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2nd International Balkans Conference on Challenges of Civil Engineering, BCCCE, 23-25 May 2013, Epoka University, Tirana, Albania

Water intake structures for hydropower

Dritan Bratko1, Alban Doko2

1
Department of Hydraulic and Hydrotechnic, Universiteti Politeknik i Tiranes, Albania
2
Department of Hydraulic and Hydrotechnic, Universiteti Politeknik i Tiranes, Albania

Abstract

In the age of industrial development, lakes, rivers and canals have been exploited to an ever
increasing extent, and dams and weirs for the diversion of river water have been constructed on
flowing waterways for various purposes. Likewise, river intakes have been developed even
further for agriculture and the generation of hydroelectric power. Now, when in the
industrialized countries, particularly in Europe, this development has practically come to an end.
In Albania a very big number of sites for large-scale and small-scale river water intakes are
developing in the field of energy production.
The exploitation of rivers and streams requires thorough planning, irrespective of whether large-
scale or small-scale projects are concerned. The ecological aspects, the compatibility of a project
with the environment and the minimization of subsequent damage caused by any measure taken
are important planning criteria. For large-scale and small-scale projects, experienced planning
engineers and experts are normally appointed. In addition to the individual types of intake
structures, the necessary hydraulic and static calculation methods are given and explained. The
prerequisites to be met by the intake structure are different for each river and stream, and
therefore only the basics can be described here. The operativeness of an installation depends
largely upon the planning and, thus, upon the experience of the planning engineer. In just such a
sensitive field as the intervention in a river or stream with a view to tapping water for general
purposes, a great number of criteria are to be considered, and it is these which rare given in this
planning guide.

Introduction
Which is the most adequate layout plan for an intake structure?
The most adequate layout plan is the one which allows the intake structure to function in the
most effective manner while allowing the necessary amount of water at the required elevation.
In this section, the design and analysis of the intake structure elements, which influence the
effectiveness of conveying water to the turbine, have been treated. The purpose of hydraulic
calculation for all the elements of the intake structures with or without pressure is that the
designers have the possibility for optimization of the hydraulic scheme of a small hydropower
plant, and water to be conveyed to the turbine with lower costs and high efficiency.
Traditionaly, the intake structures for the hydropower plants were the structures conveying water
from a system without pressure to one with pressure. In this study the definition of “intake
structure” includes not only the traditional ones but the ones which serve to the systems without
pressure as well.
Intake structures can be categorized as:
• Intake structures which take water directly from the water flow and pass it to the
penstock.

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• Intake structures which take the water through an auxiliary structure which diverts the
flow
• Intake structures placed on reservoirs

Design criteria
The effectiveness of a hydropower plant is directly dependent on the location, orientation, and
the water level at the intake structure. In order to have satisfactory and correct results, the
hydraulic structures should be adapted to the site. Factors that are considered include:

Water levels

In most of the cases the intake structures should be designed in order to function for different
water levels.
For the intake structures placed on reservoirs, studies should be conducted in order to determine
the fluctuations of the water level. The efficiency of the structure should be checked for the
normal and extreme levels. It can be accepted that the effectiveness of the structure may be
lower in the case of maximal levels if they have short time span.
The intake structures placed in rivers or streams should be determined from the water level of
the flow, which is determined by hydraulic studies. The influence of the intake structure or the
diversion structure on the water levels in the river or stream, the erosion and deposition, the ice
blockage etc., should be evaluated. The narrowing or widening of the river at the intake structure
should be evaluated as well.

Placement distance

The distance between the intake structure and the powerhouse influences the hydraulic losses as
well as the cost of the conveyance structures. Most of the powerhouses should be constructed
near dams or diversion structures in order to profit as much as possible in water head, while the
intake structures should be placed on the lowest point of the reservoirs. In the cases when the
powerhouse is at a considerable distance from the intake structure: should be done an evaluation
of the whole diversion system in order to have as few losses as possible.

Geological composition

Bank stability is important, and the intake should be located in a reach of river where the bank is
stable because an unstable bank is likely to adversely affect intake performance. Foundation
conditions also may affect design. If possible, the intake should be located at a site possessing
favorable foundation conditions because overcoming adverse foundation conditions may require
costly treatment.

Diverted flow

While placing the intake structure, the diverted flow should be taken into consideration. Intakes
are generally oriented to minimize separation of flow which causes portions of the intake to be
ineffective and can result in swirl, eddies, and vorticity which may entrain air. Where the rate of
withdrawal is small and the intake relatively deeply submerged, flow separation, vorticity, and
air entrainment are less likely to occur. Higher withdrawal rates are more conducive to flow
separation than lower rates.

Sediment

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The intake structures should be placed in such a way to minimize the accumulation of fine
materials. The intake structures in reservoirs are placed over the calculated alluvial accumulation
level for the lifetime of the structure. Sediment accumulation in the intake approach, result in
higher approach velocities, increased head losses, and potentially flow separation. Where the
accumulation is severe, removal may be required at periodic intervals. The passage of sediment
through the unit may result in undesirable wear of the turbine runner and this should be
minimized.
Ice

Ice is a major hazard for intake structures as in cases of: trash rack blockage, increase in
hydraulic losses, reduction of the diverted flow, and additional measures for its cleanup. The
placement of the intake structures in order to minimize the problem of ice requires a detailed
study of the annual ice regime. The general principles are to locate the intake where ice flows
are minimal and to provide facilities for passing ice through the project such as ice sluices and
overflow sections or gates.

Power intake

Vertical intake

Vertical intakes are commonly used where there is a great difference in elevation between the
reservoir bottom at the intake and the turbine, and where the penstock or power tunnel is vertical
for some distance to the level of the powerhouse.
The dimensions of the vertical intake are conditioned from the penstock diameter or the power
tunnel diameter. This diameter is determined from the comparison of the energy proficiency to
the construction cost. The main criteria for the structural dimensioning should be the
minimization of the hydraulic losses and the avoidance of eddies.

a) b)
Figure 1 Vertical intake [Ref. 3]
Hydraulic losses caused by the vertical intakes:

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V2
HL  K (1)
2g

H L  hydraulic losses from the water surface level to the diametric constant of the intake (m),
V  velocity in the penstock (m/s), K  the loss coefficient which varies from 0.1 up to 0.3

The adequate shape of the vertical intake is as shown in the figure 1. b):
The equation for the entrance shape which is derived from laboratory tests is:

1
2
Q
R  0.204 1
[Ref. 3] (2)
4
H a

Q  discharge (m³/s), H a  distance between the water surface and the plan where we want to
determine the radius (m)

A special care should be provided in determining if trash racks will be used or not. The racks are
usually placed on the outter perimeter of the structure where the flow velocity is low. The
cleanup of the trash racks is very difficult when the water depth is very high. But in these cases,
problems with their blockage are not expected to occur.
The hydraulic losses from the trash racks depend on the thickness of the rods, the depth and the
distance between them.

hL  trashrack head loss (m)

vn2
hL  K t (3)
2g

vn  velocity through the net trashrack area (m/s), Kt  trashrack loss coefficient

2
a a 
K t  1.45  0.45 n   n  (4)
a g  a g 

an  net area through rack bars (m²), ag  gross area of the racks and supports (m²)

An important criteria in the functionality of vertical intakes is the submerged depth which
usually is grater compared to horizontal intakes. To avoid the formation of eddies, at the
entrance of the intake structure are placed some piles which reduce the velocity and disperse the
eddies.

Horizontal intake
The great majority of hydroelectric project intakes are horizontal. Even in cases where a large
elevation difference exists between the intake and the powerhouse, the intake is normally
horizontal, followed by a curve to an inclined or vertical power tunnel or penstock.
The advantage of horizontal intakes consists in the possibility to easily place gates, trash racks
and stoplogs. Horizontal intakes are categorized in two groups:

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 High head intakes H>15m.

These structures are usually placed in reservoirs or in the body of arch, gravity, earth dams. In
this case the intake structure is placed directly in the resirvoir, and water is conveyed through
diversion systems to the forebay from where it passes through the intake to the penstock or
pressure tunnel.
In high head intakes, the hydraulic losses are relatively small compared to the head and the costs
for increasing the dimensions of the intake to decrease the velocity are not neccesary.

Figure 2 Horizontal intakes [Ref. ICE designe]

 Low head intakes H<15m.

These structures are usually placed in rivers, where the intake is integrated in the body of the
dam together with the turbines.

Figure 3 Low head horizontal intake [Ref. 1]

In low head intakes, the hydraulic losses have a great impact on energy production. In these
structures, an increase in dimensions in order to decrease the velocity is required.

Components of horizontal intakes

Trashrack location and design

Depending on the working process of the trashrack they will have an automatic cleanup device
or will be cleaned manually. The cleanup method depends on the amount of waste expected to
accumulate. For an easy cleanup the trashracks are placed with an inclination 1H:4V. In high
head intakes the trashracks are installed just before the entrance. It is recommended that the flow

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velocity of the water passing through the trashracks should not exceed the velocity 0.8-1.2 m/s.
In case of presence of ice, it is recommended that the trashracks are placed under the normal
water level at 0.5-1m depth and have a protecting wall at this height. From the construction
practice it has been observed that the head losses have not been calculated accurately, because
the depth of the alluvial deposits and suspended waste has not been considered.
Entrance shape
Usually it resembles to the trajectory of contracted flow. Generally it has bellmouth shape. But it
can be rectangular as well, which then narrows until the dimensions reach those of the penstock.
In the case of low head intakes, when the turbine is integrated in the dam body to avoid
cavitation, the geometry of the intake structure is determined from the turbine supplier.
Transition zone
The length of this zone is based on the requirement of conservation of the constant acceleration
of the flow. In case of presence of openings divided from piles, may be necessary a longer and
wider transition zone.
Bulkheads or stoplogs
They are usually placed between the trashracks and the service gates in case of their damage.
Their placement is done by slots created on the walls of the structure which are placed at the
beginning or the end of the curvatures. The hydraulic losses caused from the stoplogs depend on
the slot dimensions.
Service gates
Can be placed on the curved part or in its end. The placement of the gates is done through slots
created at the walls of the structure. The gates can be mechanical or automatic. The gates are
used in case of different problems which can occur at the structure or at the turbines. The gate
dimensions are determined from the space they have to cover. Greater gate dimensions influence
in hydraulic losses, so that an economic evaluation needs to be done between the hydraulic
losses and the gained energy.
Air vent
Air vents are typically included in forebay or intake designs that incorporate power conduit and
some type gate valve. The function of an air vent on a guard gate is to provide air into the
downstream power conduit so that the conduit does not experience unacceptable vacuum
pressures when the gate is closed during standard flow conditions.

Hydraulic calculations of the horizontal intake

Trashrack
A trash rack is required at the entrance of penstock to avoid the entrance of floating debris. The
flow water through the rack also gives rise to a head loss. Though usually small, it can be
calculated by a formula developed by Krischmer:

4
 t 3  V 
2
h  K t    0  sin  [Ref. 1] (5)
 b   2g 

h  head loss (m), t  bar thickness (mm), b  width between bars (mm), V0  approach
velocity (m/s),   angle of inclination from horizontal (°)

Where the parameters are identified in figure 4.

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Figure 4 Adequate shapes for the trashracks [Ref. 5]

This formula is valid if the length L of the bars is smaller than 5 times their diameter. If the grill
is not perpendicular but makes an angle  with water flow. The result of equation 5 should
multiplied by correction factor k provided in table 1.

Table 1 Correction factor k [Ref. 1]

t/b 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0º 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
10º 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.14 1.50
20º 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.26 1.31 1.43 2.25
30º 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.35 1.44 1.50 1.64 1.90 3.60
40º 1.43 1.48 1.55 1.64 1.75 1.88 2.10 2.56 5.70
50º 1.75 1.85 1.96 2.10 2.30 2.60 3.00 3.80 -------
60º 2.25 2.41 2.62 2.90 3.26 3.74 4.40 6.05 --------

Submergence depth
Minimum submergence depth at penstock inlet is required. There are different formulas for
minimum depth at the inlet to avoid vortices and air entrainment:

V
ht  D  (1  2.3  ) (Knauss) [Ref. 6] (6)
gD

ht  1.474  V 0.48  D 0.76 (Rohan) [Ref. 6] (7)

ht  c V  D (Gordon) [Ref. 6] (8)

c = 0.74245 and 0.5434 for non-symmetric and symmetric approach

D  penstock diameter (m), ht  submergence depth (m), V  flow velocity in penstock (m/s)

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Figure 5 Submergence depths [Ref. 3]

Entrance shape
Based on studies and laboratory tests it has been concluded that the bellmouth shape satisfies the
above conditions.

x2 y2
 1 [Ref. 3] (9)
 3K x D   K D
2 2
y

For a circular entrance K x  0.167, K y  0.15

For rectangular or square entrance K x  K y  0.33
Suppressed bottom and side contractions K x  K y  0.5
Suppressed one side only, for unsuppressed side K x  0.33, K y  0.67
Where: X and y are the coordinate axes. The axis x-x is displaced parallel to the pipe axis
with the value 0.65D and y-y is perpendicular with the pipe axis is displaced
0.5D from the entrance.

Head losses for intake entrance

Head losses for intake are represented by equation:

hl  entrance head loss (m)

 1 V
2
hl   2  1 [Ref. 3] (10)
C  2g

Table 2 Coefficient for different forms of entrance [Ref. 3]

Intake Condition 1/(C²-1)
Well-designed bell mouth 0.04-0.05
Well rounded 0.1
Slightly rounded 0.25
Square edged 0.47-0.56
Projecting 0.62-1.0

Head loss due to slots

Based on hydraulic consideration E. Mosonyi suggests the following approximating formula for
the calculation of the head loss at the slots:

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 hs  head loss due to slots (m)

v2   1  
2

1     
2
hs  1.2   [Ref. 1] (11)
2 g     

  cross-section coefficient

Bh
 (12)
Bh  2 y * h  yB

  Weisbach coefficient

  0.63  0.37  3 (13)

v  velocity in the entrance flume, just before the slots (m/s), B  width of entrance flume
(m), h  depth of entrance flume (m), e  width of slot (m), d  depth of slot (m), If
d  0.2 e then y*  0.2e , If d  0.2 e then y*  d

The disturbing effect of the opening necessary for the hoisting of the gate is accounted for by
dimension

y  0.2e (14)

Representing the widening yB of the cross-section.

Air vent
The air vent can be dimensioned in different methods: A rule of thumb used for sizing air vent
piping is to provide from one half to one percent of the area of the power conduit as an air vent.
Using the following formula.
Area of air vent is :

 3

Q s  2
d
F      k [Ref. 3] (15)
 2460000  c  t  
 

Q  flow of air through inlet ( usually set equal to conduit flow) (m³/s), c  coefficient of
discharge through air inlet, values of c range from 0.5 for ordinary air-inlet valves to 0.7 for
short air-inlet valves, F  area of air inlet (m²), t  thickness of power conduit (mm), d 
diameter of power conduit (mm), s  safety factor for collapse of power conduit, use s=5 for
buried conduit and s=10 for exposed conduit on saddles, k  conversion coefficient from US
unit to SI (0.305)

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Conveyance intake

Lateral intake with damming up of the river

These structures are widely used in exploitation schemes of rivers and streams with bed slope
0.001%-10%.
The purpose of constructing these structures is:

 To avoid, or to reduce the deposits of fine materials in the conveyance channel.

It is advisable to place the intake on the outter curve of the river, because in this part the flow
has greater velocity and the material deposits are very small.
A shallow channel should be build in front of the intake in order to avoid the entrance of
deposits. It should be constructed with a slope of 2%-5%, a change in elevation from the
riverbed of 1-1.5m and is accompanied with a gate which opens when these deposits need to be
cleaned.
 To take the required amount of water while having minimal hydraulic losses.
The dimensioning of the intake entrance should be such that velocities greater than 0.8-1.2 m/s
are avoided. The hydraulic losses should be taken into consideration giving an adequate shape.
An important factor is also the direction of the intake in relation to the river axis. To guide the
water entering the intake and to close it in case of defects are placed gates and stoplogs.
 To prevent the entrance of ice and solid materials in the conveyance channel.
To prevent the entrance of solid materials into the intake, some trashracks with inclination
1H:4V are installed, which can be cleaned manually and automatically.
The intake structure is placed in the inside part of the curve to protect the structure from ice. In
the upper part of the intake entrance are placed some vertical or inclined walls submerged at a
depth of 0.5-1m to the water surface.

Figure 6 Optimal layout of a lateral intake [Ref. 5]

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Hydraulic calculation of lateral intakes.

Direction of the intake

Based on different studies conducted from D.Y.Sokolov, the angle of the intake direction is
determined from the formula:

 h f  hc  qf
cos    1   [Ref. 1] (16)
 hf
  qc

  the coefficient of contraction at the intake structure (m³/s)

bc
 (17)
b

bc  contracted width of flow (m), b  width of the conveyance channel (m), q f  river
discharge (m³/s), qc  discharge entering the intake (m³/s), h f  depth of water in the
river or stream (m), hc  depth of water in the intake (m)

Figure 7 Teorical water movement scheme [Ref. 1]

Entrance dimensioning
The surface required at the entrance of the intake is calculated with the formula:

qc
F [Ref. 1] (18)
v

v  prefered 0.8-1.2 m/s

Entrance head losses

Losses at the entrance are calculated with the formula:

v2 v 2f
he   [Ref. 1] (19)
2g 2g

  varies 0.8-0.4 depending on the angle of the intake direction where the highest values can
be considered for the narrow angles, v f  flow velocity in the river, v  flow velocity in the
intake
In case of a step at the entrance and the lateral walls or rounded piles, the maximal loss at the
entrance is calculated as:

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v2 v 2f
he  1.3  [Ref. 1] (20)
2g 2g

Hydraulic losses as a result of trashracks, gate slots are treated at the pressure intakes.

Drop intake
Drop intake or Tyrolean intakes are commonly used for small and steeply sloped motains rivers
with reliable rock foundation. This type of intake consists essentially of a channel built in the
river bed, stretching across it and protected by a trash rack with a sloping face oriented in the
direction of the river flow.

Figure 8 Drop intakes [Ref. 6]

Trashrack
Trash rack function essentially as filters to remove material and stones, floating on or just below
the water surface from enter into the intake. In design of the trash rack type and dimensions
precautions should be taken to prevent clogging of the racks. The basic design variables of the
trash rack are the opening between adjacent bars ‘a’ and the center spacing ‘b’. These values for
SHP depend on the size of material allowed to pass through the intake. Fig. 9 shows some types
of rack bars with different profiles.

Figure 9 Typical profiles of racks for Drop intake (Tyrolean intake) [Ref. 6]
The rectangular racks are not recommended to be used for intake as they are easily and rapidly
clogged by stones. Fig. 9a. The bulb-ended bars have better performance and are more rigid if
required Fig. 9b. The best shape is round-head bars that prevent sediments from jamming and
have better resistance against impact of stones because of higher moment of inertia Fig. 9c. So,

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this last type of bars should be used systematically for Tyrolean intake. The recommended
opening rack bars for this type is 20 to 40 mm.
The racks have to be inspected and cleaned at regular time intervals to prevent potential
obstruction by debris.

Design criteria
The dimensions of the Tyrolean intake must be sufficient to capture all the water for the design
discharge. According to the shape of the trash rack, head losses, approach flow regime and
design discharge, the dimensions of a Tyrolean intake are based on following formula:

2
Q  c    B  L  2 gh [Ref. 6] (21)
3

Lcalculated  intake length over the trash rack (m), B  trash rack width (m), Q  design
flow (m³/s), h  water depth at upstream end of the trash rack (m)

h  k c  hcr (22)

hcr  critical height (m)

2
hcr  he (23)
3

he  initial water height (m), k c  correction factor

kc  0.88  (cos  ) for  >30o (24)

  discharge coefficient for trash rack

Figure 10 Discharge coefficients for different types of trash racks, [Ref. 7]

3
a
c  0.6  ( )  (cos  ) 2 (25)
b

c  trash rack coefficient,   slope angle of the trash rack (º), 30 o   <45 o , a  opening
between the bars (mm), b  center spacing of bars (mm)

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In order to guarantee the diversion of the minimum amount of water when stones become
wedged in the trash rack, or branches and leaves remain on the trash rack at low water levels, the
trash rack should be selected:

L  1.2  Lcalculated (26)

Conclusion
The most important factors that should be evaluated for the choice of an intake structure are the
climatic, geological, topographic and flow conditions. For the determination of the final design
of a hydropower plant, it is very important that all the possible intake structures are analysed and
the most optimal structure is chosen.
From the construction practice of intake structures in Albania, it must be emphasized that a
certain reserve should be taken into consideration while dimensioning the intake structure. This
reserve accounts for the depth of the alluvial deposits accumulated at the bottom of the trashrack
and the suspended waste on the water surface during the operational phase of the structure.

References
[25] Emil Mosonyi, (1987) Low-Head Power Plant., Akademia Kiado, Budapest.
[26] Emil MosonyI, (1991) High-Head Power Plant, Volume IIA., Akademia Kiado, Budapest.
[27] American Society of Civil Engineers,(1995) Guidelines for Design of Intakes for
Hydroelectric Plants
[28] American Society of Civil Engineers,(1969) Civil Engineering Guidelines for Planning
and Designing Hydro Developments Volume 4 Small Scale Hydro
[29] European Small Hydropower Association 2004, Guide on How to Develop a Small
Hydropower Plant
[30] Mohammadreza Andaroodi,(2006) Standardization of Civil Engineering Works of Small
High-head Hydropower Plants and Developments of an Optimixation Tool
[31] Helmut Lauterjung & Gangolf Schmidt,(1989) Planning of Water Intake Structures for
Irrigation or Hydropower. A Publication of GTZ-Postharvest Project in: Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.

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