FIRST TERM

SCHEME OF WORK

Week 1 Revision/ Introduction of Map Reading

Week 2 Scales, Types, Conversion, Size of Scale

Week 3 Measurement of Distance & Area

Week 4 Direction & Bearing, Grid Reference

Week 5 Relief Representation and Contour Representation

Week 6 Mid term Test

Week 7 Map Reduction & Enlargement

Week 8 Drawing of Relief Profile and Intervisibility

Week 9 Interpretation of Topographical Relief, Drainage pattern,

Settlement, Cultural Features And Human Activities

Week 10 Element of Survey: Introduction to Elementary Land Surveying

Week 11 Revision
Week 12 Examination
 INTRODUCTION TO MAP READING

What is map? A map is a representation of the earth, surface or part of the earth
surface as it is seen from the above on a paper. It can also be defined as the
representation of bird eye’s view of the earth or part of the earth.

Map reading therefore is the ability to recognize conventional signs and

symbols used on a map and interpret the correctly.

TYPES OF MAP

Maps are of different types and these include

I. Topographical maps II. Atlas maps

III. Plan maps IV. Sketch map

V. cadastral map VI. Distributional maps.

USES OF MAPS

1. General Reference: maps help us to locate unknown places

2. Navigation and Route Planning: whether we move on land, at sea or in the air,
we rely heavily on maps to plan our routes and to maintain our course.
3. Communication: many maps are designed and produced to convey a particular
image or communicate a particular idea e.g. distributional map.
4. Planning: because where is important, we use maps to determine where we
want to do what
5. Jurisdiction: maps are used as legal documents showing the ownership of land
and boundaries
6. Maps helped us to understand spatial relationship among different phenomena

CONV ENTIONAL SIGNS

Conventional signs are symbols used to represent both natural and human
features found in an area that is represented. Nearly all the important
geographical features in the area represented with the map are depicted with the
map use of the symbols knows as conventional signs. Conventional signs
represent the language of the map. There are numerous conventional sign but
some of these symbols can be grouped thus:

a. Line symbols
b. Point symbols
c. Pictorial symbols
d. Literal symbols

a) Line symbol: These symbols are used mostly on topographic maps to

show features such as rivers, rail ways road, boundaries, telephone
lines etc.
b) Point symbols: these symbols are used to show features as
trigonometical stations, bench mark, farmhouses as well as
settlements. Point symbols can also be used in combination with
literal or alphabetical symbols to show some vital facilities such as
schools, court, post office etc
c) Pictorial Symbols: These are the first set of symbols used by
geographers to represent relief. They are straight forward techniques
to represent features in form of drawing that is, the pictures of the
features in the place where they are found
d) Literal symbols. For these symbols, letters are abbreviated to show
the location of features particularly those facilities that are important
eg. Ch = church, MKT = market RH = Rest house, Sch = School

WEEK 2
DATE: 5TH – 9TH MAY 2015

TOPIC: SCALE
 WHAT IS A MAP SCALE
A map scale is the ratio, proportion or relationship between
measurement on the map and the actual measurement on the ground.
In other words, scale of a map indicates the relationship between the
distance of two points on a map and the actual distance on the ground.
E.g. if the scale of a map is 2cm to 1km, it means two centimeters on
a map represent one kilometer on the ground.

TYPES OF SCALE
There are three types of scale these are
i. Statement scale
ii. Linear scale
iii. Representative fraction scale (R.F)

a) Statement scale: this is a scale given in form of a statement and

figures. E.g. one centimeter represents two kilometer or 1cm to 2km
or 2cm rep 1km.
The rule is that the first figure like 1cm, 2cm represent the distance on
map while the last figure like 2km represent the distance on the
ground
b) Linear scale: this is a line drawn to represent the relationship between
the distance on the map and the actual distances on the ground.
Linear scale is divided into two parts primary divisions and secondary
divisions.

Secondary Primary
Division Division
In the diagram above, to the right has uniform primary division of
whole numbers in kilometer but from O to left has secondary division
infractions of km
c) Representative fraction (R.F) Scale. In this scale, the distance on the
map and the distance on the ground are expressed in form of fraction
or ratio. The distance on the map as the numerator and is always one
(1) while the denominator stands for the distance on the ground. But
the numerator and denominator are in the same unit of measurement.
Example of R.F includes.
1:100000, 1:50000, 1/25000, 1/200000
1:100000 mean the same thing as 1cm rep 1km

CONVERSION OF ONE SCALE TO ANOTHER

In map work, one scale can be converted to another
A. To convert form statement scale to R.F
Procedure
 Write out the statement scale clearly
 Write the two part of the scale in the same unit. Usually in the
lowest unit of the measurement
 Write the scale as a fraction with distance on the map as numerator
and the ground distance as the denominator
 Divide out the fraction till the numerator is just one 1
2cm to 1km = 2cm to 100, 000cm
1 = 1/50, 000
To convert from R.F to statement scale
Procedure
Write out the R.F clearly in the same unit
Divide the ground distance in cm by 100, 000 e.g 1:50,000
= 1cm 50,000/100,000
= 1cm to ½ km
Or 2cm to 1km

To convert form linear to statement or R.F

Use ruler to measure the length of only one unit on the linear scale on
the primary division which may be 1cm or 2cm or even 3cm on the
ruler
The measurement on the ruler in relation to the linear scale (Only one
unit) represent the distance on the map e.g.
 1 ¾½ ¼ 0 1 2 3km

2cm on the ruler equal to 1km on the scale 2cm to 1km.

Size of scale
The size of a scale may be large or small.
a) Small scale maps show larger area but cannot include a great
amount of details and only very important features are shown. The
larger the denominator of a scale, the smaller the scale.
Examples of small scale include 1:1000, 000, 1:2000, 000,
1:250000
b) Larger scale may show small area but with details of the area and
important features are shown, the smaller the denominator of a
scale the larger the scale.
Examples of larger scale include
1:250, 1:5000, 1:20 etc
In summary, the smaller the scale the larger the map while the larger
the scale, the smaller the map.
Example: arrange the following scales in ascending order
1:25000, 1:1000, 1:250000 1:50000, 1:100000

WEEK 3
TOPIC: MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
Distance on a map is the interval between two points on a map. It can
either be straight or curve.
Measurement of straight distance
Examples of straight distances Measurement include air routes,
crowfly, some straight road, railway etc.
Procedure
a. Locate the places involved in the question on the map
b. Use ruler to measure the distance between the two points
c. Relate the distance measured on the map to the scale given to get
your ground distance. (give Examples)
Measurement of curve distances
Measurement of curves distances can be carried out in three ways.
i. Use of a pair of divider
ii. Use of a piece of thread
iii. Use of straight edge of paper
Use of a piece of thread: stretch a piece of white thread along the
route or curve that is to be measured. Carefully follow all curves.
Mark the end of the distance on the thread with biro and transfer it to
the linear scale or ruler and calculate the distance in statement or R.F
scale.
Given Examples
Measurement of area
Area can be in regular or irregular shape. Measurement of area of
regular shape, example of regular shape is square, rectangle, map
shape etc. Area of regular shapes like area of a map = Length x width
Procedures

 Measure the length with a ruler and relate it to the scale given.
 Measure the width with a ruler and also relate it to the scale
 Finally, multiply the length with the width in km.
Give examples
Measurement of irregular shapes: Irregular shape like lake, farm,
settlement etc. can be measured by the use of two methods, the square
method and the strip method.
The square method: this method requires the use of a tracing paper or
graph paper
Procedures
 Trace the outline of the figure given on a square tracing paper or
graph paper.
 Count the number of complete squares on the space enclosed by
the figure.
 The number of incomplete squares are counted and divide the total
number by 2
 Add the number of the complete squares to the half of the number
of incomplete squares already counted above
 Relate the total number of squares to the scale given twice.
Give examples
WEEK 4
TOPIC: DIRECTION AND BEARING
Direction: The direction of one place or object from another is
expressed by means of compass points or cardinal points.
There are four compass points or four cardinal points namely, North,
south, east and west. But for better accuracy in the measurement of
direction, eight cardinal points are used. These are North, South,
North-East, north-west, south,-east, south-west, east and west

There is also the l6 cardinal points.

In order to determine the actual direction of one place from the other
on a map, the ordination of the map is given by showing an arrow
pointing in the direction of the north. Example in Okoma district map,
what is the direction of Ndu from Uja
Uja

Ndu
South - west

Procedures for determine direction

i. Locate the two places involved on the map (i.e. Ndu and Uja
ii. Place your four cardinal points at Uja because you are looking
for the direction of Ndu from Uja.
iii. Using your ruler, join Ndu to uja with a straight line and check
which of the eight cardinal points falls on the line or near it. The
direction of ndu from Uja is South-West
Bearing
The direction of one place from another is described as its bearing.
Bearing is expressed in degrees, using the protractor, measured from
north in a clockwise direction. The corresponding degrees on relation
to the eight or 16 cardinal points are shown on the diagram below

Example: in Okoma district map, what is the bearing of Ndu from Uja
Procedures:
a. Locate the two places involved on the map i.e. Ndu and Uja
b. Place your four cardinal points at Uja because you are looking for
the bearing of Ndu from Uja.
c. Using your ruler, join Uja to Ndu with a straight line
d. Place your protractor on the side of the line and the degree which
falls on that line represents the bearing.

2300
THE GRID REFERENCE SYSTEM
A grid is a system of numbered squares, formed by vertical and
horizontal lines and usually shown on map surfaces. It enables us
to determine the position of a place accurately. They also help the
map reader to reduce or enlarge the original map extract to a given
size.
Vertical gridlines are numbered eastward and all called easting’s
because they increase in value eastward. Horizontal grid lines are
called northings because they increase in value northward. The
combination of eastings and northings
Procedures: a four figure or six figure grid reference
The eastings is read first while the northing is read last e.g. the
position of x in the grid system above is 3222 (four grid system)
while the position of y in the grid system above is 315215 (six grid
reference system
 WEEK SIX
TOPIC: METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEF ON MAPS
Relief of an area refers to the position and connection of the
highlands and lowlands. Thus, the methods include the following
1. Contour lines: These are lines drawn to join places of equal
height above the sea level. The height of a particular point is
written on the line.
2. Form lines: These are lines drawn on a map like contours but
are based on estimations. They are not as accurate as contours
and they are represented by broken lines
3. Contour layering: as an aid to visual impression, the spaces
between contours are often colored or tinted. Different shades of
colour are used to denote differences in height. Green for
lowlands, yellow and brown for highlands, white for snow
capped peaks.
4. Hill shading: in this method, only one colour is used but the
intensity (thickness) of the colour tone depends on the steepness
of the hill slope i.e. the higher a hill, the deeper the shade
representing f becomes
5. Hatchurs: these are short lines drawn down the slope in the
direction of the steepest gradient. The steeper the slope, the
heavier the lines which are used.
6. Spot height: These are simply spots or points on the map whose
height above the sea level has been accurately measured. The
exact height is represented by a dot and the height is written
beside it e.g. .1150. 2450
7. Trigonometrically stations: these are simple points on the
ground marking the angles of triangulation when mapping an
area. they are usually indicated by a triangle and a dot in the
middle with the number beside it.

Contour representation of land forms

Spur: Spurs are projection of highlands into low ground i.e. the
V-shape points to the lowland. Spurs separate one valley from anther
and the contour numbering decreases outwards i.e. it decreases
towards the spurs.

Conical hill: the contour lines are usually circular in shape and
become smaller and smaller towards the centre
Round top hill: the contours, showing round top hill are circular but
do not taper to a point. The inner most contour is fairly large
Isolated hill: this is a hill which stand apart or is far away from other
hills or highlands it may either be rounded or conical in shape.
Knoll: this is an isolated small hill of few meters high, it is donated
with one circle of contour line
Ridge: a ridge is a shape of highland which is elongate and narrow.
The contours run almost parallel to each other.
Col or saddle: a col or saddle is a stretch of lowland which separates
two highlands areas on a ridge, two peak are usually separated by a
col.
Pass or gap: a pass or gap is also a col but is found at lower parts of
highlands. A pass separates two highlands but at lower levels
Plateau: a plateau is an extensive and broad highland area with a
comparatively level surface. It usually have steep sides, if it is cut
down by a number of river valleys, leaving behind flat top peaks such
a plateau is called dissected plateau.
Escarpment/cuesta: Escarpment refers to steep slope face of an
highland. The contour lines are closely packed. Cuesta refers to a hill
with a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other side
Gorge: a gorge is a steep sided valley with river or stream
Watershed: this is a highland area which separates the head streams
of rivers flowing in different directions but rising from the same
mountain source.
Undulating low land: this lowland gently rises and falls with low-
level and is usually shown by irregular and well spaced contours
Flood plain: this is a lowland bordering a river formed by deposited
of sediments carried down by a river. It is generally referred to as area
liable to flood it is very good for the cultivation of swamp rice
TYPE OF SLOPES
The nature of slope in any land surface can also be represented by
contour lines. The various types include.
1. Even or uniform slope: the contour lines in this slope are uniformly
spaced. It means, the degree of steepness is the same throughout
the slope.
2. Gentle slope: this occurs when the contour lines are far apart or
widely spaced.
3. Steep slope: this occurs when the contour lines are very close to
one another or they are closely packed
4. Concave slope: this is a combination of both steep and gentle
slopes when ascending a concave slope; one passes the area which
has a gentle slope first before reaching the area with a steep slope.
In other words, contour lines are widely spaced at the lower level
and become closely packed at the higher level. Visibility of both
end is possible in concave slope i.e. the two ends are indivisible.
‘A’ can see ‘B’ ‘B’ can also see ‘A’
5. Convex slope: this is the opposite of concave slope. The contour
lines are closely packed together at lower level and they become
 widely spaced at higher level. Visibility is not possible i.e. the two
ends are not indivisible.
‘A’ can not see ‘B’ ‘B’ can not also see ‘A’
WEEK 8
DATE:
TOPIC: MAP REPRODUCTION
Map reduction simply means reducing the size of the original map.
When a map is reduced, the denominator of representative fraction
scale becomes bigger.
Procedures for reducing map.
 Measure the length and width of the original map
 Divide the original into small squares of equal size (grid method)
using pencil
 Draw the length and width of the reduced map (new) reduce
according to the number of time requested, that is, if the original
length is 6cm and width 4cm and we are to reduce by half, the new
map length and width will be 3cm & 2cm respectively
 Also produce the same number of sieves in the new map
propitiation in size to the square produced In the old map based on
the number of times the map is reduced e.g. if the length of one
square of the old map is 2cm, then that of the new map will be
1cm.
 Transfer the features e.g. main road, river etc. requested from the
original map to the reduced map (new) square by square as they are
in the original map
 To get the scale of the new map, multiply the old scale (scale of the
original map) by the number of time the map is reduced.
MAP ENLARGEMEloNT
Map enlargement simple means, enlarging the size of the original
map. When a map is enlarged, the representative fraction becomes
smaller.
a. Measure the length and width of the original (old) map.
b. Divide the original map into squares of equal size (good method)
using pencil
c. Draw the length and width of the enlarged map (new). Enlarge by
the number of times requested
d. Produce the same squares in the new map proportionate on size to
the squares produced in the old map based on the number of times
the map is enlarged.
e. Transfer the features requested of the original map of the enlarged
or new map, square by square as they are in the original map.
f. To get the new scale multiply the old scale by the number of times
the map is enlarge. (example is practical line in the class)

TOPIC: CROSS SECTION DRAWING AND INTERVISIBILITY

Cross section or relief profile is defined as the practice where by relief
shown by contour lines on map are drawn to bring out the real
appearance of such relief as it is on the ground. It shows the nature of
the relief that is represented by contour lines at a glance.
Procedures for cross section drawing
Draw the cross section between x and y
 Draw a straight line to join the two points x and y on a map
 Get a sheet of paper preferably a graph paper.
 Place the straight edge of the piece of graph paper on the map
along the line of section (x –y). mark point x – y.
 Make a mark on the paper when each contour line is crossed and
note the height of the contour. Other features on the map like
rivers, lakes, roads, valleys etc. may also be required on the
 section drawing, hence such cross-section drawing become a
labeled or annotated cross section.
 Choose a suitable vertical scale e.g. 0.5cm to 50m or 100m as
shown on the contour interval. Graduate your graph paper
accordingly, starting from zero on the vertical axis
 From point zero on the paper, draw a horizontal line equal in
length to the line between the two points xy on the map.
 Place the straight edge of the paper with the markings from the
map along the base line on the graph paper, on the graph paper,
mark out the corresponding heights from the map at the exert
vertical distance from the base line
 Finally, draw a line from x to y to join up the various heights
between the two point and the cross section is completed
INTERVISIBILITY
Intervisibility is defined as a way of knowing whether one point or
place on the map can be seen from another point or place on the same
map within the limits of physical sight. Cross section drawing can
help us to know if two points on a map are intervisible or not
Factors that determine the intervisibility of two points
I. The presence of higher contour line between two points simply
show that the points are not visible to each other e.g
Point A and C are not intervisible to each other
II. A point at the peak of a concave slope is visible to another point at
the base of the slope
III. A point at the peak of a convex slope is not visible to another point
at the base of the slope
IV. A point at the peak of a conical hill is also visible to another point
of the base of the hill
V. A point at the centers of the peak of a plateau or round top hill may
not be visible to another point at the base of the plateau or hill
because of the flat surface.
VI. A point at the peak of a highland is visible to another point also at
the peak of the same highland, provided no higher contour lines
exist between them.
VII. Two points on the same contour line are intervisible when all the
contour lines between them are at the same point or lower than the
two points
CALCULATION OF GRADIENTS
Gradient: the gradient of an area is the level of the slope of the
ground expressed as a ratio between the height and length of the
ground slope which are of various steepness.
Procedures for calculating gradient
 Locate the height of the two points i.e the places requested
 Find out the difference between the two points by subtracting the
lowest contour line from the highest contour line to get the vertical
interval
 Measure the horizontal distance between the two points on the map
and relate it to the scale to give the horizontal equivalent (H.E)
 Calculate the gradient in the same unit
VI
Formula = Gradient = HE

Note: when gradient is ≥ ¼ the slope is a sleep slope but if it is < ¼

it is a gentle slope.
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION
Vertical exaggeration is Defined as the number of times vertical
heights are exaggerated are enlarged in relation to the horizontal
distances
How to calculate vertical exaggeration
Procedure
 Convert the vertical scale into a representation fraction or a ratio
 Write down the horizontal scale of the map also as a ration
 Divide the horizontal scale by the vertical scale to get vertical
exaggeration
horizontal scale
Vertical exaggeration = vertical scale
TOPIC: INTERPRETATION OF RELIEF, DRAINAGE PATTERN,
SETTLEMENT, CULTURAL FEATURES AND HUMAN
ACTIVITIES
INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
It is very important that students of geography should be able to
interpret topographical maps. Some with or without the use of
conversion signs. Important features that need interpretation include
relief, drainage, settlement, communication and land use.
DRAINAGE
Drainage refers to the distribution of water features such as rivers
streams, oceans, natural or man made lakes
Important points to note when describing drainage.
 Compass points or direction of flow of rivers. Point out in which
direction the river is flowing e.g river owu is flowing from north-
east of the area to the south-west, with the aid of arrow, remember
river flow from high-land to lowland.
 Relief of the land drainage and nature of the river course (name
contour line, watershed, course of the river etc)
 Other water bodies (point out there location)
 Drainage pattern of the river (describe the drainage pattern)
DRAINAGE PATTERN
 Dendritic drainage pattern
 Radial drainage pattern
 Trellise drainage pattern
 Annular drainage pattern
 Centripetal drainage pattern
Do the rivers have delta or estuary or flooding plan

SETTLEMENT
 A settlement is defined as a place having one or more buildings with
people living in them
Factors which may favour any settlement depend on the features
economic activities or resources available within that settlement.
People chose to settle in an area because of some of the following
reasons
a. Availability of drinkable water
b. Presence of communication routes e.g. roads, railways etc.
c. Presence of economic resources
d. Presence of fertile soil for farming
e. Presence of commercial activities
TYPES OF SETTLEMENT
There are three main types of settlement and these are
1. Nuclear settlement or dense settlement
2. Dispersed or scattered settlement
3. Linear settlement
Other types include
4. Nodal settlement
5. Confluence settlement: this is the settlement around the meeting
point of two rivers. E.g. Lokoja in Nigeria

RELIEF
Points to note when interpreting relief.
i. Use contour lines, spot height or trigonometrical station to note the
highest point and the lowest point on the land.
ii. Note the proportion of the land occupied by highlands and
lowland
iii. Not the specific land form or relief whether a ridge, hill plateau,
knoll etc
iv. Not the location or direction of these relief features on the map
v. Note the heights of the lowlands above the sea level land whether
they are flat plains or undulating
vi. Note of the hills and plateau are dissected

SETTLEMENT
Procedure for interpreting settlement
1. Find out of the type of settlement is rural or urban. Urban
settlement are found In cities and towns with compacted buildings
presence of good roads and basic infrastructures. If it is rural, the
people live in villages or scattered farm steads.
2. Note the patter of settlement whether linear, nucleated or dispersed
3. Relate settlement to relief. That is are the settlements locate on
highlands, plateau, ridge or low lands and give reasons
4. Relate settlement to drainage: this is the settlement along the river
course, far from rivers, near a lake, ocean or far from marshy areas
and give reasons.
5. \relate settlement to communication is the settlement linear i.e.
along he road, rail way, far from airport or along a navigable river
or lake
6. Describe also areas which are not settled and give reasons why
they are inhabitable
COMMUNICATION
Procedure for interpreting communication
1. Find out the means of communication that is , by road, railway,
foot path, (if there are airports) and rivers (if there are navigable
rivers or lakes)
2. Note from conventional signs if the roads are primary, secondary
or minor roads
3. Relate communication to relief do roads railway or foot paths
avoid steep slopes, passes through high lands, ridge or are they
located on the low lands. Are there passes?
4. Relate communication to settlement, the presence of major road is
an indication of commercial or industrial town while minor road
and foot paths are common features of rural settlements
5. Note important natural and man make features like mountains,
lakes, ridge, bore holes, factories which one may come across
when travelling from one area to another
LAND USE
Land use refer to the various ways in which man uses the land
or the use of the land by man is a reflection of the functions of that
settlement.
Note: the use of the land or the function of a particular settlement can
best be determined from the conventional signs. For examples the
presence of mineral or mining site in a particular settlement is an
indication that such land is used for mining or the function of that
settlement is mining.
The table below provides a useful means for interpreting the land use
function or importance of a particular
FEATURES FROM USES OF LAND OR
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS ON FUNCTION OF A
A MAP SETTLEMENT
Presence of building Residential
Presence of mineral resources Mining
Presence of forest Farming & lumbering
Presence of grasses Livestock & farming
Presence of rivers Fishing &canoe building
Presence of prison, court, police Administrative
station
Presence of bank and market Commercial activities
Rest houses and stadium Social function
Presence of school Educational function
Presence of marshy area Swamp rice cultivation
Presence of hospital and Health functions
dispensary
Presence of industries Industrial functions