GEOMORPHOLOGY

Term 2 Grade 11
KEY TERMS:

• Topography – relief or the shape of the land

• Stratified rock – rock composed of layers or strata
• Bedding planes – planes separating layers of rock
• Landscapes – area with a number of landforms
• Plateau – large high lying area that is relatively flat
• Sheet wash – rainfall flowing over the land as a sheet
• Badlands – landscapes with narrow gullies and sharp ridges
formed in arid climates
 1. TOPOGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH HORIZONTALLY LAYERED ROCKS
• This topography is associated with stratified rocks.
• Horizontal layers of rock are found where sediments have been
deposited and then uplifted without a change in their horizontal
position.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HILLY LANDSCAPES AND BASALTIC PLATEAUS
• Hilly landscapes & basaltic plateaus develop in areas where
rock strata are horizontal.
• The rock strata of these landscapes are uniformly (erode at a
similar rate) resistant to erosion
 1. HILLY LANDSCAPES
• Layers of horizontal sedimentary rock with uniform resistance to erosion
form a steep hilly landscape.
 The climate of the area influences the nature of the slopes in hilly
landscapes:

1. Steep hills with rounded slopes form in humid climates as sheet wash
takes place, rainfall runs down the slopes and removes surface
material.

2. Hills with narrow gullies and sharp ridges form in arid climates, slopes
are steep and uneven. These landscapes are called badlands.
STEEP HILLS WITH ROUNDED SLOPES – HUMID CONDITIONS
BADLANDS – ARID CLIMATES
 2. BASALTIC PLATEAUS
 Successive fissure eruptions cause lava to flow onto the
earth’s surface.
 The lava forms thick layers of basalt rock.
 Thelayers are horizontal and are uniformly resistant to
erosion.
 These layers of basalt give rise to basaltic plateaus.
COMPLETE THE TABLE BELOW
HOW FEATURES OF A KAROO LANDSCAPE FORM:
 1. MESA’S
 Mesa means table, they formed
by weathering & erosion of
horizontally layered rock that
have been uplifted by tectonic
activity
 When a more resistant rock
strata overlies a less resistant
strata, erosion cuts back the less
resistant rock, the more resistant
rock cant support itself and falls
 This creates steep cliffs, at the
more resistant cap, and a
pediplain lower down.
 BUTTES
 Butte is French for “small hill”
 Further erosion of the mesa occurs
creating buttes
 CONICAL HILLS
• Conical hills are formed as a result of
further erosion of a butte
• The resistant rock cap is fully
removed by erosion, leaving only the
softer layers underneath.
ACTIVITY 1.1 PAGE 75
SCARP RETREAT / BACK WASTING
 WHAT IS SCARP RETREAT
• Scarp retreat is how slopes erode and change over time
• With scarp retreat, slopes remain the same angle through the erosion stages.
 Erosion starts as uplift occurs, slopes erode uniformly when there is uniformly
tectonic uplift
 Erosion and deposition take place on landforms such as mesa’s or buttes, the
land forms get narrower but slopes remain the same angle.
 For this development to occur the erosion at the base of the slope must at the
same rate as the removal of material from the scarp slope.
 Only the pediment will become larger over time creating a large flat valley
floor.
 Features become narrower, but will only become shorter when the cap rock is
removed
 This is the process of scarp retreat or back wasting
ACTIVITY 2.1 PAGE 77
HOW PEOPLE USE THESE LANDSCAPES
1. HILLY LANDSCAPES
• Hilly, round landscapes are fertile
agricultural areas with high rainfall
and warmer weather.
• Although the soil may be thin the use
of contour ploughing allows people
to farm.
2.BASALTIC PLATEAUS

• Weathered lava plateaus

produce very fertile soil, as well
as sufficient water
• This allows for humans to use
this land for agriculture
• The Deccan plateau in India is
used for large scale
commercial cotton farming
3. CANYON LANDSCAPES

• Canyon landscapes offer historical

relevance for early human settlement
• However act as barriers to infrastructure
and transport routes
• Too dry and rivers to deep for farming
• Attract tourists (Grand canyon)
• Badlands off no real value to humans
as the slopes are too steep and erosion
lowers the value of the land further.
ACTIVITY 3.1 PAGE 79
4. KAROO LANDSCAPES
• Due to the arid areas Karoo
landscapes are found in, they offer no
significance to humans.
• Erosion is high, and soil is thin and
infertile
UNIT 4: TOPOGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH INCLINED/TILTED ROCK STRATA
KEY TERMS:
Homoclinal ridge – ridge formed from inclined strata
Scarp slope – steep slope of a homoclinal ridge
Dip slope – less steep slope of a homoclinal ridge
Mass wasting – movement of eroded material down a slope due to
gravity
Undercutting – erosion of rock at the base of a slope with subsequent
collapse of the overhang
Homoclinal shifting – movement of a homoclinal ridge towards the
dip slope
CHARACTERISTICS & PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF
HOMOCLINAL LANDSCAPES

• Homoclinal ridges are asymmetrical ridges which have a

steeper slope on one 1 side and a gentler slope on the other.
• These form from alternating sedimentary rock strata of varying
resistances that have been uplifted and tilted by warping,
folding and faulting.

• Homoclinal landscapes refer to a landscape formed of inclined

strata that are tilted by the same degree of dip in the same
direction.
 1. DIP AND SCARP SLOPES
 Surface erosion exposes the inclined strata.
 This results in ridges having a scarp slope and a dip slope.
 Erosionis less on the dip slope as it has a more resistant rock
than the scarp slope
 The
scarp slope is eroded through sheet wash and mass
wasting
 Scarprecession occurs as undercutting and collapse cause
the scarp slope to erode in the direction of the dip slope.
(homoclinal shifting)
 CUESTAS AND HOGSBACKS
 Depending on the angle of the resistant strata, we differentiate
between a cuesta and a hogsback

1. Cuesta the dipping strata lie at an angle of 10 – 25 degrees

2. Hogsback the dipping strata lie at an angle of more than 45 degrees
ACTIVITY 6 PAGE 138
CUESTA BASINS & CUESTA DOMES
 FORMATION OF CUESTA BASINS & DOMES
• As a result of folding, strata are raised into a dome shape or
bend downwards into a basin shape.
• Erosion of overlying material leads to a circular shape called
cuesta domes or cuesta basins
UTILISATION OF LANDSCAPE ASSOCIATED WITH INCLINED STRATA

• The dip slope of cuesta is rocky with thin soil, this is used for forestry
• The scarp of a cuesta slope is to steep to be used by people
• Homoclinal ridges are areas used to build dam walls
• Cuesta domes may contain oil or gas
• Cuesta basins may hold (artesian wells) if a layer of permeable rock
lies between 2 layers of impermeable rock.
TOPOGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH MASSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY & FEATURES
• The Earth’s mantle is made of magma (molten rock),
magma is less dense than rock and works its way through
cracks and joints to the earths crust.
• When magma cools it forms igneous intrusions.
• We classify these igneous intrusions according to their
shape, size and depth.
GRANITE BATHOLITHS
• Massive igneous rocks don’t have bedding planes but they do have
joints and cracks

• Joints form when magma cools, it contracts and solidifies to form

granite, these contractual joints cross one another at right angles
• Pressure from overlying material compresses the granite and forms
pressure-release or off-loading joints.
GRANITE DOMES AND TORS
1. GRANITE DOMES
• Granite domes are exposed batholiths (monoliths)
• The dome is made visible by erosion of the overlying material, or uplift
that takes place below the earths surface
• As the dome is exposed, it undergoes pressure release due to the
weight of the overlaying material being removed
• As the pressure is released the granite expands, causing dilation joints
to form along the surface
• Further erosion and weathering along these joints cause exfoliation
type weathering and slabs of granite slip off the dome
2. TORS
• Tors are composed of granite, dolerite or metamorphic rocks that
form when erosion widens the rocks joints
• Before being exposed water seeped into the ground and chemically
weathered the parent rock along its joints and bedding plains.
• Following uplift or the removal of material due to erosion, the rocks
are weathered and eroded at an accelerated rate, and the joints
are enlarged
• This structure appears as boulders loosely stacked on each other.
 TORS CONTINUED
• As weathering of tors continues, the rock is broken down
further
• Hillsides are covered in loose rocks, known as clitter
• Eventually the granite is weathered down to a sandy gravel
known as growan, which consists on individual crystals
• Tors are common in temperate climates
• Inselbergs in tropical climates
• Both suggest the removal of material by the way of solifluction
ACT 9.1 PAGE 95
SLOPES
TYPES OF SLOPES:
3 main categories of slopes:
1. Concave – slope bends inwards
2. Convex – slope bulges outwards
3. Straight – when a slope has a vertical drop
• The formation of the slope is used to classify the slope:
1. Tectonic slopes – formed through internal forces that result in folding,
faulting or warping
2. Erosion slopes – formed through the agents of erosion (rivers, glaciers
and waves) produce valley slopes or cliffs.
3. Depositional slopes – deposits of weathered material build up to
form inclined surfaces.
PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY EROSION
Primary erosion slopes:
• Have developed from the erosion of land by water, wind, sea
and ice.
• Examples are river gorges, sea cliffs

Secondary erosion slopes:

• Have developed through the weathering and erosion of
primary slopes.
 ENDOGENIC & EXOGENIC FORCES
• Endogenic forces – operate from the inside of the Earth’s crust to form or
change rock
 Tectonic uplift
 Earthquakes
 Volcanic activity
 Folding/faulting

• Exogenic forces – operate above or near the land surface and lead to
either erosion or deposition.
SLOPE ELEMENTS:
SLOPE ELEMENTS CONSIST OF:
1. The crest – convex slope usually found at the top of a hill, eroded
material falls down the cliff.

2. Cliff / scarp slope – steep almost vertical section of outcrop, often

bears the scars of rock falls

3. The Talus / debris –scree slope – less steep directly beneath the cliff,
here material falls off the cliff and collects on the talus slope

4. Pediment slope – low angle slope, slightly concave at the foot of the
hill (bottom)
5. Knick-point – sharp change in gradient
SIGNIFICANCE OF SLOPES FOR HUMAN ACTIVITIES
• The cliff – poor soil quality and the steep gradient limit most commercial activities,
however recreational activities such as rock climbing, hang-gliding or abseiling can be
done.

• The Talus – due to rock falls from the cliff, it makes it to dangerous for any human activities

• The Pediment – of the 4 slopes this is the most user-friendly slope, it is flat so allows easy
access for most commercial activities as the soil is of a good quality and can be built on.

• People alter slopes by mining, building roads and housing, or terrace farming.
• Vegetation helps protect slopes from erosion by binding the soil and draining surface
water.
• Deforestation is a large contributor to soil erosion and, wire nets and metal reinforcements
help stop rock falls and soil erosion.
ACTIVITY 10.1 Q 1-3 PG. 98
ACTIVITY 11.1 PG. 101
SLOPE DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME & SLOPE RETREAT
 KEY TERMS:
• Peneplain – nearly flat plain formed by erosion of slopes in humid
conditions
• Down wasting – erosion of the land mass in such a way landforms
become lower over time
• Pediplain – nearly flat plain formed as canyon floors become wider in
arid conditions
• Back wasting – erosion of the land mass in such a way that landforms
become narrower
• Parallel retreat – erosion of the scarp slope causes loss of ground over
the face of the slope, but not in height.
• Sheetflow – rainwater flows over a slope in a sheet
1. SLOPE DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME

• Flowing water, as it flows from high to low grounds, play a large part in
shaping of slopes
• Landscapes go through a cycle of 3 stages while they erode from
mountains into plains.
• These stages are:
1. Youthful
2. Mature
3. Old age
1. YOUTHFUL STAGE
• Sudden uplift of the surface raises the height of the land.

• Erosion starts immediately after uplift and carves narrow V-shaped

valleys and canyons with steep slopes.
• The erosion is mainly downward erosion
 2. MATURE STAGE
• Further erosion causes the mature stage
• Sideways (lateral) erosion widens the V-shape valleys and high lying
areas become smaller and lower
• At first slopes are rugged, but become more rounded due to sheetflow
3. OLD AGE
• As erosion continues over time, valleys become wider and develop into
floodplains.
• Streams meander to cause more lateral erosion.
• Deposition of material starts areas between rivers are smaller.
• Upper slopes are convex and lower slopes concave.
• The land is now almost eroded to a level plain
THE CONCEPT OF SLOPE RETREAT
Slope elements are eroded back parallel to themselves, they maintain there
gradient and do not get lower
MASS MOVEMENTS AND HUMAN RESPONSE
CONCEPT OF MASS MOVEMENTS
 Massmovements / mass wasting or slope failure refer to all
downward movement of weathered material such as soil,
stones and rocks on a slope as a result of gravity.
 Mass movements can occur at a very fast or slow rate.
 Water is important in mass movements, less water the soil
restricts mass movement as the soil has greater cohesion, large
amounts of water will lubricate the weathered material assist in
the mass movement.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SPEED OF MASS MOVEMENTS
• Gradient of a slope: steeper the slope the faster the mass movement,
slopes with an incline of 40 degrees or more are common for mass
movements.
• Rock structure: Slopes that are made up of stratified rock of alternating
strata of more resistant and less resistant rock are more prone to mass
movements.
• Vegetation: Slopes with little vegetation are prone to mass movements
as there are less roots to bind soils and more sheet flow from rain.
• Soils: soils that are thin have less vegetation, sandy soils move more
easily downhill, soils that are not porous become saturated and move
downhill
• Climate: Heavy rain adds volume and weight to soil which makes it
unstable.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SPEED OF MASS MOVEMENTS

• People: peoples actions can trigger mass movements, deforestation,

building on unstable hill slopes, slopes are excavated for roads making
them unstable, mining or quarrying also increase mass movements
• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions: result in mass movements
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS
 TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS
1. Flows
• Soil creep
• Solifluction
• Earthflow
• Mudflow
2. Slides
• Land slide
• Slumps
3. Falls
• Rock falls
1. FLOW
 1. Soil creep
 Slowest mass movement
 Moves at a rate of less than 1 cm per year
 Steeper the slope the fast the creep
 Occurs with soil expands or contracts due to wetting
or drying
 Indications of soil creep are:
1. Small steps called terracettes
2. Curved tree trunks
3. Bent fence posts
4. Accumulated soil against structures
2. SOLIFLUCTION
 Occurs when top soil becomes saturated and slides on frozen ground
beneath it
 It occurs a little faster than soil creep at 5cm per year.
3. EARTHFLOW

• Occurs in clay areas when soil is saturated with water

• Its moves down a slope with a fairly gentle gradient
• Speed is between 1 and 15 km per year
4. MUDFLOW
• More rapid than earthflow
• Speeds can exceed 1 km per hour but can be faster
• Occurs when streams of mud flow down a slope in definite channels.
2. SLIDES
1. Landslides and slumps
• Sudden movements occurring when a large mass of land breaks loose
and plunges down a slope
• Can occur along a fault zone, when a block of land tilts backwards
and slumps downhill.
• Earthquakes also trigger landslides
 3. FALLS
1. Rock falls
• Occur when rock fragments break off from the parent mass as a result
of weathering and fall to the bottom of a slope scree
• Most rapid movement
IMPACT OF MASS MOVEMENTS ON PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
IMPACT ON PEOPLE

 Death and injury to people

 Property damage and loss of homes
 Damage to transport infrastructure
 Damage to agricultural lands
 IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

 Destroy vegetation and forests

 Damage ecosystems and natural habitats
 Block streams and dam up lakes
 Remove topsoil and cause erosion
 Change the nature of slopes
 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT THE EFFECTS OF MASS MOVEMENTS

1. Prevention
 Planting vegetation
 Controlling drainage down a slope
 Concrete drains to lead run-off and prevent infiltration
 Retaining walls
 Rock bolts
 Deeply sunk pylons
 Wire cables and wire fences covering the area of danger.