From Cells to Module

• In order to provide useful power and appropriate current and

voltage levels for any application, the solar cells are connected
together
• For cells wired in series, at any given current the voltages add
• The group of connected cells is commonly referred to as a series
string
• If all the solar cells have similar I-V characteristics and are
operated in the same conditions (insolation and temperature) :

Series connection of cells, with resulting I-V characteristic 373

From Cells to Module
•The current output of the string is equivalent to the current
of a single cell
• The voltage output of the string is increased, and equivalent
to the sum of the voltage from each cell = 4 x Vcell
•The overall power output of the string is given by:

Pstring = VT I T = 4Vcell I cell

I-V curves for PV generators connected in series 374

From Cells to Module
• For a module with nc cells wired in series, the overall module
voltage is given by:

Vmod ule = nc (Vd − IRS )

A typical module will have 36 cells 375

From Cells to Module
• For cells wired in parallel, at any given voltage the currents
add
• For solar cells having similar I-V characteristics and
operated in the same conditions:
The voltage output of the cell group is equivalent to that
of a single cell
The current output of the cell group is equivalent to the
sum of the current from each cell = 4 x Icell

Parallel connection of cells, with resulting I-V characteristic 376

From Cells to Module
•The power output of the cell group is given by:

PT = ITVT = 4 I cellVcell

I-V curves for PV generators connected in Parallel 377

Example 5 – Voltage and current from PV module
A PV module is made up to 36 identical cells, all wired in
series. With 1-sun insolation (1 kW/m2), each cell has short-
circuit current ISC=3.4 A and at 25˚C its reverse saturation
current is I0=6x10-10 A. Parallel resistance RSH=6.6  and
series resistance RS=0.005 .
A- Find the voltage, current, and power delivered when the
junction voltage of each cell is 0.50 V
B- Set-up a spreadsheet for I and V and present a few lines of
output to show how it works.
Solution:
A- using Vd=0.50 V along with the other data gives current:
Vd
I = I SC − I 0 {exp[38.9Vd ] − 1}−
RSH
0.5
I = 3.4 − 6x10 {exp[38.9 x0.5] − 1}−
-10
= 3.16 A
6 .6 378
Under these conditions, the overall voltage produced by the
36-cell module:

Vmod ule = nc (Vd − IRS ) = 36(0.5 − 3.16 x0.005) = 17.43 V

Power delivered is therefore

P = VModule I = 17.43x3.16 = 55 Watts

B- the spreadsheet is as following:

The maximum
power point

379
Shading Impact on I-V Curves
The output of a PV module can be reduced dramatically when even a
small portion of it is shaded
• A mismatch in current (caused by: partial shading, degradation, bird
dropping, manufacturing defects…) means:
The string will operate at lower current level
• Cell 2 has a lower current output than cell 1

Shaded PV module
Series-connected mismatched cells and the effect on
current and voltage
380
Shading Impact on PV Module
• A shaded solar cell becomes an electrical load (no current is
generated by the cell)
• The current from the other illuminated solar cell is driven through
the darkened cell (reverse current direction)
• The large current flow is then converted into heat. This can lead
to the hot spot effect which can damage the cell’s material

Source: The German Solar Energy Society

Shaded PV module 381
Shading Impact on PV Module
• Even partial shading of photovoltaic module will result in a
severe output reduction
V
• At any given current, the I-V curve for ∆V ≅ + IRSH
the module with one shaded cell drops nc
by:
V
∆V = + I (RSH + RS )
nc
sin ce RSH >> RS
V
∆V ≅ + IRSH
nc

Effect of shading one cell in an n-cell module

Source: G.M. Masters – Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems (2004)
382
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation
• Some manufacturers make use of bypass diodes
connected anti-parallel (opposite polarity) to the solar cells to
reduce the effect of shading by allowing current to bypass
shaded cells
• It prevent large voltages and hot spots from building up
across the solar cells in the reverse-biased direction

Bypass
Diode

Shaded cell Non-Shaded cell

Shaded PV module (36 cells) with

Series connected cells with bypass diodes bypass diodes cross 18 cells
383
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation
• Without the bypass diode the entire current from the module
would be determined by the shaded cell
• Bypass diodes are semiconductor devices that prevent
current from flowing into shaded area

Module I-V curves with and without bypass diodes 384

Source: The German Solar Energy Society
Shaded PV Module
• Shading situation and characteristic curves with series
connection

Source: The German Solar Energy Society

385
Shaded PV Module
• The Shading situations observed with parallel connection
produce completely different characteristic curves

Source: The German Solar Energy Society 386

Example 6 – Impact of Shading on a PV module
The 36-cell PV module described in Example 5 had a Parallel
resistance RSH=6.6 . In full sun and at current I=2.14 A the
output voltage was found there to be V=19.41 V. If one cell is
shaded and this current somehow stays the same, then:
A- what would be the new module output voltage and power?
B- What would be the voltage drop across the shaded cell?
C- How much power would be dissipated in the shaded cell?
Solution:
A- The drop in module voltage will be:

V 19.41
∆V = + IRSH = + 2.14x6.6 = 14.66 V
nc 36

The new output voltage will be (19.41 - 14.66) = 4.75 V

387
Power delivered by the module with one shaded cell
would be

Pmod ule = Vmod ule I = 4.75x2.14 = 10.1 W

For a comparison, in full sun the module was producing
41.6W
B- All of that 2.14 A of current goes through the parallel
(RSH=6.6 ) plus series resistance (RS=0.005 ) of the
shaded cell, so the drop across the shaded cell will be

VC = I (RSH + RS ) = 2.14x (6.6 + 0.005) = 14.14 V

Normally a cell in the sun will add about 0.5 V to the
module; this shaded cell subtracts over 14 V from the
module
388
C- the power dissipated in the shaded cell is

Pmodule = VC I = 14.14x2.14 = 30.2 W

All of that power dissipated in shaded cell is
converted to heat, which can cause a local hot spot.

389
Shading with Tilted PV Arrays b: module width
• PV systems are frequently d: module row distance
d1: frame distance
built on flat area (such as flat h: tilt height
roofs or open spaces) β: tilt angle
γp: shading angle
• The highest energy yield is
obtained when PV systems
are tilted (with optimum
inclination)
• In London, a 30°° angle
would lead to an increase in
yield of 12.5% compared with
horizontal installation
• If the modules are set in
several rows, the frame
distance between the rows
must be great enough so that
no shading or as little as
Shading of a tilted solar Array
possible occurs
390
Shading with Tilted PV Arrays

• The
frame distance between the rows of the
modules is dependent on the tilt height of the
module and shading angle γp:

h
d1 =
tan γ p
The frame distance d1 must be at least 2.2 times
the module height
391
Shading with Tilted PV Arrays
• To estimate the relative reduction in irradiation caused by
mutual shading (too close modules), the following formula,
valid for most types of climates, may be used:

γ p f Diff
∆G =
(180 − β )
Where,
∆G: the relative reduction in irradiation (0<∆ ∆G<1)
γp: the angle of shading
fDiff: the fraction of diffuse radiation for a certain location (e.g.
London 0.6, New York 0.48, Ottawa 0.46, Sydney 0.42, Los
Angeles 0.36, Cape Town 0.31)
β: the tilt angle of solar modules (degrees)
392
Shading Resulting From Obstacles
The elevation angle γ is calculated from the difference between the
height of the PV system h1 and the height of the shading object h2
over the distance d from the object :
(h2 − h1 )  h2 − h1 
= arctan
tan γ = →γ 
d  d 
• The azimuth α of the obstacles can be calculated directly from the site plan
• For shading caused by Simulation programs: PV-Sol; PV-DesignPro
trees, a transmission factor
τ is given:
• For conifers τ=0.3
• For deciduous trees in
winter τ= 0.64
• For deciduous trees in
summer τ=0.23
• The transmission factor
specifies how much solar
radiation pass through the
tree Shading caused by trees
http://www.tree-shop.co.uk/products_category_list.asp?productcategoryID=2 393
Interconnection of PV modules
•Cells are usually
mounted in modules,
and multiple modules
are used in arrays
• Individual modules
may have cells
connected in series
and parallel
combinations to obtain
the desired power
output and voltage A Three-panel solar array diagram

• In a typical module, 36 cells are connected in series to

produce a voltage sufficient to charge a 12V battery
394
Interconnection of PV modules
• Parallelconnections
with one PV module
per string are often
used for stand-alone
systems
• With grid-connected
systems, several
strings are connected
in parallel, with the
number of modules
depending on the
system voltage
I-V characteristic curves of
Interconnected PV modules 395
Module Structure
• Standard modules are manufactured with the aim of achieving
maximum energy yield per square metre at little cost
•These are mostly glass-film laminates (highly transparent)
encapsulated in EVA or Teflon (UV-resistant) with aluminium frame
• For buildings, a typical standard modules consist of 36-72 cells
with a power output of 50-140 Wp (crystalline cells)

Series Interconnection of cells

Framing a standard module

*EVA: Ethylene vinyl acetate Glass-film module (EVA) 396

Series and Parallel Circuits
• Systems may use a mix of series and parallel wiring to obtain
required voltages and amperage

PV modules in series PV modules in parallel

PV modules in series and parallel 397

Application: Solar modules Solar Glazing replaces conventional
glazing with PV cells sandwiched
between two layers of glass.

PV can replace
standard roof tiles

Integrated
solar roof
tiles
Source: solarcentury 398
Additional Build Cost

Source: solarcentury
As a rule of thumb:
• A 1 kWp system is approximately £7,500 fully installed
• But a 200 kWp is approximately £4,000 per kWp fully
installed
• Using solar as a building product can offset this cost further
399
Example 7:
On a reasonably bright day in England, a single
photovoltaic solar cell 100mm by 100mm can deliver
a current of 1 A while maintaining a voltage of 0.5 V.
Calculate the total area of cells needed to deliver a
power of 1 kW under the same circumstances.

Solution:
Power supplied = P= VI =0.5 V x 1 A = 0.5 W

Cell area = 100x10-3 x 100x10-3 m2 = 0.01 m2

0.5W W
Therefore power per m2 = 2
= 50 2
0.01m m
1000W
Therefore area required for 1kW = = 20m 2
W
50 2
m 400
Example 8:
Determine the parameters of a module formed by 34
cells in series, under the operating conditions G=700
W/m2, and Ta=34°°C. The manufacturer’s values under
standard conditions are: Isc=3A; VOC=20.4 V;
Pmax=45.9 W; NOCT=43°°C
Solution:
1. Short-circuit current

 W 
I SC (G ) ≅ S .I SC 1000 2 
 m 
The irradiance factor S is given by:

401
 W
700 2
G m
S= = = 0. 7
W W
1000 2 1000 2
m m
I SC (G ) = 0.7 X 3 = 2.1 A
2. Solar cell temperature
NOCT − 20
TC = Tair + G (°C )
800
TC = 34 +
(43 − 20 )
700 = 54.12°C
800
402
3. Open-Circuit voltage
For silicon, the reduction in the open-circuit voltage
for an individual module consisting of 34 cells
connected in series is:
dVOC VOC (TC ) − VOC (25°C )  mV 
= −2.3nC ≈  
dT TC − 25°C  °C 
VOC (TC ) ≈ VOC (25°C ) − 0.0023nC (TC − 25°C )
VOC (54.12°C ) ≈ 20.4 − 0.0023 X 34 X (54.12 − 25) = 18.1 V

4. The maximum power point is determined using

the simplifying assumption that the fill factor is
independent of the temperature and irradiance:
403
 Pmax 45.9
FF = = = 0.75
I SCVoc (3 X 20.4 )

Pmax (G, TC ) = I SCVOC FF = 2.1X 18.1X 0.75 = 28.5 W

Thus, noting the manufacturer’s value of Pmax we

see that the module will operate at 62% of its
nominal rating

404
Example 9:
The equivalent circuit for PV cell (figure 9.1,
next slide) includes a parallel resistance of
RSH=10. the cell has area 0.005 m2, reverse
saturation current of I0=10-9 A and at an
insolation of 1-sun the short circuit current is
ISC=1 A, at 25˚C, with an output voltage of 0.5
V, find the following:
A- the load current
B- the power delivered to the load
C- the efficiency of the cell

405
Figure 9.1

406
Example 10:
Design a 24V system with 12V PV modules

407
Solution:
24-Volt system

408
Example 11:
Design a 48V system with 12V PV modules

409
Solution:
48-Volt system with
sixteen 12 VDC PV
modules

410
Example 12:
Design a 48V
system with 24V PV
modules

411
Solution:
48-Volt system with
eight 24 VDC PV
modules

412
III.2 Photovoltaic Systems
• Major photovoltaic system types:
1- Grid connected PV systems
• Installations of solar PV systems have been growing at a
rapid pace in recent years
• In 2008, 5,948MW of PV was installed globally, up from
2,826MW in 2007, and was dominated by grid-connected
applications
• Grid connected PV systems have a number of desirable
attributes:
• High reliability and efficiency (maximum power tracking),
• Easy to integrate into the building structure,
• Ability to deliver power when utility rates are highest,
• Cost effective systems 413
Grid Connected PV System
• Through grid-connection you can store the
electricity surpluses on the grid, and get them back
whenever

414
2- Stand-Alone PV Systems
• Operates off-grid with battery storage and a generator for
back-up power
• An inverter converts battery DC current into AC for
conventional household electricity
• A charge controller prevent the battery from being
overcharged or deeply discharged

Off-grid system using Inverter with battery backup 415

Stand-alone PV systems
• A stand-alone PV system makes sense if any of the
following apply:
You live in a remote location where it's more
cost effective than extending a power line to a
grid
You're considering a hybrid electric system,
consisting of a PV generator and an auxiliary
generator operated with a combustion engine
You need minimal amounts of power; e.g., for
appliances, control equipment and remote
sensors

416
Small Stand-Alone PV System
• Small stand-alone
system with Pmax<1 kWp
rarely employs charge
regulators
• The module voltage is
set by the battery (12V
nominal voltage)
•The module operate
mostly in the linear part Source: Solar Electricity By Tomas Markvart

of its I-V characteristics Voltage dependence of the power produced

by a PV module as a function of irradiance
• The power output is and ambient temperature
then given by:
 W 
P = Vbat I SC (G ) = Vbat I SC 1000 2 S
 m 
Where, S is the irradiance factor 417
Small Stand-Alone PV System
• Stand-alone systems directly coupled
to the loads without power
conditioning equipment (PV water
pumping):
The PV generator is connected with
a reverse diode to prevent the battery
(accumulator) from being discharged
during night via the internal
resistance of the PV module
The reverse diode ensures that the
battery does not drive any reverse
current through the unlit PV module
Three different loads are connected
to the battery via a changeover Directly coupled PV
switch stand-alone system
418
Small Stand-Alone PV System
• Different operating
conditions occur depending
which load (resistance RA, RB
or RC) is connected:
In case A: load A requires
greater current; the PV module
provide part of the required
electricity, while the rest is
provided by the battery
(discharge current)
In case B: the resistance of the
load is large enough that the
current for load B is
completely delivered by the PV PV generator-accumulator dynamic
generator characteristic curves

In case C: the PV current is greater than the current required by the load
C. The PV module can supply load C and charge the battery (charge
current)
419
Photovoltaic System Sizing
• Sizing of a PV system requires a knowledge of:
The solar radiation data for the site
The load profile, and the importance of supply
continuity
The economic constraints
• The system sizing procedure involves:
Energy balance between the radiation and the load
Optimum design of the photovoltaic generator and
battery capacity
Specification of nominal characteristics of the
electronic components

420
A- Radiation Data
•The incident solar radiation on the panel for a
particular site are given in the form of monthly
average daily data

421
Example 13:
Consider a PV array rated 1-kW (DC) under
standard test condition (STC). Module
nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) is
47˚C. DC power output at the MPP drops by
0.5% above the SCT temperature of 25˚C.
Estimate its AC output under an average
January daily ambient temperature of 4˚C and
insolation of 0.95 kW/m2, and if there is a 3%
array loss due to mismatched modules, dirt
loss is 4%, and the inverter has an efficiency
of 90%.
Solution:
422
At average January daily ambient temperature
of 4˚C and insolation of 0.95 kW/m2, the cell
temperature is
 NOCT − 20° 
TC = Tamb +  G (°C )
 800 
 47 − 20° 
TC = 4 +  950 = 36.06°C
 800 
With power loss at 0.5% per degree above
25˚C, the DC rated power of the array would be

PDC = 1kW [1 − 0.005(36.06 − 25)] = 0.94 kW

423
Including the mismatch, dirt, and inverter
efficiencies will result in an estimate AC rated
power of

(
PAC = PDC x conversion efficiency )
PAC = 0.94 kWx0.97x0.96 x0.9 = 0.787 kW

424
PV Performance at Peak-Hours for Grid-Connected Systems
The energy delivered in a day’s time is:
 kWh / m 2 

Energy (kWh / day ) = Insolation  
 ( )2
. A m .η
 day 
Where A is the area of the PV array and η is the
average efficiency over the day.
When exposed to 1-sun (1-kW/m2) insolation, the AC
power from the system is:
 1 kW 
PAC (kW ) =  2
 m
( )
. A m 2 .η1− sun

 
Where η1− sun is the system efficiency at 1-sun
425
Combining the two equation gives:

Energy (kWh / day ) = PAC (kW )

(
 Insolation kWh / m 2 / day ) . η 

 2 
 η
 1 kW / m   1−sun 

If we assume that η = η1− sun then the energy collected

is:
 h 
Energy (kWh / day ) = PAC (kW ) @ 1 − sun 
 day 
 
Or

 h 
Energy (kWh / day ) = PAC (kW ) of peak sun 
 day 
 
426
Insolation Levels (Europe)
Year Average Insolation (kWh/m2/day)

427
Example 14: Annual energy using the peak-sun approach
Estimate the annual energy delivered by the 1-
kW (DC, STC) array described in the Example
13 if it is located in Lyon, is south-facing, and
has a tilt angle equal to its latitude.
Solution:
The European insolation table shows the
annual insolation in Lyon is 3.74 kWh/m2/day.
Since 1-sun of insolation is defined as 1
kW/m2, we can think of Lyon’s insolation of
3.74 kWh/m2/day as being the same as 3.74
h/day of 1-sun or 3.74 h of peak sun.
428
Using the AC output of 0.787 kW that was
found in Example 13, along with 3.74 h/day of
peak sun, gives
Energy = 0.787 kWx3.74 h / day x365 day / yr = 1074.3 kWh / yr

429
Capacity Factors for PV Grid connected systems
•The energy delivered by a grid–connected PV
system is presented in terms of its rated AC power
and its capacity factor (CF)
•The Governing equation for annual performance in
terms of CF is:

Energy (kWh / yr ) = PAC (kW ).CF .8760(h / yr )

• The capacity factor for a grid–connected PV

systems:
CF =
(h / day of peak sun ) = PSH
Where,
24 h / day 24
h
PSH ≡ of peak sun
day 430
B- Load Data - Assessing the power needs
- Average daily loads and peak loads
Energy Consumption in a weekend -home

Total energy EL needs in one day (in kWh/day):

1699 Wh/day = 1.699 kWh/day 431
Illustration of a typical electrical and heat load for a UK dwelling

Source: A. Hawkes et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 729–744

Values are in (average) kW, for each 5 min period of a typical

winter day 432
• The load should also define how many appliances will
be running concurrently and at what times
(instantaneous peak power, measured in watts)
• To satisfy the load, energy will be stored on a daily
basis
•To make allowance for the battery efficiency, the load
should be multiplied by:

η bat
1 − f (1 − η bat )
Where ηbat is the energy efficiency of the battery, and f is
the fraction of the daily load which must be stored in the
battery before being used 433
C- Number of series connected modules
•The number of modules Ns to be connected in
series string is determined by the DC operating
voltage of the system VDC (a multiple of the nominal
battery voltage of 12V):

V DC
NS =
Vm
Where Vm, the operating voltage of one module,
should be taken 12V for a module of 36 cells

434
D- Number of parallel strings
•The number of modules Np to be connected in
parallel strings is directly related to the current
requirement of the load
•The equivalent load current IL is calculated from the
equation:

EL
I L ( A) =
24VDC

Where EL(Wh/day) is the typical power requirement

of the load

435
• The energy balance for a typical day can be written
as:

E L (Wh / day ) = I PV VDC PSH

Where IPV is the AC nominal current required from
the photovoltaic generator when irradiated by
standard AM 1.5 radiation at 1 kW/m2, PSH the
incident radiation on the panel in peak solar hours
(kWh/m2/ day), which is equal to the number of
hours radiation equivalent to the standard
irradiation (1kW/m2)
• Using the equation of the load current IL the
nominal current is given by:
436
 24 I L
I PV =
PSH
• The number of modules to be connected in parallel is then
calculated using the following equation:

I PV
N P = (SF )
I SC
Where ISC is the short-circuit current of a single PV module
when illuminated under a standard conditions and (SF>1) is a
sizing factor (effective safety factor)
437
 (SF) is introduced to oversize the amount of current
generated by the array du to the loss of performance
from things such as dirt accumulation:

1
(SF ) =
(MDF )
Where (MDF) is the module overall derate factor (Overall DC-
to-AC derate factor at STC is 0.77)
The efficiency of an inverter depends on the fraction of its
rated power at which it operates

438
Example 15: System sizing in Barcelona
An energy efficient house in Barcelona is to be fitted
with a rooftop PV array that will annually displace all
the 3600 kWh/yr of electricity that the home uses.
How many kW (DC, STC) of panels will be required
and what area will be needed (assuming crystalline
silicon modules with a nominal efficiency of 12.5%)?
Assume that the roof is south-facing with moderate
title angle. The panels will be mounted at the same
angle as the roof, which means a shallow pitch. The
year average roof insolation is 4.60 kWh/m2/day and
assume an DC-AC conversion efficiency of 75%.

439
Solution:
Using the peak hour approach, we can write:
 h 
Energy (kWh / yr ) = PAC (kW ) @ 1 − sun .365 day / yr
 day 
Solving
kWh
3600
yr
PAC = = 2.144 kW
h day
4.6 x 365
day yr

Thus, the STC rated DC power of the array:

PAC 2.144 kW
PDC , STC
= = = 2.85 kW
Conversion efficiency 0.75
440
The collector area is found from the following:

kW
PDC , STC
m
( )
2
= 1 2 insolation . A m .η n

Solving

2.85 kW 2
A= = 22.8 m
kW
1 2 x0.125
m

441
E- Sizing the storage subsystem (battery)
• The battery system is designed to compensate for the
mismatch between energy supply and energy consumption,
caused by considerable radiation fluctuations (more in
northerly latitudes)
• The battery’s capacity is stated in Ah
• Most batteries are 12VDC, but other sizes are also available

442
• The following equation can be used to determine
the battery capacity Cn(Ah) :

EL F
Cn =
MDOD.TCF .Vn
Where, EL is the average daily consumption, MDOD is the maximum depth
of discharge for the battery (batteries cannot be completely discharged,
80% for lead-acid battery), and TCF is the temperature correction factor
(vary with battery type, and lower temperatures limit the maximum
allowable depth of discharge)
Vn is the battery system voltage output (the battery voltage must match
the PV system voltage, Vn=VDC), and F is a factor for the reserve days:
- The reserve days factor F for summer months is 2-3 days (average
value=2.5)
- The reserve days factor F for winter months is 3-5 days (average
value=4)
443
• Impact of Depth of Discharge on the number of cycles for a
lead-acid battery
 At a daily discharge of 80%, lead-acid battery can be
cycled about 1800 times

• In order to gain a sufficiently long service life with batteries,

the battery capacity Cn(Ah) should be designed to be twice as
large as was calculated from the consumption values 444
E.1- Number of series connected batteries
• Add batteries in series to increase voltage:
The number of batteries Nbat to be connected in
series is determined by the DC system voltage
Vn=VDC:

VDC
N bat − S =
Vbat
series connected batteries

Where Vbat, the nominal battery voltage

445
E.2- Number of parallel connected batteries
• Add batteries in parallel to increase
storage capacity:
The number of batteries to be
connected in parallel is calculated
using the following equation:

Cn
N bat − p =
IC
Where, IC (Ah) the capacity of
individual battery

parallel connected batteries

446
E.3- Rechargeable Battery Types for PV Applications
• There are many types of batteries potentially
available for use in stand-alone PV systems:
Lead Acid (Pb-acid) Battery, Nickel Cadmium
(NiCd), Nickel Iron (NiFe), Silver-Zinc (AgZn),
Nickel metal hydride, (NiMH), Lithium ions (Li-
Ion), and others…

Source: Universität Kassel

447
Structure of Battery
• Batteries are composed of one or more cells, each containing positive
and negative electrodes, separator, and electrolyte
•The state-of-charge of a battery is the % of its capacity available relative
to the capacity when it is fully charged (100%)

Structure of lead-acid battery (VARTA)

Typical battery discharge curves 448
Reliability of Photovoltaic System
•The merit of a PV system depends on how reliably it
supplies electricity to the load
•The array sizing factor should be chosen large so that
the array can supply enough energy even during the
worst month
•The supply reliability is measured by the loss-of-load
probability (LLP) defined as:

Average duration of sup ply int erruption

LLP =
Total duration of sup ply
• Recommended LLP values for domestic applications are:
Illumination 10-2 and appliances 10-1
• For telecommunication applications LLP=10-4
449
Example 16: Battery storage calculation in cold climate
Suppose that batteries located at a remote
telecommunications site may drop to – 20C. If they must
provide 2 days of storage for a load that needs 500 Ah/day at
12 V, how many amp-hours of storage should be specified for
the battery bank?
In very cold conditions, concern for battery freezing may limit the
maximum allowable depth of discharge of a lead-acid battery as shown in
figure 16.1
97%

62%

Figure 16.1
450
Solution
From figure 16.1, to avoid freezing, the maximum
depth of discharge at -20C is about 62%. For 2
days storage, with a discharge of no more than
62%, the batteries need to store:
Ah
500 x2 day
day
Battery storage = = 1612.9 Ah
0.62

451
Example 17: Battery sizing for an off-grid Cabin
A cabin near Lausanne has an AC demand of 3000 Wh/day in
the month of December (the worst solar month). A decision
has been made to size the batteries such that a 95% system
availability will be provided, and a back-up generator will be
kept in reserve to cover the other 5%. The batteries will be
kept in a ventilated shed whose temperature may reach as
low as -10C. The system voltage is to be 24V, and an inverter
with overall efficiency of 85% will be used. The monthly
average insolation in Lausanne for December is 3.1
kWh/m2/day.
The days of battery storage needed for a stand-alone system
with 95% and 99% system availability is given in Figure 17.1.
Peak sun hours are for the worst month of the year and
availability is on an annual basis (based on Sandia National
Laboratories)
452
Figure 17.1

453
Solution
A- With an 85% efficiency inverter, the DC load
is: Wh
3000
AC load day Wh
DC load = = = 3529
Inverter efficiency 0.85 day
With a 24-V system voltage the batteries need to
supply Wh
3529
day Ah
Load = = 147 @ 24 V
24 V day

From Figure 17.1 at 95% availability and 3.1 peak

sun hours in December, it looks like we need
about 4.7 days of storage.
454
From figure 16.1, at -10C the batteries could
be discharged to over 97% without freezing
the electrolyte, so the batteries need to store:
Ah
147 x4.7 day
day
Battery storage = = 712 Ah (@ 24V )
0.97

455
Example 18 – PVs for the Cabin in Lausanne
The cabin from the Example 17 needs 3000 Wh/day
of AC delivered from 85%-efficient inverter. For a 24-
V system voltage and a 90% battery coulomb
efficiency, size a PV array for the Cabin using
Kyocera KC120 modules.
Solution
A Kyocera KC120 is a 120-W module with its
maximum power point at a current of 7.1 and a
voltage of 16.9 V. The worst solar month is
December , with 3.1 peak hours of sun-light. One
string of module will deliver in December about :
h Ah
Ah to inverter = 7.1 A x 3.1 x 0.9 = 19.8 per string
day day
456
For an 85% efficient inverter to deliver 3000
Wh/day, it needs a 24-V DC input of
Wh
3000
day Ah
Inverter DC input = = 147 @ 24 V
0.85x 24 V day

Since these modules have a rated voltage of

16.9 V, they are nominally 12-V modules.
Therefore two modules are needed in series
to provide a single 24-V string
The number of parallel strings of modules
needed is:
457
 Ah
147
day
Number of parallel strings = = 7.42 ≅ 8 strings
Ah
19.8
day − string

Suppose that we oversize it slightly and use 8

parallel strings with two modules per string, for a
total of 16 modules. The PVs will deliver :
A h Ah
PV output = 8 strings x 7.1 x 3.1 = 176 @ 24V
string day day

The batteries with 90% coulomb efficiency will

deliver:
Ah Ah
Battery output = 176 x 0.9 = 158 @ 24V
day day
458
The 85% efficiency inverter will deliver
Ah Wh
Inverter output = 158 x 24 V x 0.85 = 3223
day day
So, the design is just a bit above of its goal of 3000
Wh/day.

459
Example 19:
• A Clean, 15%-efficient module (STC), 1 m2 in area,
has its own 90% efficient inverter. Its NOCT is 44˚C
and its rated power degrades by 0.5%/˚C above
25˚C STC.
A- What would its STC rated power be ?
B- Find the kWh that it would be expected to deliver
on a 15˚C day ambient temperature with daylong
insolation equal to 6 kWh/m2 ?

460
Example 20:
• Two 36-cell PV modules are connected in series. One is
shaded and one is fully illuminated, such that the I-V
characteristics of each module are as shown in figure P17.
a. If the output of the two series modules is shorted, estimate
the power dissipated in the shaded module.
b. If the two modules are equipped with bypass diodes across
each 12 series cells, estimate the power dissipated in the
shaded module.

Figure P17 I-V characteristics of two modules, one shaded and one fully illuminated
461
Movies
• How a PV panel is made - courtesy of the US Discovery Channel
http://www.greenspec.co.uk/html/energy/pvcells.html

462