SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS

Unit-II
Solar Photo Voltaic Module: Solar cell, solar module, solar array, series & parallel connections of
cell, mismatch in cell, fill factor, effect of solar radiation and temperature on power output of module,
I-V and power curve of module.

 Solar Photo Voltaic Module:

1. Solar cell
A solar cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.

It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as

current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks
of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels.
2. Solar module
a solar module is a single photovoltaic panel that is an assembly of connected solar cells. The
solar cells absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity.
3. Solar array
A solar array is an essential component of a solar panel system. It comes in various sizes and energy
requirements. It combines the solar panels and keeps them together. A solar array also helps the
panels to generate electricity from the sun’s rays and supply it to different households. The number
of solar panels required in a PV array depends on the direction of the roof, the installation location,
and the electricity consumption rate. Based on these three criteria, the solar panels required by each
house might be different. Solar cell arrays are vital components in a solar panel system. Failing to
install them might lead to a function failure.
4. Series & Parallel connections of cell
Sometimes the system voltage required for a power plant is much higher than what a single
PV module can produce. In such cases, N-number of PV modules is connected in series to
deliver the required voltage level. This series connection of the PV modules is similar to that
of the connections of N-number of cells in a module to obtain the required voltage level. The
following figure shows PV panels connected in series configuration.

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With this series connection, not only the voltage but also the power generated by the module
also increases. To achieve this the negative terminal of one module is connected to the
positive terminal of the other module.

If a module has an open circuit voltage VOC1 of 20 V and other connected in series has
VOC2 of 20 V, then the total open circuit of the string is the summation of two voltages
VOC = VOC1 + VOC2
VOC = 20 V + 20 V = 40 V
It is important to note that the summation of voltages at the maximum power point is also
applicable in case of PV array.

Mismatch in Series-connected PV Modules

The maximum power in the PV module is the product of voltage and current at maximum
power. When the modules are not connected in series then the power produced by an
individual module is different. Take the example of table 1 given below.
Table 1
Modules VM in Volts IM in Ampere PM in Watt
Module A 16 4.1 65.6
Module B 15.5 4.1 63.55
Module C 15.3 4.1 62.73
Total In series = 46.8 In series = 4.1 191.88
If the three modules in table 1 are connected in series their voltage is added but the current
remains the same considering all the modules are identical having the same value of IM = 4.1
A.
The difference in the voltages of the modules A, B, and C connected in series does not result
in the loss of the power produced by the PV module array considering all the modules are
identical having the same value of IM = 4.1 A.
But if the current producing capacity of the modules connected in series is not identical then
the current flowing through the series-connected PV modules will be equal to the lowest
current produced by a module in the string. Take an example table 2 given below.
Table 2
Modules VM in Volts IM in Ampere PM in Watt
Module A 16 4.1 65.6
Module B 15.5 3.2 49.6
Module C 15.3 4.1 62.73
Total In Series = 46.8 In Series = 3.2 177.93
If all the modules in table 2 are connected in series then the current flowing through the
series-connected modules is determined by the module with the lowest current. In this case
module B has the lowest current of 3.2 A as compared to modules A and C.
So, the current flowing through these three series-connected modules is 3.2 A. Now compare
Tables 1 and 2 and the total power produced by both. Due to unidentical current modules in
table 2 the total power produced is 177.93 W which is less than the total power produced by
modules in table 1 i.e. 191.88 W.
We can see that due to the mismatch in current the output power produced by the series-
connected modules is widely affected. So, in the series connection of modules mismatch in

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voltage is not an issue but mismatch in current results in loss of power. Hence modules with
different current ratings should not be connected in series.

Parallel Connection of Modules

Sometimes to increase the power of the solar PV system, instead of increasing the voltage by
connecting modules in series the current is increased by connecting modules in parallel. The
current in the parallel combination of the PV modules array is the sum of individual currents
of the modules.
The voltage in the parallel combination of the modules remains the same as that of the
individual voltage of the module considering that all the modules have identical voltage.
The parallel combination is achieved by connecting the positive terminal of one module to
the positive terminal of the next module and negative terminal to the negative terminal of the
next module as shown in the following figure. The following figure shows solar panels
connected in parallel configuration.

If the current IM1 is the maximum power point current of one module and IM2 is the maximum power
point current of other module then the total current of the parallel-connected module will be IM1 + IM2.
If we keep on adding modules in parallel the current keeps adding up. It is also applicable for short-
circuit current Isc.

Mismatch in Parallel-connected PV Modules

In a parallel connection, the issue of mismatch in current is not a problem but the mismatch
in voltage is a problem. In parallel-connected modules, the voltage will remain the same if
the modules have identical voltage ratings.
But if the voltage rating of parallel-connected modules is different then the system voltage is
determined by the module having the lowest voltage rating resulting in the power loss.
The effect of voltage mismatch is not as severe as the current mismatch but care must be
taken while choosing the modules. It is recommended that for series combination modules of

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 the same current rating and for parallel combination modules of the same voltage rating
should be preferred.

5. Mismatch in cell
Mismatch in solar cells occurs when the electrical parameters of solar cells in a module or
array are different, or when the cells experience different conditions. This can cause power
loss and other issues, including:
Voltage mismatch: When strings of solar modules with different voltages are connected, the
entire array operates at the lowest voltage.
Power dissipation: When one cell is shaded, the power generated by the other cells can be
dissipated by the lower-performing cell. This can lead to localized heating and irreversible
damage to the module.
Hot spots: Power dissipation in underperforming cells can lead to hot spots.
Factors that can affect the impact of mismatch include:
 The operating point of the PV module
 The circuit configuration
 The parameters that are different from the other solar cells
To mitigate the effects of mismatch, manufacturers can:
 Use binning to place cells with the same electrical characteristics in the same module
 Design systems to ensure that modules in the same strings receive the same amount of
light
 Use bypass diodes to limit power dissipation in underperforming cells

6. Fill factor
Fill factor (FF) is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power, represented by the dark
blue box, to the product of short circuit current Is/c and open circuit voltage Vo/c,
represented by the light blue box.

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 The Fill Factor is essentially a measure of the efficiency of a PV module, the theoretical
maximum value depending on factors such as the type of silicon used to construct the
module. However, deviation from the expected value or changes in Fill Factor can provide an
indication that a fault is present.
The fill factor (FF) of a solar cell is a key electrical parameter that measures the cell's
performance and efficiency:
 Definition: FF is the ratio of a solar cell's maximum power to the product of its short
circuit current and open circuit voltage.
 Formula: FF = (Vmp * Imp) / (Voc * Isc)
 Interpretation: A higher FF indicates a higher efficiency. FF is usually between 0.7
and 0.8.
 Importance: FF is a way to compare the performance of different solar cells and
identify issues with a PV array.
 Factors that affect FF: FF is affected by several factors, including the type of silicon
used to construct the module.
 Deviation from expected value: A change in FF can indicate a fault.

 Effect of solar radiation

 Power output
When solar radiation increases, so does the power output of the PV module. When solar
radiation decreases, so does the power output.
 Efficiency
Solar radiation also affects the efficiency of the PV module.
 Temperature
When solar radiation increases, so does the temperature of the PV module. This can cause the
PV module to operate less efficiently.
 Angle
The angle between the sun and the PV module also affects the power output. When the module
is perpendicular to the sun, it receives the most power. Tilting the module reduces its output.

 Temperature on power output of module

 Optimal temperature range
PV cells are most efficient within a specific temperature range, usually between 15°C and
35°C.
 Power loss
As the temperature increases, the voltage output decreases linearly, while the output current
increases exponentially. This is a power loss.
 Physical degradation
High temperatures can cause physical degradation and accelerate the aging process of the cell
components.
 Temperature coefficient

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 The temperature coefficient of a PV module indicates how much its performance degrades
with rising temperatures. A lower temperature coefficient means the panel will generate more
energy and have a longer lifespan.
 Measuring temperature
Temperature sensors, such as Pt100, Pt1000, or thermocouples, are attached to the back of the
module to measure its temperature.

 I-V and power curve of module.

The IV curve of a PV module is a graphical representation of the relationship between its
current and voltage output under given sunlight (irradiance) and temperature conditions. It is
obtained by measuring the current and voltage output of a module while varying the load.

Some of the main parameters found from an IV curve include the open open-circuit voltage (Voc),
circuit current (Isc), the maximum power point voltage (Vmpp), the maximum
the short-circuit
power point current (Impp), the maximum power (Pmax), and the fill factor (FF). The Voc is
the maximum voltage that can be obtained from the module when there is no load connected,
while the Isc is the maximum current that the module can produce when its output is shorted.
Vmpp and Impp represent the combination of voltage and current that results in the highest
power output (Pmax) from the module. The fill factor is a measure of how well the module
performs and is calculated as the ratio of Pmax to the product of the Voc and Isc.

Determines the Shape of the IV Curve?

The sloping shape of the IV curve is due to physical processes that occur within the PV cells. In
a PV cell, photons from the sun are absorbed by the semiconductor material, creating electron
electron-
hole pairs. The electric field within the cell separates the electron-hole
ele hole pairs, creating a flow of
current.

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At low voltages, the current is limited by the resistance of the cell, but at higher voltages, the
current output is limited by charge carrier recombination processes, which reduce the number of
electron-hole pairs
airs available to contribute to the current. This results in a decrease in the current
open circuit voltage (Voc).
output as voltage increases until it reaches zero at the open-circuit

This sloping shape can be characterized by the solar cell’s fill factor. The fill factor
fa represents
the ratio of the maximum power that a solar cell can produce (Pmax) to the power that could be
produced if the cell was operating at its open-circuit
open circuit voltage and short
short-circuit current. A higher
cell, meaning that the cell can convert the available
fill factor indicates a more efficient solar cell,
sunlight into a greater amount of electrical energy.

Both series and shunt resistance can significantly reduce the fill factor and therefore the overall
efficiency of a PV cell.

Series resistance refers to the resistance of the conducting

conducting path within the PV cell, which can be
caused by the resistance of the cell's metal contacts, the resistance of the semiconductor material
itself, and the resistance of any interconnects between the cells. Series resistance should be as
low as possible forr good efficiency. A high series resistance decreases the fill factor.

Shunt resistance refers to unintentional current flow inside the cell, which can occur due to
defects in the semiconductor material. For good efficiency, shunt resistance should be as high
h as
possible. whereas series resistance should be as low as possible.

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