SCIENCE 124_ASTRONOMY ▪ Egyptian and Mesopotamian knowledge

ANCIENT ASTRONOMOY spread to Europe, Asia and Africa

THE GEOCENTRIC VIEW ANCIENT ASTRONOMY – BABYLON

▪ People have been fascinated by the night (Religious-Mystical)
skies since the beginning of civilization. ▪ The earth is a flat disk which rises out of
▪ Astronomy must be counted among the the ocean with an
first of the sciences. ▪ inverted bowl (sky) over it. The stars are
▪ It was intimately related with the fixed into place on the
development of basic mathematics. ▪ bowl.
▪ The planets move about against the
TELLING TIME AND SEASONS steady background (major
▪ Sundials were used all over the world ▪ (gods)
(Egyptian obelisk) ▪ Astronomy began as a systematic study
▪ Crescent moon angles predicted rainy when the priest-astrologers started to
seasons (Nigeria) keep a careful watch on the movements
of the gods in order to warn their kings
SPECIAL SEASONAL ALIGNMENT about what the gods might be planning.
▪ Stonehenge (England -- and others) had ▪ Babylonians are responsible for dividing
many alignments for solstices, equinoxes the sky into 12 equal zones (zodiac)
and bright stars through which the gods moved.
▪ Sun Dagger (New Mexico) shows noon ▪ Calendar was Lunar; a month started at
on summer solstice; other effects in sundown on the day that the crescent
winter & equinoxes moon was first seen in the west. This
leads to 29-30 day months with 12-13
MESOPOTAMIAN ASTRONOMY months per year.
▪ MESOPOTAMIANS built observatories
starting ~6000 years ago: OTHER ANCIENT ACCOMPLISHMENTS
▪ the ziggurats had seven levels, one for ▪ Mesopotamians could predict planetary
each wandering object in the sky: positions -- synodic periods, e.g., Mars
o Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, returns to same location roughly every
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn 780 days: 22 synodic periods = 47 years,
▪ Thus 7 days to the week so records of old planetary positions
▪ They tracked stars --- groups rising could give good locations.
before sun at different times of year ▪ Knew about the SAROS cycle 2700
implied seasonal beginnings for planting years ago: lunar eclipses definitely
and harvesting (zodiac). occurred every 18.6 years.
▪ Divided circles in 360 degrees, ▪ Chinese, Indians and Mayans also knew
o each degree into 60 minutes these patterns
and ▪ Egyptians used astronomical events to
o each minute into 60 seconds -- forecast Nile floods and harvest times.
we still use!
▪ Left written records in cuneiform GREEK ASTRONOMY: THE EARTH AT THE
(kyoo·nee·uh·form) so we understand CENTER
them better. ▪ While they may have built upon Egyptian
MESOPOTAMIAN ASTRONOMY AND & Mesopotamian results (not much
INFLUENCES preserved beyond calendars and
▪ By 2000 BC Ur and other Sumerian and orientation of temples)
Babylonia cities had large temples, or ▪ Greeks tried to EXPLAIN and
ziggurats, usually aligned N-S, like most UNDERSTAND, not just PREDICT
Egyptian pyramids based upon repetitive cycles of motions.
 ▪ Thales (624--547 BCE) was claimed to ▪ By then, it was understood that
have predicted a solar eclipse. moonshine was reflected sunlight.
▪ Anaxamander (611--547 BCE) of ▪ Eudoxus (408--355 BCE) had planets
Miletus (Asia Minor) produced a model: moving on multiple spheres, all
Earth as a cylinder, Sun, Moon and stars surrounding the Earth.
are fire filled wheels -- precursor of non- ▪ These could explain Retrograde Loops
mythical explanations. in the orbits of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn -
- but didn't account for diversity thereof or
EARLY GREEK IDEAS OF THE COSMOS for variations in brightness of planets,
since their distance from Earth was fixed.

ANAXIMENES’ COSMOLOGY

▪ He said the earth was a flat disc

supported by air. Stars, sun and moon
are flat, fiery discs (or burning leaves)
circling over the earth “like a hat
spinning.”

PYTHAGORAS MODEL

▪ Anaximenes of Miletus (585--526 BCE)

believed stars were fixed to a solid,
crystalline vault surrounding the Earth --
the concept of the Celestial Sphere.
▪ Pythagoras (582--500 BCE) and his
students in Croton (S. Italy) argued that:
▪ Earth and all heavenly bodies are perfect
SPHERES.
▪ All celestial motions were perfect
CIRCLES.

IMPORTANCE OF EUDOXAN SYSTEM

▪ The first person to devise a model that
could explain the retrograde motion of
the planets in the sky.

RETROGADE LOOPS
▪ Planets usually go in same direction as
stars but at different speeds.
▪ BUT sometimes go backwards.
▪ Mars in main figure and time lapse of
several planets (in planetarium) above.
HEAVENLY SPHERES: GEOCENTRISM ARISTARCHUS: REAL DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT
▪ Earth at Center, ▪ Aristarchus (310--230 BCE) of Samos
then applied Euclid's geometry to get the
▪ Moon distance to the Moon.
▪ Mercury ▪ The angular diameter is measured
▪ Venus directly; the linear diameter comes from
▪ Sun seeing how much of the Earth's shadow
▪ Mars the moon occupies during a lunar eclipse
▪ Jupiter (about 3/8).
▪ Saturn ▪ If the Earth's diameter is known, this
▪ Fixed stars on allows the Moon's to be found at about
the celestial 3/8ths of Earth's.
sphere ▪ Used geometry to estimate that the Sun
was 19 times further than the Moon (19
times larger, since angular sizes are the
ARISTOTLE “THE AUTHORITY” same)
▪ Aristotle (384--322 BCE) gave ▪ Aristarchus then could estimate that Sun
PROOFS that the Earth was was about 7 times the diameter of the
SPHERICAL: objects all fell towards its Earth (19 x 3/8)
center yet perpendicular to ground-- ▪ THIS LED HIM TO PROPOSE A
sphere (but it could still be a cylinder). HELIOCENTRIC COSMOLOGY --- with
▪ Noted shadows cast on moon during the BIG SUN at REST, SMALL EARTH
eclipse were always round -- they MOVING AROUND IT.
sometimes wouldn't be if the earth were ▪ His lunar size was a little too big (The
disk-like (or cylindrical). Moon’s diameter is 3476 kilometers,
▪ But he also argued that since everything about one fourth the size of Earth.) and
fell toward the earth, it was the heaviest his distance to the sun much too small
thing around, therefore it shouldn't move (400x), because of inaccurate
-- EARTH at CENTER of the UNIVERSE measurements, but the techniques were
-- the GEOCENTRIC COSMOS clever and were major advances.
▪ This was certainly LOGICAL, but by no
means a PROOF (as he thought it was). ANCIENT OBJECTIONS TO HELIOCENTRIC
▪ His opinions on this and many other PICTURE
subjects which he studied and wrote ▪ A moving earth should yield a powerful
about were considered authoritative wind that would blow us off.
between 12th & 17th centuries in the ▪ Stars didn't show measurable parallax
Western world. (Greeks couldn't think of them being SO
much further away than planets).
EARTH’S ROUND SHADOW ▪ It sure seems like we're standing still and
▪ A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon everything in the sky is moving, doesn't
moves into and out of Earth’s shadow. it?
Note the curved shape of the shadow—
evidence for a spherical Earth that has
been recognized since antiquity.
• A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon
passes between Earth and the Sun,
thereby obscuring Earth's view of the
Sun, totally or partially.
THE SIZE OF THE EARTH PTOLEMY: THE PEAK OF GREEK
▪ Eratosthenes (276--195 BCE) used ASTRONOMY
geometry and simple astronomy to make ▪ Ptolemy worked in Alexandria from 127-
an accurate measurement of the Earth's -151 CE.
radius. ▪ As a geographer, he is the first one
▪ He realized the difference in the altitude known to have used latitude and
of the noonday Sun in Syene and longitude on earth.
Alexandria equaled the latitude ▪ His astronomy book, “”-- megiste
difference between the cities. -- or “The Greatest” -- Arabic name:
▪ That gave the ratio: circumference of the Almagest.
Earth / 360° = distance / 7.2° ▪ Catalog of over 1000 stars w/
▪ Accuracy determined by distance in brightnesses, using the MAGNITUDE
stadia --- measured by foot and SYSTEM.
uncertain, but around 40,000 km, and ▪ Ptolemy's influence on astronomy was
probably good to 10% (Correct value: immense for he published a detailed
40,074 km or 24,890 miles) GEOCENTRIC MODEL.
▪ (It’s not clear how much was original to
ERATOSTHENES' MEASUREMENT him.)
7.2°/360° = Alexandria--Syene distance/Earth
circumference GREEK ASTRONOMY
Ptolemy
STELLAR CATALOGS AND PRECESSION ▪ Adapted and
▪ Hipparchus (190--125 BCE) utilized improved
▪ Aristarchus' method to get the Moon to Hipparchus'
be 59 Earth radii away (60 is geocentric model
correct!) to account for
▪ He made a better measurement of the discrepancies
length of the year. Hipparchus also saw found by improved
a NOVA and this caused him to make a observations.
CATALOG of bright stars. ▪ Produced the
▪ Comparing his locations to those Almagest, which
recorded about 170 years earlier he both summarized the state of Astronomy
found a difference of about 2 degrees, and extended it.
and concluded that there was ▪ Used eccentrics and equants to refine
PRECESSION -- his estimate of a 28,000 the model.
year period was very good.
IMPROVED GEOCENTRIC MODEL
GREEK ASTRONOMY DETAILED GEOCENTRIC MODEL
Hipparchus (150 BC) ▪ Ptolemy showed the simple system of
▪ Created the first formal observatory Hipparchus, with just a DEFERENT and
▪ Devised a system of Magnitudes EPICYCLE was inadequate.
▪ Created the first Star Catalog ▪ His model added an EQUANT -- the
▪ Determined that the Earth was motion of the center of the epicycle is
precessing uniform only if viewed from the equant.
▪ Invented trigonometry ▪ However, Ptolemy's greatest contribution
▪ Geocentric Model was the publication of his text, a
▪ Wanted perfect circles with summary of all earlier Greek
uniform circular motion, so he astronomical knowledge.
invented epicycles ▪ While complex, IT WORKED (to the
accuracy the Greeks could measure) and
 was USED for 1500 years! Certainly ▪ Parallax: the apparent displacement of a
OPERATIONALLY successful. nearby star that results from the motion
of Earth around the Sun
▪ Precession (of Earth): the slow, conical
motion of Earth’s axis of rotation caused
“ADVANCED” principally by the gravitational pull of the
GEOCENTRIC MODEL Moon and Sun on Earth’s equatorial
bulge
▪ Retrograde Motion: the apparent
westward motion of a planet on the
celestial sphere or with respect to the
stars

NATURE OF ASTRONOMY
ARABIC ASTRONOMY AND KNOWLEDGE ▪ Astronomy is defined as the study of the
TRANSMISSION objects that lie beyond our planet earth
▪ Hypatia (370--415 CE) of Alexandria, and the processes by which these
built better instruments and made more objects interact with one another.
accurate positional measurements. She ▪ Science is a progress report—one that
was murdered by monks who objected to changes constantly as new techniques
her paganism and her astrology. and instruments allow us to probe the
▪ After the burning of the Alexandria library universe more deeply.
and the fall of Rome, Astronomy in ▪ The ultimate judge in science is always
Europe withered, with only parts of Greek what nature itself reveals based on
and Roman knowledge retained. observations, experiments, models, and
▪ The rise of Islam (esp. the need to know testing.
direction to Mecca) led to large ▪ Science is not merely a body of
observatories in Samarkand, Persia, knowledge, but a method by which we
Turkey and eventually Spain with more attempt to understand nature and how it
careful observations and improved behaves.
instruments. ▪ This method begins with many
▪ Big catalogs were produced: more stars, observations over a period of time.
more accurate locations Greek and ▪ From the trends found through
Indian knowledge (e.g., zero) were observations, scientists can model the
combined and preserved in centers like particular phenomena we want to
Baghdad. understand.
▪ Such models are always approximations
of nature, subject to further testing.
GLOSSARY ▪ When they are first proposed, new
▪ Apparent Magnitude: a measure of how models or ideas are sometimes called
bright a star looks in the sky; the larger hypotheses
the number, the dimmer the star appears ▪ A hypothesis must be a proposed
to us explanation that can be tested.
▪ Cosmology: the study of the ▪ Astronomy is sometimes called an
organization and evolution of the observational science.
universe ▪ Much of astronomy is also a historical
▪ Epicycle: the circular orbit of a body in science—meaning that what we observe
the Ptolemaic system, the center of has already happened in the universe
which revolves about another circle (the and we can do nothing to change it.
deferent)
Numbers in astronomy one of the minor eruptions that occurs on the
▪ Scientific notation (or sometimes surface of our star.
powers-of-ten notation). ▪ A planet is defined as a body of significant
▪ To use a consistent set of units—the size that orbits a star and does not produce
metric international system of units, or si its own light. If a large body consistently
(from the french système international produces its own light, it is then called a star.
d’unités).
▪ A common unit astronomers use to Figure 5. Milky way galaxy. Because we are
describe distances in the universe is a inside the milky way galaxy, we see its disk in
light-year, which is the distance light cross-section flung across the sky like a great
travels during one year. milky white avenue of stars with dark “rifts” of
▪ Light travels at the amazing pace of 3 × dust. In this dramatic image, part of it is seen
105 kilometers per second (km/s), which above trona pinnacles in the california desert.
makes a light-year 9.46 × 1012 (credit: ian norman.
kilometers.
Figure 1: neighbor galaxies. This image shows
Figure 1: orion nebula. This beautiful cloud of both the large magellanic cloud and the small
cosmic raw material (gas and dust from which magellanic cloud above the telescopes of the
new stars and planets are being made) called the atacama large millimeter/su bmillimeter array
orion nebula is about 1400 light years away. (alma) in the atacama desert of northern chile.
That’s a distance of roughly 1.34 × 1016 (credit: eso, c. Malin)
kilometers—a pretty big number. The gas and
dust in this region are illuminated by the intense Figure 2: closest spiral galaxy. The andromeda
light from a few extremely energetic adolescent galaxy (m31) is a spiral- shaped collection of
stars. (credit: nasa, esa, m. Robberto (space stars similar to our own milky way. (credit: adam
telescope science institute/esa) and the hubble evans)
space telescope orion treasury project team.
Figure 3: fornax cluster of galaxies. In this
Figure 1: telescope in orbit. The hubble space image, you can see part of a cluster of galaxies
telescope, shown here in orbit around earth, is located about 60 million light-years away in the
one of many astronomical instruments in space. constellation of fornax. All the objects that are not
(credit: modification of work by european space pinpoints of light in the picture are galaxies of
agency. billions of stars. (credit: eso, j. Emerson, vista.
Acknowledgment: cambridge astronomical
A TOUR OF THE UNIVERSE survey unit)
▪ A nearly spherical planet about 13,000
kilometers in diameter. THE SKY ABOVE
▪ The moon’s distance from earth is about 30 THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
times earth’s diameter, or approximately ▪ top of that dome, the point directly above your
384,000 kilometers head, is called the zenith, and where the
▪ It takes about a month for the moon to revolve dome meets Earth is called the horizon.
around earth. ▪ Circles on the Celestial Sphere. Here we
▪ The moon’s diameter is 3476 kilometers, show the (imaginary) celestial sphere around
about one fourth the size of earth. Earth, on which objects are fixed, and which
▪ Earth revolves around our star, the sun, rotates around Earth on an axis. In reality, it
which is about 150 million kilometers away — is Earth that turns around this axis, creating
approximately 400 times as far away from us the illusion that the sky revolves around us.
as the moon. Note that Earth in this picture has been tilted
▪ We call the average earth–sun distance an so that your location is at the top and the
astronomical unit (au). North Pole is where the N is. The apparent
▪ The diameter of the sun is about 1.5 million motion of celestial objects in the sky around
kilometers; earth could fit comfortably inside the pole is shown by the circular arrow.
CELESTIAL POLES AND CELESTIAL south celestial pole is 38° below the southern
EQUATOR horizon and, thus, never visible. As Earth
▪ Circling the South Celestial Pole. This long- turns, the whole sky seems to pivot about the
exposure photo shows trails left by stars as a north celestial pole. For this observer, stars
result of the apparent rotation of the celestial within 38° of the North Pole can never set.
sphere around the south celestial pole. (In They are always above the horizon, day and
reality, it is Earth that rotates.) (Credit: night. This part of the sky is called the north
ESO/Iztok Bončina). circumpolar zone.
▪ Star Circles at Different Latitudes. The
turning of the sky looks different depending RISING AND SETTING OF THE SUN
on your latitude on Earth. (a) At the North ▪ It changes position gradually on the celestial
Pole, the stars circle the zenith and do not sphere, moving each day about 1° to the east
rise and set. (b) At the equator, the celestial relative to the stars.
poles are on the horizon, and the stars rise ▪ Very reasonably, the ancients thought this
straight up and set straight down. (c) At meant the Sun was slowly moving around
intermediate latitudes, the north celestial pole Earth, taking a period of time we call 1 year
is at some position between overhead and to make a full circle.
the horizon. Its angle above the horizon turns ▪ Today, we know it is Earth that is going
out to be equal to the observer’s latitude. around the Sun, but the effect is the same:
Stars rise and set at an angle to the horizon. the Sun’s position in our sky changes day to
▪ If you stood at the North Pole of Earth, you day.
would see the north celestial pole overhead, ▪ The path the Sun appears to take around the
at your zenith. celestial sphere each year is called the
▪ The celestial equator, 90° from the celestial ecliptic.
poles, would lie along your horizon. ▪ Constellations on the Ecliptic. As Earth
▪ As you watched the stars during the course revolves around the Sun, we sit on “platform
of the night, they would all circle around the Earth” and see the Sun moving around the
celestial pole, with none rising or setting. sky. The circle in the sky that the Sun
▪ Only that half of the sky north of the celestial appears to make around us in the course of
equator is ever visible to an observer at the a year is called the ecliptic. This circle (like all
North Pole. Similarly, an observer at the circles in the sky) goes through a set of
South Pole would see only the southern half constellations. The ancients thought these
of the sky. constellations, which the Sun (and the Moon
▪ If you were at Earth’s equator, you see the and planets) visited, must be special and
celestial equator (which, after all, is just an incorporated them into their system of
“extension” of Earth’s equator) pass astrology. Note that at any given time of the
overhead through your zenith. year, some of the constellations crossed by
▪ The celestial poles, being 90° from the the ecliptic are visible in the night sky; others
celestial equator, must then be at the north are in the day sky and are thus hidden by the
and south points on your horizon. brilliance of the Sun.
▪ As the sky turns, all stars rise and set; they ▪ The ecliptic does not lie along the celestial
move straight up from the east side of the equator but is inclined to it at an angle of
horizon and set straight down on the west about 23.5°.
side. ▪ In other words, the Sun’s annual path in the
▪ During a 24-hour period, all stars are above sky is not linked with Earth’s equator.
the horizon exactly half the time. ▪ This is because our planet’s axis of rotation
▪ It appears above the northern horizon at an is tilted by about 23.5° from a vertical line
angular height, or altitude, equal to the sticking out of the plane of the ecliptic.
observer’s latitude. In San Francisco, for
example, where the latitude is 38° N, the
north celestial pole is 38° above the northern
horizon. For an observer at 38° N latitude, the
FIXED AND WANDERING STARS constellation, although, like the states, not all
▪ During a single day, the Moon and planets all constellations are the same size.
rise and set as Earth turns, just as the Sun ▪ Orion. (a) The winter constellation of Orion,
and stars do. the hunter, is surrounded by neighboring
▪ But like the Sun, they have independent constellations, as illustrated in the
motions among the stars, superimposed on seventeenth-century atlas by Hevelius. (b) A
the daily rotation of the celestial sphere. photograph shows the Orion region in the
▪ Noticing these motions, the Greeks of 2000 sky. Note the three blue stars that make up
years ago distinguished between what they the belt of the hunter. The bright red star
called the fixed stars—those that maintain above the belt denotes his armpit and is
fixed patterns among themselves through called Betelgeuse (pronounced “Beetel-
many generations—and the wandering juice”). The bright blue star below the belt is
stars, or planets. his foot and is called Rigel.
▪ Today, we do not regard the Sun and Moon
as planets, but the ancients applied the term TERMINOLOGIES
to all seven (Sun, Moon, Venus, Jupiter, ▪ celestial equator: a great circle on the
Mars, Mercury, and Saturn) of the moving celestial sphere 90° from the celestial poles;
objects in the sky. where the celestial sphere intersects the
▪ Much of ancient astronomy was devoted to plane of Earth’s equator
observing and predicting the motions of these ▪ celestial poles: points about which the
celestial wanderers. celestial sphere appears to rotate;
▪ They even dedicated a unit of time, the week, intersections of the celestial sphere with
to the seven objects that move on their own; Earth’s polar axis
that’s why there are 7 days in a week. ▪ celestial sphere: the apparent sphere of the
▪ The Moon, being Earth’s nearest celestial sky; a sphere of large radius centered on the
neighbor, has the fastest apparent motion; it observer; directions of objects in the sky can
completes a trip around the sky in about 1 be denoted by their position on the celestial
month (or moonth). sphere
▪ To do this, the Moon moves about 12° , or 24 ▪ circumpolar zone: those portions of the
times its own apparent width on the sky, each celestial sphere near the celestial poles that
day. are either always above or always below the
▪ The individual paths of the Moon and planets horizon
in the sky all lie close to the ecliptic, although ▪ ecliptic: the apparent annual path of the Sun
not exactly on it. on the celestial sphere
▪ This is because the paths of the planets ▪ geocentric: centered on Earth
about the Sun, and of the Moon about Earth, ▪ horizon (astronomical): a great circle on the
are all in nearly the same plane, as if they celestial sphere 90° from the zenith; more
were circles on a huge sheet of paper. popularly, the circle around us where the
▪ The planets, the Sun, and the Moon are thus dome of the sky meets Earth
always found in the sky within a narrow 18- ▪ planet: today, any of the larger objects
degree-wide belt, centered on the ecliptic, revolving about the Sun or any similar objects
called the zodiac. that orbit other stars; in ancient times, any
object that moved regularly among the fixed
stars
CONSTELLATIONS ▪ year: the period of revolution of Earth around
▪ Today, the term constellation means one of the Sun
88 sectors into which we divide the sky, much ▪ zenith: the point on the celestial sphere
as the United States is divided into 50 states. opposite the direction of gravity; point directly
▪ The modern boundaries between the above the observer
constellations are imaginary lines in the sky ▪ zodiac: a belt around the sky about 18° wide
running north–south and east–west, so that centered on the ecliptic
each point in the sky falls in a specific
THE BIRTH OF MODERN ASTRONOMY ▪ He also attempted to explain retrograde
Ancient Greeks and Astronomy motion, or how each planet appears
▪ Astronomy is the science that studies the sometimes to stop in the night sky, reverse
universe. direction, and then resume eastward motion.
▪ The first accurate European astronomers
were the ancient Greeks ▪ Ptolemy was wrong – the planets do not orbit
. Earth.
▪ Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.E.) concluded that ▪ Yet although he used the geocentric model,
the earth was round because it always cast a he did try explain the planets’ apparent
curved shadow when it passes between the motions.
sun and the moon.
▪ Aristotle’s belief that the Earth is round was The Birth of Modern Astronomy
abandoned by the Middle Ages. ▪ The first great astronomer after the Greeks
was NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (1473-1543)
Aristotle’s Geocentric Universe of Poland.
▪ Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model
of the solar system: Earth is a planet and all
planets of the solar system revolved around
the sun at its center.

Copernicus’ Axioms
▪ Eratosthenes (276 – 194 B.C.E.), an ancient ▪ There is no one center in the universe.
Greek mathematician, calculated that the ▪ The Earth’s center is not the center of the
earth’s circumfer-ence is 39,000 kilometers - universe.
very close to our own modern measure-ment ▪ The center of the universe is near the Sun.
of 40,075 km. ▪ The distance from the Earth to the Sun is
▪ The Greeks thought that the Earth was a imperceptible compared with the distance to
sphere that stayed motionless at the center the stars.
of the universe. The other planets and stars ▪ The rotation of the Earth accounts for the
revolved around the Earth on their own apparent daily rotation of the stars.
hollow spheres. ▪ The apparent annual cycle of movements of
the Sun is caused by the Earth revolving
THE GEOCENTRIC MODEL around it.
▪ In this model, the moon, sun, and the known ▪ The apparent retrograde motion of the
planets – Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and planets is caused by the motion of the Earth
Saturn – orbit earth. from which one observes.
▪ Every other body in space circled this system
on their own transparent, hollow sphere. COPERNICUS
▪ This was called the celestial sphere. ▪ Since he knew that his book De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On
THE HELIOCENTRIC MODEL the Revolution of Celestial Orbs) would be
▪ Aristarchus (312-230 B.C.E.) was the first considered heresy, Copernicus had it
Greek to believe in a sun-centered, or published by a friend after his death.
heliocentric, universe. ▪ He also pointed out gaps in Ptolemy’s model.
▪ In the heliocentric model, Earth and other ▪ Despite the improvement in the model of the
planets orbit the sun. universe, he still believed in the idea of
perfect circular orbits.
THE PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM ▪ This made his predictions no more accurate
▪ Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90 – 168 C.E.) is our than Ptolemy’s and led to doubts about his
main source for what the ancient Greeks theory.
knew about astronomy. ▪ Although the Church condemned the book,
the damage was already done and the world
 was opened to new era of thinking about the ▪ He constructed observatories at Hven
world. (Sweden)
▪ He argued that the apparent motion of the ▪ After closing Hven due to the political
Sun about Earth during the course of a year environment, he became the Imperial
could be represented equally well by a Mathematician to the Holy Roman Empire in
motion of Earth about the Sun. Prague.
▪ He also reasoned that the apparent rotation ▪ Tycho was a great maker of astronomical
of the celestial sphere could be explained by instruments.
assuming that Earth rotates while the ▪ He was able to measure the positions of
celestial sphere is stationary. hundreds of stars to within 4’ (feet).
▪ He answered that if such motion would tear ▪ Because he found great errors in the
Earth apart, the still faster motion of the much Alphonsine tables he decided to create his
larger celestial sphere (geocentric own Rudolphine Tables
hypothesis) would be even more devastating. ▪ He measured the positions of the planets to
within 2’.
Objections to Heliocentrism ▪ Tycho had devised his own unique model of
▪ If Earth were moving, we would all sense or the universe where the moon and the sun
feel this motion. revolved around the Earth but all of the
▪ Solid objects would be ripped from the planets went around the Sun.
surface. ▪ He hoped to use his data tables to prove his
▪ A ball dropped from a great height would not hypothesis.
strike the ground directly below it. ▪ Kepler applied to work at Tycho’s
observatory.
CHRISTOPHER CLAVIUS ▪ Tycho recognized his talents quickly and set
▪ 1538 to 1612 him to work on the Rudolphine tables with the
▪ Astronomer for Pope Leo X. Clavius purpose of finding the laws of planetary
determined that the Julian Calendar was motion.
adding 3 days too many over a period of 385 ▪ Unfortunately, Tycho died less than two
years. years later, before Kepler worked out his first
▪ This caused the date of Easter to slip against two laws. (1601)
the calendar.
▪ That’s a bad thing!! GIORDONO BRUNO
Clavius made (2) proposals: ▪ 1548 to 1600
▪ The day following Wednesday October ▪ He was an ordained priest by the Catholic
4th, 1582, should be called Thursday Church.
October 15th 1582 ▪ He believed in many heretical ideas.
▪ Leap years occur in all years divisible by ▪ Here are just a few:
4 but in years ending in “00” must be ▪ He believed that there was no center
divisible by 400 to called a leap year. to our universe
▪ 1600, 2000 yes ▪ the universe was infinite.
▪ 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 No ▪ He believed other stars were suns
▪ Pope Gregory X is credited for instituting ▪ He believed in atoms
the new Calendar and today it is known ▪ He believed in atoms
as the Gregorian Calendar. ▪ Because of his views, he was persecuted by
many different churches and peoples.
TYCHO BRAHE ▪ Ultimately he went back to face trial in the
▪ 1546 to 1601 Vatican.
▪ Tycho studied medicine, law, mathematics, ▪ The trial lasted 7 years before he was found
astronomy, and politics. guilty and sentenced
▪ A supernova seen in 1572 turned his ▪ Giordano Bruno was publicly burned at the
attentions toward astronomy permanently. stake on Feb 17th, 1600.
▪ This was the year of the Jubilee celebration.
▪ Bruno was easily 200 years ahead of his ▪ Strong believer in the Copernican system.
time. ▪ Understood that an object that is dropped will
fall straight down, not left behind because of
Three Laws of Planetary Motion. the Earth’s rotation!
▪ JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630) was ▪ Used a telescope to look at the heavens and
Brahe’s assistant, and later the first important made improvements in quality and
modern astronomer. magnification.
▪ Kepler applied mathematics to Brahe’s ▪ Galileo wrote a book in Italian about the new
findings and discovered Three Laws of evidence for the Copernican system.
Planetary Motion ▪ He ultimately faced the Inquisition and was
force to renounce the Copernican system.
▪ First Law: The path of each planet around ▪ He was sentenced to house arrest for the last
the sun is an ellipse, with the sun at one ten years of his life.
focus. ▪ During that time he wrote his most complete
▪ Second Law: Kepler determined that a argument for the Copernican system.
planet travels most rapidly when it comes
closest to the Sun and moves slowest when ▪ Galileo not only provided
farthest away. evidence that proved the
▪ Third Law: Keppler’s third law gives the heliocentric model accurate, but he
precise relation between the distance of a also invented pendulum clocks and
planet from the Sun and how fast it completes the modern thermometer.
an orbit, using Astronomical Units (AU).
▪ One AU equals 150 million km, the ▪ He also created one of the first
average distance of the Earth from telescopes, without anything
the Sun. but a written description to
guide him. He even ground
glass for its lenses himself.

▪ Galileo used his telescope to view the

universe in a new way. He made important
discoveries that supported Copernicus’
heliocentric model of the universe.
▪ The discovery of the largest four
moons of Jupiter.
▪ (He also discovered Saturn’s rings.)
How is an ellipse different from a circle? ▪ Planets are NOT pinpoints of light.
▪ A circle is a closed curved shape that is flat. ▪ They are actually spheres, like Earth.
In a circle, all points on the circle are equally ▪ Venus has phases, just like the
distant from the center of the circle. moon.
▪ An ellipse is also a closed curved shape that ▪ Therefore, Venus circles the
is flat. Sun.
▪ Instead of having all points the same distance ▪ The moon’s surface is not smooth.
from the center (like a circle), an ellipse has ▪ (Galileo thought the moon’s
two focus points. dark areas might be seas.)
▪ The sun has sunspots, or dark
▪ GALILEO GALILEI regions
▪ 1564 to 1642 ▪ Galileo tracked the
▪ Very talented mathematician movement of these sunspots
▪ Excellent experimenter and astronomer and estimated the rotational
▪ Originally trained in medicine but never period of the sun.
completed the degree.
ISAAC NEWTON surface, returning to the cannon from the
▪ 1643 to 1727 other side.
▪ Born and raised on a farm, Newton was ▪ After returning to Cambridge University
relatively useless as a farm hand. as a professor, He became the Lucasian
▪ He showed great promise in school and later Professor of Mathematics. 1669.
attended Trinity college in London where he ▪ This position is held by Steven Hawking
graduated with a degree in math in 1665. today.
▪ The college was shut down for two years due ▪ Newton was later hired as the head of the
to the plague so Newton returned home to the British mint.
farm. ▪ He was in charge of finding and
▪ Here he formulated some of his greatest prosecuting counterfeiters.
achievements. ▪ He often went undercover and ultimately
▪ These include: convicted more than 10 counter-feiters
▪ The Law of Universal Gravitation who were executed.
▪ Invention of Calculus ▪ Newton conducted hundreds of
▪ 3 Laws of Motion experiments on light and discovered the
▪ Optical advancements origin of the spectrum created by prisms.
▪ Nature of light and the spectrum ▪ Newton also invented the reflecting
telescope.
▪ 3 LAWS OF MOTION ▪ Much of Newton’s life was filled with
▪ All objects resist changes in their state of controversy.
motion unless acted on by an outside net ▪ He fought with many other scientists and
force (law of inertia) mathematicians over who was the
▪ If an object is acted on by an outside net discoverer of various ideas.
force, it will accelerate according to the ▪ These included Leibnitz (calculus) and
following formula: a=F/m Hooke (optics) and several others.
▪ For every force there exists an equal and ▪ Newton is often credited as the greatest
opposite force often called action scientist of all time.
reaction law. ▪ He impacted more areas of science and
even invented an entire branch of
▪ Law of Universal Gravitation mathematics called calculus.
▪ Newton’s great revelation was that the ▪ He was knighted among his many honors
same force that pulls an apple toward the and served as president of the Royal
surface of the Earth is the same force Society (a scientific watchdog)
that holds the moon in orbit. ▪ He was ill for the last two years of his life
and was buried in Westminster Abbey
Universal Gravitation after his death.
▪ Every body in the universe attracts every
other body with a force directionally Famous Quotes
proportional to their masses. ▪ “If I have seen further it is by standing on
▪ Gravitational forces decrease with the shoulders of giants”
distance. ▪ “I do not know what I may appear to the
▪ The greater the mass of the object, the world, but to myself I seem to have been
greater its gravitational force. only like a boy playing on the sea-shore,
and diverting myself in now and then
𝑮𝑴𝟏𝑴𝟐 finding a smoother pebble or a prettier
F=
𝒓𝟐
shell than ordinary, whilst the great
▪ Newton imagined a cannon fired from
ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before
high mountain.
me”
▪ With enough speed the falling cannon
ball would match the curve of the earth
and remain at the same height above the