbly gravels, the majority of which preserve lithic arte- clay-rich silts, and finer lateritic gravels. The team has also pub-
facts on fine-grained material such as chert, chalcedony and quartz. lished on clay mineralogy (Sreedhar et al., 2008) and rock magnetic
One major reason for this techno-chronological ‘absence’ (of the properties as these relate to palaeoenvironmental and palae-
Oldowan in South Asia) may be the low profile of preserved and/or oclimatic records of Pleistocene rainfall (Warrier et al., 2011). The
exposed Early Pleistocene sedimentary contexts in the sub-Siwalik age of the Early Acheulian at Attirampakkam has significant
zone (i.e. central and peninsular India). The most recent claim is palaeoanthropological implications (see Dennell, 2013), repre-
~2.6 Ma evidence of pre-Acheulian hominin activity, again from the senting the oldest known Acheulian evidence outside of Africa.
Siwalik Hills, which preserve a continuous sequence of fluvio- Following their reinvestigations of known sites in the middle
lacustrine sediments from about 18 Ma onwards and extend from Son Valley (see Jones and Pal, 2009), Haslam et al. (2011) reported
Pakistan to NE India (Flynn et al., 2016). This new claim from Masol Late Acheulian assemblages from Patpara and Bamburi 1. These
(near Chandigarh, northern India) has been made by an Indo- have been dated to the MIS 6e5e transition or between 140 and 120
French team which has published a series of 10 multidisciplinary ka (Sihawal lower member), using the single-grain OSL method,
papers in Comptes Rendus Palevol. The finds include a large number and represent some of the youngest known Late Acheulian
evidence in the Indian subcontinent and possibly the world (dis- presumably younger and more refined bifaces in the ancient fluvial
counting the Middle Palaeolithic diminutive bifaces that survived deposits of the Narmada and its ancient tributaries. Isolated and
until 60 ka in some parts of India). At Bamburi 1, the handaxes and stratified findspots of fresh bifaces come from Surajkund (between
large flake tools come from a clast-supported angular cobble band cemented sandy-pebbley gravels and clay-rich palaeosols) and
and at Patpara the lithics come from a clast-supported pebble throughout the entire Narmada palaeochannel (i.e. palaeo-
conglomerate. The assemblages have been associated with archaic meander cut-off) nearby; the latter also preserves fresh flakes
Homo populations and the study includes a comparison of lithic and debitage representing shaping, trimming and resharpening.
specimens from multiple sites and sedimentary contexts. This work These palaeochannel sediments belong to the upper part of the
suggests that bifacial reduction had become refined and symmet- Dhansi Formation, which has yielded a normal polarity here (Rao
rical by at least 200 ka and potentially much earlier. What is et al., 1997), unlike at Dhansi; thus the Acheulian evidence in the
required now is the recovery of similar Late Acheulian assemblages palaeochannel is < 780 ka. Additional investigations of the Central
and associated absolute dates to understand the spread and Indian Acheulian were carried out on an exceptionally rich
development of the Acheulian within India. It is possible that the Acheulian occurrence at Tikoda in the Raisen District north of the
entire South Asian Late Acheulian record represents regional cul- Narmada Basin. Here, ongoing excavations by Ota and Deo (2014) of
tural groups (e.g., Ruebens, 2013) and techno-morphological di- the multiple Acheulian clusters have revealed 8 m thick stratified
versity that is yet to be properly recognized and characterized. The contexts, including clay, ferrigunous gravels and sandy silt above
recovery of such assemblages will also shed light on the appearance Vindhyan bedrock. A 4.4 m trial trench at the TKD-II locality yielded
and evolution of the subsequent South Asian Middle Palaeolithic, a sedimentary sequence of (from top) mottled fissured clay, a fer-
understanding of which remains incomplete. The study of the ter- ruginous sandy gravel and a thin layer of soft haematite pellets that
minal Acheulian and prepared-core technologies in India can also yielded artefacts and broken slabs of quartzite. The artefact horizon
reveal why specific techniques and tool types are not widespread in caps a sterile brown-yellow clay deposit and overlies a second
the subcontinent (e.g., preferential Levallois; projectile points). In artefact-bearing gravel at a depth of 3.88 m from the surface.
the same region, a multi-cultural sequence in a fluvial context has Multidisciplinary scientific studies, including geochronological
been reported from Dhaba (Haslam et al., 2012a), where a 13 m applications, are being applied, the results of which should shed
composite section has revealed lithic industries within alternating light on its behavioural significance and temporal context within
strata of sandy silt and clay rich silt with rhizoliths and carbonate the Indian Acheulian.
nodules above a conglomerate/breccia. It is also viewed as the only In eastern India, Padhan (2014a) carried out extensive Palae-
known extensive Middle Palaeolithic flake-dominated occurrence olithic surveys in the Jonk river basin of western Orissa and eastern
without handaxes in the Middle Son Valley. Chattisgarh, which yielded 15 new Acheulian localities and also
Central India must have acted as an important corridor of four Middle Palaeolithic occurrences (Padhan, 2014b). Although
movement and exchange for technologies, ideas, culture, behav- most of the evidence was found in the foothills, some collections
iours, and genes throughout the Pleistocene. Along with NW India were made from fluvial gravels of river sections and on cliff sur-
and Pakistan, this region should theoretically preserve a highly faces. Additional reports of Acheulian occurrences in fluvial settings
diverse record of archaeological evidence spanning the Palaeolithic have come from Barpadar in the Upper Jira River basin of Odisha
and Mesolithic periods, comparable with other parts of the sub- (Behera et al., 2015) and from Atit near the Urmodi River in
continent. The Narmada Basin Paleoanthropology Project (NBPP) Maharashtra (Joglekar and Deo, 2015). From a contextual pan-
has been involved in revealing the nature of Palaeolithic and Indian perspective, a number of Palaeolithic sites have yielded
palaeontological occurrences in the central Narmada Basin, build- fossil fauna in fluvial contexts from various river valleys in north-
ing on contributions by numerous previous scholars (Chauhan and ern, central and peninsular India (Chauhan, 2008a), the majority of
Patnaik, 2008). Using the work of Tiwari and Bhai (1997) as a which are Middle Palaeolithic. These mutual occurrences in fluvial
geological foundation for the multidisciplinary research, NBPP contexts include the valleys of Hunsgi, Kukdi, Pravara, Paimer,
project members initially worked at the site of Hathnora, the only Kortallyar, Godavari, Narmada, Tungabhudra, Mula, Ganga, Maha-
known pre-modern hominin fossil site in the subcontinent nadi, Bhima, Parvati, Sagileru and Ghod. Most of these fossilelithic
(Athreya, 2010). Patnaik and colleagues have clarified and inter- associations have been documented from sandyepebbly gravels
preted the Quaternary geology of this region using multidisci- (occasionally cemented), suggesting mixing and secondary depo-
plinary methods including new absolute dates. The deposits in sition. Thus far, no convincing evidence of Palaeolithic butchery
which the hominin fossil(s) were recovered are secondary in na- activity or bone modification is evident from any of these known
ture, based on stratigraphical observations of specific sedimentary occurrences. Alleged stone-tool cut marks have been reported from
contexts such as cemented gravels, mixing of lithic and fossil ma- Kurnool Caves in a Late Quaternary context and recently from
terials of different ages, and preliminary ESR dates (Patnaik et al., Masol, in the Siwalik zone (discussed earlier). In short, the Indian
2009). The NBPP has also clarified the temporal context of other Acheulian, at ~1.5 Ma, is currently the oldest outside Africa and
important finds in the valley. For example, using a new lumines- comprises a rich and diverse history of technological progression,
cence dating approach, which shows potential for further refine- radiation within South Asia and the terminal bifacial evidence is
ment and widespread application, Morthekai et al. (2015) have among the youngest in the Old World. Almost all Indian Acheulian
indirectly and broadly confirmed the Early Pleistocene age of de- sites contain varying ratios of handaxes to cleavers and extensive
posits at Dhansi (Rao et al., 1997), which have yielded undiagnostic comparative studies are required to explain the uneven typological
lithics: mostly flakes on various raw materials and two amorphous patterns across the Old World (e.g. marginal cleaver presence in
cores. The Dhansi lithics come from a thin sandy-pebbley gravel Europe; marginal biface sites in East Asia). Detailed geological
horizon at the base of a 15 m section representing both the Sur- studies on Indian fluvial contexts may also help explain the relative
ajkund and Dhansi Formation; the lithological context of the dearth of hominin fossils and butchery sites in India in comparison
MatuyamaeBrunhes transition is not preserved here however. The with other regions. Based on current evidence, the Indian sub-
gravel is overlain and underlain by alternating horizons of sand and continent is viewed by some as the easternmost occurrence of
clay, with carbonate nodules. Elsewhere in this river basin study classic Acheulian evidence or the eastern end of the Movius Line, a
area, Early and Late Acheulian sites are found in diverse ecological geographic boundary named after H. Movius, who first noticed a
contexts: older assemblages close to the Vindhyan Hills and typo-technological dichotomy between Mode 1 and Mode 2
assemblages (Schick, 1994; also see Lycett and Bae, 2010 and ref- represents the largest terrestrial source of Toba ash deposits.
erences therein). Essentially, Mode 1 assemblages dominated the Tephra deposits at Indian Acheulian sites, such as Morgaon and
eastern side of this boundary while Mode 2 dominated the western Bori, are assumed to belong to the Older Toba Tephra (Mishra et al.,
side during the Lower Palaeolithic. In recent years, new Mode 2 2005; Gaillard et al., 2010) but these deposits have recently yielded
sites have been reported from eastern Asia, a few of which are very young ages (Biswas et al., 2013) and most probably represent
mentioned below. reworked deposits of the YTT. There are two opposing sides on the
The Soanian industry has been well known since the 1930s, question of the ecological and biological impacts of the YTT, and
when de Terra and Paterson (1939) first reported this evidence several diverse hypotheses have developed. For example, Ambrose
from northern Pakistan. For the next several decades, their work (1998) has argued that the eruption probably had major impacts on
was used as a benchmark in Indian prehistory when interpreting global climate and ecology at 74 ka and, consequently, on the
lithic assemblages from river-terrace deposits. However, work by behavioural and biological evolution and migrations of hominin
the British Archaeological Mission to Pakistan (e.g., Dennell, 1989) groups, including effects from population bottlenecks. A study by
subsequently demonstrated that there was no correlation between Petraglia et al. (2007), and subsequent investigations by this team
the terrace sequences and technological change within the Soanian. (Haslam et al., 2010a, 2010b; 2012b; Blinkhorn et al., 2012; Clarkson
Another long-pending issue was the ‘chrono-cultural’ relationship et al., 2012), attempted to challenge such claims based on the re-
between the Soanian and the regional Acheulian. Today Soanian covery of Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in stratigraphical asso-
and Soanian-like assemblages are known throughout the entire ciation with the YTT at Jwalapuram in the Jurreru Valley in southern
Siwalik Hills or Sub-Himalayan region, from Pakistan to northeast India. Blinkhorn et al. (2012) have documented 60 individual lo-
India including Nepal; the evolution of this technology may cations with primary tephra deposits in the Jurreru Valley, where
represent an ecological adaptation to constraints of raw material stable isotope and phytolith analyses indicated that the ratio of C3
(exclusive dominance of rounded cobbles and pebbles) deposited to C4 plants varies with regard to changes in topographic height in
as conglomerate fans from the Himalaya. From evidence found at the landscape of up to ~5 m. This group of investigators recovered
Toka and comparable Soanian sites, Chauhan (e.g. 2007) has further Middle Palaeolithic stone tools (without bifaces) from below and
demonstrated and confirmed that most of the Soanian evidence above the YTT at multiple localities on limestone, quartzite and
appears to post-date the regional Acheulian and this adaptation of chert. As an example of the nature of the tephra occurrence, more
using rounded (i.e., river-worn) clasts continued until the regional than 7.5 m of sediments were documented at Jwalapuram locality
Neolithic and Chalcolithic times (e.g. Soni and Soni, 2010). Despite 3, including a 2.55-m-thick deposit of ash. Petraglia et al. (2007)
this progress since the 1990s, many key questions and issues have stated that the tephra initially accumulated here on a wet-
remain, such as whether there are any convincing Lower Palae- clay substrate, probably in a lacustrine environment. Based on the
olithic Soanian assemblages in the Sub-Himalayan zone. If there overall multidisciplinary evidence, they have argued that (1) the
are, what techno-cultural relationship was there with the Jwalapuram artefacts statistically cluster with those made by
contemporaneous Acheulian evidence? Lower Palaeolithic Soanian modern humans in southern Africa, thus modern humans must
assemblages are expected because the associated raw material was have reached South Asia prior to 74 ka, and (2) the super-eruption
available in many parts of the Siwalik Hills. Thus far, no Soanian site had rather minimal impact on these populations. Ultimately several
has been found in primary geological context and thus none dated, problems have arisen with the dating method and results, artefact
including the younger evidence. If Lower Palaeolithic Soanian contexts, and interpretations in Petraglia and colleagues' study
occupation is ultimately found to be absent, the associated factors (Balter, 2010; Petraglia et al., 2012). Based on re-dating of some of
and reasons need to be identified. The post-Acheulian age for most these contexts, it is interesting to observe that the Middle Palae-
Soanian assemblages is tentatively and collectively based on olithic in this region continues up to 38 ka, whereas microlithic
typologydthe presence of Levallois or prepared-core attributes, technology was already existing by 48 ka in other parts of India. In
the absence of Acheulian bifaces in Soanian assemblages, and the short, there is still no known, securely dated, palaeoanthropological
stratigraphical contexts within the regional geological formations. site in South Asia with a primary YTT deposit, in association with
Most Soanian and Soanian-like assemblages occur in surface con- Palaeolithic artefacts, above and below the ash, in an undisturbed
texts on sediments of all known Siwalik formations (ranging from context. As a consequence, it is still unclear how the eruption
the Miocene to the Pleistocene). Some assemblages, however, affected regional ecologies, hominin populations, or their technol-
appear to be chrono-stratigraphically associated with post-Siwalik ogies (see Williams, 2012b). Observations made by Jones (2010,
fluvial terraces (situated horizontally above tilted Siwalik sedi- 2012) suggest that the YTT probably had variable impacts across
ments) deformed by ongoing tectonic activity (e.g. Chauhan, the entire subcontinent and so a single widespread, homogeneous
2008b). These uplifted terraces generally comprise fluvial silt effect should not be expected. Not all archaeologists are convinced
and/or pebbly-cobbly gravel deposits and are considered to be that the Jwalapuram artefacts were produced by modern humans
younger than 600 ka in the Indian Siwalik zone, although younger (Mellars et al., 2013) and there may be other explanations possible
post-Siwalik deposits (i.e. <200 ka) are more abundant and prob- for typo-morphological overlap with specific African assemblages.
ably suggest the maximum age for most known Soanian For example, the Jwalapuram artefacts may represent parallel
assemblages. technological trajectories rather than a dispersal event from else-
The classic (i.e. flake-dominated) Middle Palaeolithic of the In- where; perhaps the tools were manufactured by a non-modern
dian Subcontinent has received considerable attention in recent hominin species. Nonetheless, the Jurreru Valley research pro-
years, particularly in relation to the dispersal of archaic and modern gram has archaeologically addressed the Toba issue for the first
human groups and associated prepared-core or Levallois technol- time and opened up many interesting questions regarding hominin
ogies (e.g. Groucutt et al., 2015). Recent debates have been domi- populations and ecological changes in South Asia.
nated by attempts to associate modern humans with the Indian
Middle Palaeolithic (in the absence of fossil evidence) and on the 8. China and east Asia
ecological and the impact of the Toba volcanic eruption on existing
hominin populations at ~74 ka (Williams, 2012a, b). The Toba vol- Palaeoanthropological research in China has yielded many new
cano is located in Sumatra and, today, the YTT isochronous marker, Lower Palaeolithic sites, as well as re-investigations and re-dating
which is known to occur across central and peninsular India, of known sites, including Mode 1 and an increasing number of
Mode 2 or biface sites, thus challenging the concept of the Movius Africa and technological similarities between the 100e35 year old
Line. The Mode 1 evidence includes the ~1 Ma Huojiadi site, dated MSA records from Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island and Karungu
by magnetostratigraphy (Liu et al., 2010), the ~1.4 Ma Xihoudu site, and the areas to the east and north of Lake Victoria, which have
dated using cosmogenic nuclides (Kong et al., 2013), and the ~1.2 yielded a history of contractions, expansions and grassland fluc-
Ma Madigou site in the Nihewan Basin, indicating occupation of tuations. Some research on the MSA in Senegal stands apart, as it
lightly-wooded grassland and sparse step habitat (Li et al., 2016). was carried out exclusively by regional archaeologists, whereas
Another site in the Nihewan Basin to preserve extensive lacustrine most palaeoanthropological research in Africa has traditionally
and fluvial deposits is Cenjiawan, on the fourth river terrace, which been undertaken by Western scientists. Except for a few exceptions,
has yielded 1625 artefacts, including refitting specimens; it is dated most of the Africa MSA sites have yielded very little fossil vertebrate
~1.1 Ma from magnetostratigraphy (Guan et al., 2016). Mode 2 or evidence and all are generally interpreted as being associated with
Lower Palaeolithic biface (handaxe) evidence has been reported modern humans. However, there is a need for caution when
from multiple locations: in a terrace context from the Danjiangkou interpreting MSA technologies younger than 200 ka, as most of
Reservoir Region in central China, dated to between 800 ka and the these sites do not preserve hominin fossil evidence.
Late Pleistocene (Kuman et al., 2014), while ~800 kyr old handaxes In Europe, the majority of the Palaeolithic research in fluvial
have been reported from Fengshudao in the Bose Basin (Zhang contexts is reported from Britian, France, Spain, Italy, Germany and
et al., 2010). Pei et al. (2010) have discussed the lithic technology parts of eastern Europe and includes the discovery of new sites, the
from the ~70 ka (OSL) old Jingshuiwan site from silt and sand of the dating or re-dating of known sites and high-resolution palae-
second terrace of the Changjiang River in the Three Gorges region. oenvironmental reconstruction of select locations. In fact, the new
The recovered artefacts include retouched examples, cores, flakes, European data appears to have utilized more ESR and U-series
flake fragments, stone hammers and ‘chunks’, all produced on a dates, whereas sites in India and other regions have relied more on
wide range of raw materials such as silicarenite, quartzite, intrusive OSL dates. A large part of the new British evidence occurred under
and extrusive rocks and volcanic breccia. The typo-technology has the auspices of the ‘Ancient Human Occupaton of Britian’ project or
prompted the investigators to suggest late survival of Homo erectus was carried out in the context of salvage archaeology in relation to
in southern China during MIS 4. In SE Asia, renewed palae- infrastructure development. In addition to the location of new
oanthropological investigations were recently initiated at the Mode 1 and 2 Palaeolithic localities (e.g. Clactonian evidence in
Pleistocene locality of Matar (near Ngandong, East Java), where Thames-tributary deposits), older evidence was chronologically
fossils and lithics were documented in alluvial terraces of poorly revised (e.g. the Solent Acheulian and Levallois) and studied with
consolidated sand and gravels (Fauzi et al., 2016). Core and flake multidisciplinary methods (e.g. Purfleet) including the successful
tools on chalcedony, chert and jasper were found in association application of the amino-acid method. Revised chronologies have
with fossils of various vertebrate taxa, including Stegodon trig- led to identifying some of the youngest Acheulian (from an MIS 8
onocephalus, Bubalus paleokarabau, Bibos paleosondaicus and Hex- interstadial?) in southern Britain as well as changing contextual
aprotodon sivalensis. Similarly, Forestier et al. (2014) have re-visited interpretations (e.g. Warren Hill gravels). Most significantly,
and highlighted the technological relevance of the lithic assem- research on lithics from fluvial contexts has revealed a chronolog-
blages from the terraces of the Mekong River in Cambodia, in ical patterning of handaxe types associated with the MIS 9e8 cli-
relation to early human dispersals. matic cycle. It would be interesting to see if this trend originated
from France (or nearby regions) or is specific to Britian. It is also
9. Discussion and conclusions intriguing that the Clactonian remains regionally unique by being
the only Lower Palaeolithic Mode 1 technology that exploited large
Since the last review of such data, published in 2007, Palae- flakes, unlike its other Mode 1 counterparts across the Old World.
olithic research in fluvial contexts has taken place at numerous sites New French research comes primarily from the Somme and
in Africa, Europe and Asia, reflecting key palaeoanthropological Seine valleys and the Loire basin and includes a focus on the 100 kyr
milestones. In Africa, the majority of the work continues to come cyclicity within the last million years and the discovery of new
from East Africa, although new regions in northern, western and Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic sites. At least two sites have
southern Africa are being increasingly explored for their palae- yielded Mode 1 assemblages slightly older and slightly younger
oanthropological potential and geographic significance. There has than 1 Ma (although one is in a high-energy depositional envi-
also been a growing focus of studies related to hominin adaptations ronment). The majority of the studied sites in this region were of
to diverse water sources, including rivers, floodplains, springs, Middle Pleistocene age and several occurrences were found to be
groundwater and wetlands. For instance, not only has the age of the associated with different sediments such as loess, as well as
earliest stone tools been extended to 3.3 Ma (Lomekwi 3, Kenya) calcareous tufa deposits, and with vertebrate fossils that accumu-
but multiple Acheulian sites have now been dated to ~1.7 Ma lated under interglacial conditions. Some of the known historically-
(Konso Gardula and Gona in Ethiopia, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania significant sites (e.g. Cagny-la-Garenne) were proved to be slightly
and Kokiselei in Kenya). Nonetheless, it is critical to survey for and older than previously thought through new discoveries in the re-
locate Palaeolithic sites dated between 3.3 Ma and 2.6 Ma in Africa, gion and other studies have indicated contemporaneity (e.g.
to understand the transitional relationship (if any) between the Moulin Quignon and Carrie re Carpentier). At some sites, specific
Lomekwian and the Oldowan. The Olduvai Gorge evidence suggests contextual issues need to be resolved (e.g. Carrie re Le on) and
a longer co-existence of the Early Acheulian and the Oldowan, numerous known occurrences require more reliable absolute dates
suggesting different hominin behaviours and site functions and (e.g. Abbeville-Rue de Paris). The French evidence also collectively
possibly highlighting climatic change (as seen from the aridity and suggests major behavioural changes between MIS 9 and 7,
landscape openness in lowermost Bed II at Olduvai Gorge and the including new technologies, subsistence and landuse patterns, with
Omo Basin and Busidima Formation in Ethiopia) as a catalyst for regional patterning increasing after MIS 7.
technological innovation at this time. Some of the youngest Parallel research in Portugal indicates the use of multidisci-
Acheulian in Africa was reported from Mieso (Ethiopia) and new plinary geochronological methods to study sites in terrace contexts
MSA sites indicate a diverse set of technological adaptations in (e.g. Tagus), thus chronologically correlating many Acheulian as-
varying geographic and ecological contexts. This evidence includes semblages with other European occurrences. Similar contexts were
an extension of the lower age bracket for the Aterian in northern also studied in Spain in association with Acheulian sites, whereas
the Early Pleistocene Mode 1 sites here come largely from cave and East Asian palaeoanthropological records as well as revealing
contexts. It is also now apparent that some of the earliest European evidence of Acheulian technologies dispersing eastwards. Until this
Acheulian is in Spain (~760 ka) and Early Pleistocene elephant gap is filled with new data, debate will continue regarding the
butchery evidence (e.g. Barranc de ka Boella, claimed to be the route(s) of Oldowan and Acheulian dispersals from Africa to East
oldest European Acheulian butchery evidence) complements the and Southeast Asia (Central Asia vs. Indian Subcontinent). Also,
earlier known Middle Pleistocene evidence from Torralba and while biface or Acheulian-like sites are increasing in number in East
Ambrona. This evidence is further supplemented by Acheulian Asia (particularly China), Mode 3 or Levallois sites continue to be of
lithics and hominin fossil material in the Venosa Basin of Italy. A marginal presence east of the Movius Line sensu lato (e.g. Lycett,
cultural boundary is now known to straddle parts of Central and 2007). This is a conundrum, as it is assumed that Mode 3 produc-
Eastern Europe (e.g. Germany, Hungary and Czech Republic), indi- ing populations were substantial and well established inside and
cating a geographic dichotomy between Mode 1 and Mode 2 oc- along the Movius Line.
currences. New data and publications have also come from one of In India, new discoveries and reinvestigations at known sites
the best-preserved Middle Pleistocene palaeoanthropological oc- include the possible presence of pre-Acheulian hominin activity
currences in Europe: Scho €ningen, Germany, in fluvio-lacustrine (i.e. lithics and cut-marked bones from the Siwalik Hills of northern
contexts. India), the earliest-known Acheulian (Attirampakkam) and the
The West Asian evidence also collectively highlights techno- youngest known dimuntive bifaces outside Africa, with diverse
cultural diversity during the Early and Middle Pleistocene, partic- Middle Palaeolithic evidence in various contexts, including strati-
ularly in the Levant, and also appears to have accommodated more graphical associations with Younger Toba Tephra (YTT) deposits.
Early Pleistocene hominin populations than previously thought. The oldest unequivocal evidence is represented by ~1.5 myr old
Growing evidence from Turkey (e.g. Gediz River Valley) and Syria Acheulian from southern India and late Early Pleistocene lithic as-
reflects rich Palaeolithic records in various river terrace and semblages from central India. The Attirampakkam evidence sug-
floodplain contexts, with the new Orontes data supplementing the gests a need for more surveys and excavations at known and new
long-known Acheulian evidence from Latemneh in Syria. Due to the Early Acheulian sites to understand their pan-Indian distribution,
absence of absolute dates, biostratigraphy is the main method used possible demographic implications, and potential relationships (if
to place these occurrences in the early Middle Pleistocene or late any) with East Asian bifacial assemblages. Additional Acheulian
Early Pleistocene (MIS 22) by different researchers, although uplift/ assemblages have been previously reported to be older than the
incision mapping has also been found useful. One of the key fea- MatuyamaeBrunhes boundary, based primarily on associated
tures of this regional record is the isolated occurrences of trihedral palaeogmagnetic dating attempts (Sangode et al., 2007; Gaillard
picks or large cutting tools, rare at most Acheulian sites. In contrast et al., 2010). While some of these interpretations may represent
to the West Asian Acheulian, which comes from terrace deposits genuine Early Pleistocene Acheulian occurrences, others require
(e.g. the Nahr el-Kebir), new Middle Palaeolithic evidence is re- more rigorous site-specific geochronological applications,
ported from palaeo-floodplain contexts. In Israel, most of the well- including absolute methods (Chauhan, 2010b). Despite this prog-
known Palaeolithic sites are associated with cave or karstic con- ress, the Indian Subcontinent has not yet yielded pre-Homo fossils
texts, although new research has increased the number of known since the early 1980s, which has been a major hindrance in iden-
occurrences in fluvial settings (e.g. Revadim; Nahal Mahanayeem tifying the various species occupying the region during the last 2 to
Outlet) including a non-Levallois blade-core technology. New 1.5 million years. Middle Palaeolithic technology appears to have
Palaeolithic data from the Arabian peninsula clearly indicates the evolved across the Old World at various times and, thus, archae-
past environmental contrast during hominin occupation in com- ologists need not always invoke techno-cultural influence from
parison to today's extreme desert ecology. This region has yielded Africa or elsewhere. This is provisionally supported by the fact that
both Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic sites in inland terrestrial the South Asian Middle Palaeolithic, in general, lacks widespread
zones as well as coastal/littoral zones, including submerged records projectile technology, as is commonly known from Middle Palae-
in the Red Sea. Some technologies (e.g. Nubian in Oman) reflect olithic and MSA sites elsewhere. In fact, there is marked increase in
discrete technological dispersals eastwards from Africa. The inland the typo-morphological diversity of Indian lithic assemblages from
Palaeolithic sites show adaptations to past humid climatic phases 100 ka onwards, reasons for which are probably related to differing
and palaeo-grassland settings but most occurrences come from ecologies but are not well studied. Examples include the contem-
lacustrine or bedrock-surface contexts rather than fluvial. Middle poraneous occurrence of flake-dominated (i.e. Middle Palaeolithic),
Palaeolithic hominins appear to have been more prolific in the re- blade-dominated (i.e. Upper Palaeolithic) and microlithic technol-
gion and Acheulian sites (albeit rich) are comparatively more ogies at 45 ka across the Subcontinent (Chauhan et al., 2015), many
geographically restricted/isolated. of which have stratigraphic or transitional gaps at multi-cultural
Fluvial records and Palaeolithic evidence from other parts of sites (Chauhan, 2009b). Much more research is required before
Asia is dominated by new Chinese investigations. Here chronolo- any conclusive or reliable statements can be made about the true
gies of old sites are being constantly revised and new sites steadily short- or long-term impacts of Toba. For example, Blinkhorn et al.
discovered, particularly in eastern and southeastern China. Mode 1 (2014) have reported new YTT deposits in Sagileru Valley, where
or Oldowan-like evidence continues to come from the Nihewan further multidisciplinary work can be carried out and where the
Basin. The new Acheulian-like sites represent an increase in biface methodological and interpretive errors made at Jwalapuram can be
occurrences from what was previously known but it is still being avoided. Unfortunately, virtually no Palaeolithic research has taken
debated whether they represent Acheulian cultural transmission or place in the other South Asian countries such as Nepal, Pakistan,
parallel (independent) technological evolution (e.g. Lycett and Bae, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Sri Lanka; the majority of prehistoric
2010; Li et al., in press; Moncel et al., in press). The latter possibility research in these regions has centered on the Mesolithic and
is strongly supported by key techno-morpho-typological differ- Neolithic evidence. Indeed, it also cannot be ruled out that the
ences between biface sites east and west of the Movius Line South-Asian Late Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic may represent
(however see Brumm and Moore, 2012; Dennell, 2015, for argu- a mixture of both introduced and regionally innovated technolo-
ments against the Movius Line). However, one major geographic gies. A major problem in separating archaeological evidence of
gap in our knowledge continues to be the lack of research/evidence dispersals from indigenous developments is the high techno-
in western and central China, which would critically link the West morphological diversity of Late Quaternary lithic assemblages
across South Asia, probably related to ecological differences, raw surrounding non-fluvial data. This might, for example, resolve is-
material variations, and other related factors. Similarly, the general sues such as the environmental impact of annual monsoon patterns
global trend visible (besides hominin activity near diverse fluvial on hominin mobility and technological adaptations.
contexts) is that both Mode 1 and Mode 2 assemblages also overlap
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Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Quaternary Science Reviews

Fluvial deposits as an archive of early human activity: Progress during

Artefacts recovered from ﬂuvial deposits, especially the Pleis-

Site Type Age Context Signiﬁcance Reference

Site Type Age Context Signiﬁcance Reference

Abbreviations: MP: Middle Palaeolithic; F: France; S: Spain.

Project No. Key publication

Archaeological Potential of Aggregate Deposits in the SW 3351 http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/

Pointed tradition Ovate tradition

MIS 9e8 MIS 11 MIS 9 MIS 15e13 MIS 11 MIS 13

Furze Platt Swanscombe MG Wolvercote Fordwich Elveden High Lodge

P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36

Fluvial deposits in the northern Levant and Turkey have yielded

P.R. Chauhan et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews xxx (2017) 1e36

Calcutta, pp. 65e78. Int. 382, 200e214.

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