Astronomy PDF

CHAPTER 15
NAVIGATIONAL ASTRONOMY
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
1500. Definition ing principally with celestial coordinates, time, and the
apparent motions of celestial bodies, is the branch of as-
Astronomy predicts the future positions and motions tronomy most important to the navigator. The symbols
of celestial bodies and seeks to understand and explain commonly recognized in navigational astronomy are
their physical properties. Navigational astronomy, deal- given in Table 1500.
Table 1500. Astronomical symbols.
225
226 NAVIGATIONAL ASTRONOMY
1501. The Celestial Sphere server at some distant point in space. When discussing the
rising or setting of a body on a local horizon, we must locate
Looking at the sky on a dark night, imagine that celes- the observer at a particular point on the earth because the
tial bodies are located on the inner surface of a vast, earth- setting sun for one observer may be the rising sun for
centered sphere. This model is useful since we are only in- another.
terested in the relative positions and motions of celestial Motion on the celestial sphere results from the motions
bodies on this imaginary surface. Understanding the con- in space of both the celestial body and the earth. Without
cept of the celestial sphere is most important when special instruments, motions toward and away from the
discussing sight reduction in Chapter 20. earth cannot be discerned.
1502. Relative And Apparent Motion 1503. Astronomical Distances
Celestial bodies are in constant motion. There is no Consider the celestial sphere as having an infinite radi-
fixed position in space from which one can observe abso- us because distances between celestial bodies are
lute motion. Since all motion is relative, the position of the remarkably vast. The difficulty of illustrating astronomical
observer must be noted when discussing planetary motion. distances is indicated by the fact that if the earth were rep-
From the earth we see apparent motions of celestial bodies resented by a circle one inch in diameter, the moon would
on the celestial sphere. In considering how planets follow be a circle one-fourth inch in diameter at a distance of 30
their orbits around the sun, we assume a hypothetical ob- inches, the sun would be a circle nine feet in diameter at
Figure 1501. The celestial sphere.

NAVIGATIONAL ASTRONOMY 227
a distance of nearly a fifth of a mile, and Pluto would 1504. Magnitude

be a circle half an inch in diameter at a distance of about
seven miles. The nearest star would be one-fifth the ac- The relative brightness of celestial bodies is indicated
tual distance to the moon. by a scale of stellar magnitudes. Initially, astronomers di-
Because of the size of celestial distances, it is in- vided the stars into 6 groups according to brightness. The
convenient to measure them in common units such as 20 brightest were classified as of the first magnitude, and
the mile or kilometer. The mean distance to our nearest the dimmest were of the sixth magnitude. In modern times,
neighbor, the moon, is 238,900 miles. For convenience when it became desirable to define more precisely the limits
this distance is sometimes expressed in units of the of magnitude, a first magnitude star was considered 100
equatorial radius of the earth: 60.27 earth radii. times brighter than one of the sixth magnitude. Since the
Distances between the planets are usually ex- fifth root of 100 is 2.512, this number is considered the
pressed in terms of the astronomical unit (AU), the magnitude ratio. A first magnitude star is 2.512 times as
mean distance between the earth and the sun. This is ap- bright as a second magnitude star, which is 2.512 times as
proximately 92,960,000 miles. Thus the mean distance bright as a third magnitude star,. A second magnitude is
of the earth from the sun is 1 A.U. The mean distance 2.512 × 2.512 = 6.310 times as bright as a fourth magnitude
of Pluto, the outermost known planet in our solar sys- star. A first magnitude star is 2.51220 times as bright as a
tem, is 39.5 A.U. Expressed in astronomical units, the star of the 21st magnitude, the dimmest that can be seen
mean distance from the earth to the moon is 0.00257 through a 200-inch telescope.
A.U. Brightness is normally tabulated to the nearest 0.1
Distances to the stars require another leap in units. magnitude, about the smallest change that can be detected
A commonly-used unit is the light-year, the distance by the unaided eye of a trained observer. All stars of mag-
light travels in one year. Since the speed of light is nitude 1.50 or brighter are popularly called “first
about 1.86 × 10 5 miles per second and there are about magnitude” stars. Those between 1.51 and 2.50 are called
3.16 × 107 seconds per year, the length of one light-year “second magnitude” stars, those between 2.51 and 3.50 are
is about 5.88 × 1012 miles. The nearest stars, Alpha called “third magnitude” stars, etc. Sirius, the brightest star,
Centauri and its neighbor Proxima, are 4.3 light-years has a magnitude of –1.6. The only other star with a negative
away. Relatively few stars are less than 100 light-years magnitude is Canopus, –0.9. At greatest brilliance Venus
away. The nearest galaxies, the Clouds of Magellan, are has a magnitude of about –4.4. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn are
150,000 to 200,000 light years away. The most distant sometimes of negative magnitude. The full moon has a
galaxies observed by astronomers are several billion magnitude of about –12.6, but varies somewhat. The mag-
light years away. nitude of the sun is about –26.7.
THE UNIVERSE
1505. The Solar System The hierarchies of motions in the universe are caused by
the force of gravity. As a result of gravity, bodies attract each
The sun, the most conspicuous celestial object in the sky, other in proportion to their masses and to the inverse square
is the central body of the solar system. Associated with it are at of the distances between them. This force causes the planets
least nine principal planets and thousands of asteroids, com- to go around the sun in nearly circular, elliptical orbits.
ets, and meteors. Some planets like earth have satellites. In each planet’s orbit, the point nearest the sun is called
the perihelion. The point farthest from the sun is called the
1506. Motions Of Bodies Of The Solar System aphelion. The line joining perihelion and aphelion is called
the line of apsides. In the orbit of the moon, the point near-
Astronomers distinguish between two principal mo- est the earth is called the perigee, and that point farthest
tions of celestial bodies. Rotation is a spinning motion from the earth is called the apogee. Figure 1506 shows the
about an axis within the body, whereas revolution is the orbit of the earth (with exaggerated eccentricity), and the
motion of a body in its orbit around another body. The body orbit of the moon around the earth.
around which a celestial object revolves is known as that
body’s primary. For the satellites, the primary is a planet. 1507. The Sun
For the planets and other bodies of the solar system, the pri-
mary is the sun. The entire solar system is held together by The sun dominates our solar system. Its mass is nearly a
the gravitational force of the sun. The whole system re- thousand times that of all other bodies of the solar system com-
volves around the center of the Milky Way galaxy (section bined. Its diameter is about 866,000 miles. Since it is a star, it
1515), and the Milky Way is in motion relative to its neigh- generates its own energy through thermonuclear reactions,
boring galaxies. thereby providing heat and light for the entire solar system.
The distance from the earth to the sun varies from

91,300,000 at perihelion to 94,500,000 miles at aphelion.
When the earth is at perihelion, which always occurs early
in January, the sun appears largest, 32.6' in diameter. Six
months later at aphelion, the sun’s apparent diameter is a
minimum of 31.5'.
Observations of the sun’s surface (called the photo-
sphere) reveal small dark areas called sunspots. These are
areas of intense magnetic fields in which relatively cool gas (at
7000°F.) appears dark in contrast to the surrounding hotter gas
(10,000°F.). Sunspots vary in size from perhaps 50,000 miles
in diameter to the smallest spots that can be detected (a few
hundred miles in diameter). They generally appear in groups.
Large sunspots can be seen without a telescope if the eyes are
protected, as by the shade glasses of a sextant.
Surrounding the photosphere is an outer corona of
very hot but tenuous gas. This can only be seen during an
eclipse of the sun, when the moon blocks the light of the
photosphere.
The sun is continuously emitting charged particles,
which form the solar wind. As the solar wind sweeps past
the earth, these particles interact with the earth’s magnetic
field. If the solar wind is particularly strong, the interaction
can produce magnetic storms which adversely affect radio
signals on the earth. At such times the auroras are particu-
larly brilliant and widespread.
The sun is moving approximately in the direction of
Vega at about 12 miles per second, or about two-thirds as
fast as the earth moves in its orbit around the sun. This is in
addition to the general motion of the sun around the center
of our galaxy.
1508. Planets
The principal bodies orbiting the sun are called planets.

Figure 1505. Relative size of planetary orbits. Nine principal planets are known: Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Figure 1506. Orbits of the earth and moon.

Figure 1507. Whole solar disk and an enlargement of the Figure 1509. Oblate spheroid or ellipsoid of revolution.
great spot group of April 7, 1947.
Courtesy of Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatories.
Figure 1508a
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Of The orbits of many thousands of tiny minor planets or
these, only four are commonly used for celestial navigation: asteroids lie chiefly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. These are all too faint to be seen with the naked eye.
Except for Pluto, the orbits of the planets lie in nearly
the same plane as the earth’s orbit. Therefore, as seen from 1509. The Earth
the earth, the planets are confined to a strip of the celestial
sphere called the ecliptic. In common with other planets, the earth rotates on its
The two planets with orbits smaller than that of the earth axis and revolves in its orbit around the sun. These motions
are called inferior planets, and those with orbits larger than are the principal source of the daily apparent motions of
that of the earth are called superior planets. The four planets other celestial bodies. The earth’s rotation also causes a de-
nearest the sun are sometimes called the inner planets, and the flection of water and air currents to the right in the Northern
others the outer planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Be-
are so much larger than the others that they are sometimes cause of the earth’s rotation, high tides on the open sea lag
classed as major planets. Uranus is barely visible to the unaid- behind the meridian transit of the moon.
ed eye; Neptune and Pluto are not visible without a telescope. For most navigational purposes, the earth can be con-
Planets can be identified in the sky because, unlike the sidered a sphere. However, like the other planets, the earth
stars, they do not twinkle. The stars are so distant that they is approximately an oblate spheroid, or ellipsoid of revo-
are virtually point sources of light. Therefore the tiny stream lution, flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator. See
of light from a star is easily scattered by normal motions of Figure 1509. Therefore, the polar diameter is less than the
air in the atmosphere causing the affect of twinkling. The na- equatorial diameter, and the meridians are slightly ellipti-
ked-eye planets, however, are close enough to present cal, rather than circular. The dimensions of the earth are
perceptible disks. The broader stream of light from a planet recomputed from time to time, as additional and more pre-
is not easily disrupted unless the planet is low on the horizon cise measurements become available. Since the earth is not
or the air is especially turbulent. exactly an ellipsoid, results differ slightly when equally
precise and extensive measurements are made on different pear in the morning sky at dawn. It will gradually move
parts of the surface. away from the sun to western elongation, then move back
toward the sun. After disappearing in the morning twilight,
1510. Inferior Planets it will move behind the sun to superior conjunction. After
this it will reappear in the evening sky, heading toward east-
Since Mercury and Venus are inside the earth’s orbit, ern elongation.
they always appear in the neighborhood of the sun. Over a Mercury is never seen more than about 28° from the
period of weeks or months, they appear to oscillate back and sun. For this reason it is not commonly used for navigation.
forth from one side of the sun to the other. They are seen ei- Near greatest elongation it appears near the western horizon
ther in the eastern sky before sunrise or in the western sky after sunset, or the eastern horizon before sunrise. At these
after sunset. For brief periods they disappear into the sun’s times it resembles a first magnitude star and is sometimes
glare. At this time they are between the earth and sun (known reported as a new or strange object in the sky. The interval
as inferior conjunction) or on the opposite side of the sun during which it appears as a morning or evening star can
from the earth (superior conjunction). On rare occasions at vary from about 30 to 50 days. Around inferior conjunction,
inferior conjunction, the planet will cross the face of the sun Mercury disappears for about 5 days; near superior con-
as seen from the earth. This is known as a transit of the sun. junction, it disappears for about 35 days. Observed with a
When Mercury or Venus appears most distant from the telescope, Mercury is seen to go through phases similar to
sun in the evening sky, it is at greatest eastern elongation. those of the moon.
(Although the planet is in the western sky, it is at its east- Venus can reach a distance of 47° from the sun, allow-
ernmost point from the sun.) From night to night the planet ing it to dominate the morning or evening sky. At maximum
will approach the sun until it disappears into the glare of brilliance, about five weeks before and after inferior con-
twilight. At this time it is moving between the earth and sun junction, it has a magnitude of about –4.4 and is brighter
to inferior conjunction. A few days later, the planet will ap- than any other object in the sky except the sun and moon.
Figure 1510. Planetary configurations.
At these times it can be seen during the day and is sometimes Near inferior conjunction Venus disappears for 8 days;
observed for a celestial line of position. It appears as a morn- around superior conjunction it disappears for 50 days. When
ing or evening star for approximately 263 days in succession. it transits the sun, Venus can be seen to the naked eye as a
small dot about the size of a group of sunspots. Through bin- Through good, high powered binoculars, Saturn appears as
oculars, Venus can be seen to go through a full set of phases. elongated because of its system of rings. A telescope is
needed to examine the rings in any detail. Saturn is now
1511. Superior Planets known to have at least 18 satellites, none of which are visi-
ble to the unaided eye.
As planets outside the earth’s orbit, the superior plan- Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are too faint to be used for
ets are not confined to the proximity of the sun as seen from navigation; Uranus, at about magnitude 5.5, is faintly visi-
the earth. They can pass behind the sun (conjunction), but ble to the unaided eye.
they cannot pass between the sun and the earth. Instead we
see them move away from the sun until they are opposite 1512. The Moon
the sun in the sky (opposition). When a superior planet is
near conjunction, it rises and sets approximately with the The moon is the only satellite of direct navigational in-
sun and is thus lost in the sun’s glare. Gradually it becomes terest. It revolves around the earth once in about 27.3 days,
visible in the early morning sky before sunrise. From day to as measured with respect to the stars. This is called the si-
day, it rises and sets earlier, becoming increasingly visible dereal month. Because the moon rotates on its axis with
through the late night hours until dawn. Approaching oppo- the same period with which it revolves around the earth, the
sition, the planet will rise in the late evening, until at same side of the moon is always turned toward the earth.
opposition, it will rise when the sun sets, be visible through- The cycle of phases depends on the moon’s revolution with
out the night, and set when the sun rises. respect to the sun. This synodic month is approximately
Observed against the background stars, the planets nor- 29.53 days, but can vary from this average by up to a quar-
mally move eastward in what is called direct motion. ter of a day during any given month.
Approaching opposition, however, a planet will slow down, When the moon is in conjunction with the sun (new
pause (at a stationary point), and begin moving westward moon), it rises and sets with the sun and is lost in the sun’s
(retrograde motion), until it reaches the next stationary glare. The moon is always moving eastward at about 12.2°
point and resumes its direct motion. This is not because the per day, so that sometime after conjunction (as little as 16
planet is moving strangely in space. This relative, observed hours, or as long as two days), the thin lunar crescent can be
motion results because the faster moving earth is catching observed after sunset, low in the west. For the next couple
up with and passing by the slower moving superior planet. of weeks, the moon will wax, becoming more fully illumi-
The superior planets are brightest and closest to the nated. From day to day, the moon will rise (and set) later,
earth at opposition. The interval between oppositions is becoming increasingly visible in the evening sky, until
known as the synodic period. This period is longest for the (about 7 days after new moon) it reaches first quarter, when
closest planet, Mars, and becomes increasingly shorter for the moon rises about noon and sets about midnight. Over
the outer planets. the next week the moon will rise later and later in the after-
Unlike Mercury and Venus, the superior planets do not noon until full moon, when it rises about sunset and
go through a full cycle of phases. They are always full or dominates the sky throughout the night. During the next
highly gibbous. couple of weeks the moon will wane, rising later and later
Mars can usually be identified by its orange color. It at night. By last quarter (a week after full moon), the moon
can become as bright as magnitude –2.8 but is more often rises about midnight and sets at noon. As it approaches new
between –1.0 and –2.0 at opposition. Oppositions occur at moon, the moon becomes an increasingly thin crescent, and
intervals of about 780 days. The planet is visible for about is seen only in the early morning sky. Sometime before con-
330 days on either side of opposition. Near conjunction it is junction (16 hours to 2 days before conjunction) the thin
lost from view for about 120 days. Its two satellites can only crescent will disappear in the glare of morning twilight.
be seen in a large telescope. At full moon, the sun and moon are on opposite sides of
Jupiter, largest of the known planets, normally out- the ecliptic. Therefore, in the winter the full moon rises early,
shines Mars, regularly reaching magnitude –2.0 or brighter crosses the celestial meridian high in the sky, and sets late; as
at opposition. Oppositions occur at intervals of about 400 the sun does in the summer. In the summer the full moon ris-
days, with the planet being visible for about 180 days be- es in the southeastern part of the sky (Northern Hemisphere),
fore and after opposition. The planet disappears for about remains relatively low in the sky, and sets along the south-
32 days at conjunction. Four satellites (of a total 16 current- western horizon after a short time above the horizon.
ly known) are bright enough to be seen in binoculars. Their At the time of the autumnal equinox, the part of the
motions around Jupiter can be observed over the course of ecliptic opposite the sun is most nearly parallel to the hori-
several hours. zon. Since the eastward motion of the moon is
Saturn, the outermost of the navigational planets, approximately along the ecliptic, the delay in the time of
comes to opposition at intervals of about 380 days. It is vis- rising of the full moon from night to night is less than at oth-
ible for about 175 days before and after opposition, and er times of the year. The full moon nearest the autumnal
disappears for about 25 days near conjunction. At opposi- equinox is called the harvest moon; the full moon a month
tion it becomes as bright as magnitude +0.8 to –0.2. later is called the hunter’s moon. See Figure 1512.
Figure 1512. Phases of the moon. The inner figures of the moon represent its appearance from the earth.
1513. Comets And Meteors comet depends very much on how close it approaches the
earth. In 1910, Halley’s comet spread across the sky. Yet
Although comets are noted as great spectacles of na- when it returned in 1986, the earth was not well situated to
ture, very few are visible without a telescope. Those that get a good view, and it was barely visible to the unaided eye.
become widely visible do so because they develop long, Meteors, popularly called shooting stars, are tiny, sol-
glowing tails. Comets are swarms of relatively small solid id bodies too small to be seen until heated to incandescence
bodies held together by gravity. Around the nucleus, a gas- by air friction while passing through the earth’s atmo-
eous head or coma and tail may form as the comet sphere. A particularly bright meteor is called a fireball.
approaches the sun. The tail is directed away from the sun, One that explodes is called a bolide. A meteor that survives
so that it follows the head while the comet is approaching the its trip through the atmosphere and lands as a solid particle
sun, and precedes the head while the comet is receding. The is called a meteorite.
total mass of a comet is very small, and the tail is so thin that Vast numbers of meteors exist. It has been estimated
stars can easily be seen through it. In 1910, the earth passed that an average of about 1,000,000 bright enough to be seen
through the tail of Halley’s comet without noticeable effect. enter the earth’s atmosphere each hour, and many times this
Compared to the well-ordered orbits of the planets, number undoubtedly enter, but are too small to attract
comets are erratic and inconsistent. Some travel east to west attention.
and some west to east, in highly eccentric orbits inclined at Meteor showers occur at certain times of the year when
any angle to the ecliptic. Periods of revolution range from the earth passes through meteor swarms, the scattered re-
about 3 years to thousands of years. Some comets may mains of comets that have broken up. At these times the
speed away from the solar system after gaining velocity as
they pass by Jupiter or Saturn. number of meteors observed is many times the usual number.
The short-period comets long ago lost the gasses need- A faint glow sometimes observed extending upward
ed to form a tail. Long period comets, such as Halley’s approximately along the ecliptic before sunrise and after
comet, are more likely to develop tails. The visibility of a sunset has been attributed to the reflection of sunlight from
Figure 1513. Halley’s Comet; fourteen views, made between April 26 and June 11, 1910.
Courtesy of Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatories.
quantities of this material. This glow is called zodiacal can be seen with the unaided eye is of the sixth magnitude.
light. A faint glow at that point of the ecliptic 180° from the In the entire sky there are about 6,000 stars of this magni-
sun is called the gegenschein or counterglow. tude or brighter. Half of these are below the horizon at any
time. Because of the greater absorption of light near the ho-
1514. Stars rizon, where the path of a ray travels for a greater distance
through the atmosphere, not more than perhaps 2,500 stars
Stars are distant suns, in many ways resembling the are visible to the unaided eye at any time. However, the av-
body which provides the earth with most of its light and erage navigator seldom uses more than perhaps 20 or 30 of
heat. Like the sun, stars are massive balls of gas that create the brighter stars.
their own energy through thermonuclear reactions. Stars which exhibit a noticeable change of magnitude
Although stars differ in size and temperature, these dif- are called variable stars. A star which suddenly becomes
ferences are apparent only through analysis by astronomers. several magnitudes brighter and then gradually fades is
Some differences in color are noticeable to the unaided eye. called a nova. A particularly bright nova is called a
While most stars appear white, some (those of lower temper- supernova.
ature) have a reddish hue. In Orion, blue Rigel and red Two stars which appear to be very close together are
Betelgeuse, located on opposite sides of the belt, constitute called a double star. If more than two stars are included in
a noticeable contrast. the group, it is called a multiple star. A group of a few doz-
The stars are not distributed uniformly around the sky. en to several hundred stars moving through space together
Striking configurations, known as constellations, were not- is called an open cluster. The Pleiades is an example of an
ed by ancient peoples, who supplied them with names and open cluster. There are also spherically symmetric clusters
myths. Today astronomers use constellations—88 in of hundreds of thousands of stars known as globular clus-
all—to identify areas of the sky. ters. The globular clusters are all too distant to be seen with
Under ideal viewing conditions, the dimmest star that the naked eye.
A cloudy patch of matter in the heavens is called a neb- glowing patches in the southern sky.
ula. If it is within the galaxy of which the sun is a part, it is
called a galactic nebula; if outside, it is called an extraga-
lactic nebula.
Motion of a star through space can be classified by its
vector components. That component in the line of sight is
called radial motion, while that component across the line
of sight, causing a star to change its apparent position rela-
tive to the background of more distant stars, is called
proper motion.
1515. Galaxies
A galaxy is a vast collection of clusters of stars and clouds

of gas. The earth is located in the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly
spinning disk more than 100,000 light years in diameter. All
the bright stars in the sky are in the Milky Way. However, the
most dense portions of the galaxy are seen as the great, broad
band that glows in the summer nighttime sky. When we look
toward the constellation Sagittarius, we are looking toward the
center of the Milky Way, 30,000 light years away.
Despite their size and luminance, almost all other gal-
axies are too far away to be seen with the unaided eye. An
exception in the northern hemisphere is the Great Galaxy
(sometimes called the Great Nebula) in Andromeda, which
appears as a faint glow. In the southern hemisphere, the
Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (named after Ferdi-
nand Magellan) are the nearest known neighbors of the Figure 1515. Spiral nebula Messier 51, In Canes Venetici.
Milky Way. They are approximately 1,700,000 light years Satellite nebula is NGC 5195.
distant. The Magellanic Clouds can be seen as sizable Courtesy of Mt. Wilson and Palomar Observatories.
APPARENT MOTION
1516. Apparent Motion Due To Rotation Of The Earth stant declination neither rise nor set (neglecting precession
of the equinoxes and changes in refraction), but circle the
Apparent motion caused by the earth’s rotation is sky, always at the same altitude, making one complete trip
much greater than any other observed motion of celestial around the horizon each day. At the North Pole the motion
bodies. It is this motion that causes celestial bodies to ap- is clockwise, and at the South Pole it is counterclockwise.
pear to rise along the eastern half of the horizon, climb to Approximately half the stars are always above the horizon
maximum altitude as they cross the meridian, and set along and the other half never are. The parallel sphere at the poles
the western horizon, at about the same point relative to due is illustrated in Figure 1516b.
west as the rising point was to due east. This apparent mo- Between these two extremes, the apparent motion is a
tion along the daily path, or diurnal circle, of the body is combination of the two. On this oblique sphere, illustrated in
approximately parallel to the plane of the equator. It would Figure 1516c, circumpolar celestial bodies remain above the
be exactly so if rotation of the earth were the only motion horizon during the entire 24 hours, circling the elevated ce-
and the axis of rotation of the earth were stationary in space. lestial pole each day. The stars of Ursa Major (the Big
The apparent effect due to rotation of the earth varies Dipper) and Cassiopeia are circumpolar for many observers
with the latitude of the observer. At the equator, where the in the United States. An approximately equal part of the ce-
equatorial plane is vertical (since the axis of rotation of the lestial sphere remains below the horizon during the entire
earth is parallel to the plane of the horizon), bodies appear day. Crux is not visible to most observers in the United
to rise and set vertically. Every celestial body is above the States. Other bodies rise obliquely along the eastern horizon,
horizon approximately half the time. The celestial sphere as
seen by an observer at the equator is called the right sphere, climb to maximum altitude at the celestial meridian, and set
shown in Figure 1516a. along the western horizon. The length of time above the horizon
For an observer at one of the poles, bodies having con- and the altitude at meridian transit vary with both the latitude of
Figure 1516a. The right sphere. Figure 1516b. The parallel sphere.
Figure 1516c. The oblique sphere at latitude 40°N. Figure 1516d. The various twilight at latitude 20°N and
latitude 60°N.
the observer and the declination of the body. At the polar circles longer in higher latitudes. Twilight is the period of incom-
of the earth even the sun becomes circumpolar. This is the land plete darkness following sunset and preceding sunrise.
of the midnight sun, where the sun does not set during part of the Evening twilight starts at sunset, and morning twilight ends
summer and does not rise during part of the winter. at sunrise. The darker limit of twilight occurs when the cen-
The increased obliquity at higher latitudes explains ter of the sun is a stated number of degrees below the
why days and nights are always about the same length in the celestial horizon. Three kinds of twilight are defined: civil,
tropics, and the change of length of the day becomes greater nautical and astronomical.
as the latitude increases. It also explains why twilight lasts
Twilight Lighter limit Darker limit At darker limit
civil –0°50' –6° Horizon clear; bright stars visible

nautical –0°50' –12° Horizon not visible
astronomical –0°50' –18° Full night
The conditions at the darker limit are relative and vary which it reaches a maximum value of 20.5". The effect of ab-
considerably under different atmospheric conditions erration can be noted by comparing the coordinates
In Figure 1516d, the twilight band is shown, with the (declination and sidereal hour angle) of various stars through-
darker limits of the various kinds indicated. The nearly ver- out the year. A change is observed in some bodies as the year
tical celestial equator line is for an observer at latitude progresses, but at the end of the year the values have returned
20°N. The nearly horizontal celestial equator line is for an almost to what they were at the beginning. The reason they do
observer at latitude 60°N. The broken line in each case is not return exactly is due to proper motion and precession of the
the diurnal circle of the sun when its declination is 15°N. equinoxes. It is also due to nutation, an irregularity in the mo-
The relative duration of any kind of twilight at the two lat- tion of the earth due to the disturbing effect of other celestial
itudes is indicated by the portion of the diurnal circle bodies, principally the moon. Polar motion is a slight wobbling
between the horizon and the darker limit, although it is not of the earth about its axis of rotation and sometimes wandering
directly proportional to the relative length of line shown of the poles. This motion, which does not exceed 40 feet from
since the projection is orthographic. The duration of twi- the mean position, produces slight variation of latitude and
light at the higher latitude is longer, proportionally, than longitude of places on the earth.
shown. Note that complete darkness does not occur at lati-
tude 60°N when the declination of the sun is 15°N. 1518. Apparent Motion Due To Movement Of Other
Celestial Bodies
1517. Apparent Motion Due To Revolution Of The
Earth Even if it were possible to stop both the rotation and
revolution of the earth, celestial bodies would not appear
If it were possible to stop the rotation of the earth so stationary on the celestial sphere. The moon would make
that the celestial sphere would appear stationary, the effects one revolution about the earth each sidereal month, rising in
of the revolution of the earth would become more notice- the west and setting in the east. The inferior planets would
able. In one year the sun would appear to make one appear to move eastward and westward relative to the sun,
complete trip around the earth, from west to east. Hence, it staying within the zodiac. Superior planets would appear to
would seem to move eastward a little less than 1° per day. make one revolution around the earth, from west to east,
This motion can be observed by watching the changing po- each sidereal period.
sition of the sun among the stars. But since both sun and Since the sun (and the earth with it) and all other stars are
stars generally are not visible at the same time, a better way in motion relative to each other, slow apparent motions
is to observe the constellations at the same time each night. would result in slight changes in the positions of the stars rel-
On any night a star rises nearly four minutes earlier than on ative to each other. This space motion is, in fact, observed by
the previous night. Thus, the celestial sphere appears to telescope. The component of such motion across the line of
shift westward nearly 1° each night, so that different con- sight, called proper motion, produces a change in the appar-
stellations are associated with different seasons of the year. ent position of the star. The maximum which has been
Apparent motions of planets and the moon are due to a observed is that of Barnard’s Star, which is moving at the rate
combination of their motions and those of the earth. If the ro- of 10.3 seconds per year. This is a tenth-magnitude star, not
tation of the earth were stopped, the combined apparent visible to the unaided eye. Of the 57 stars listed on the daily
motion due to the revolutions of the earth and other bodies pages of the almanacs, Rigil Kentaurus has the greatest prop-
would be similar to that occurring if both rotation and revolu- er motion, about 3.7 seconds per year. Arcturus, with 2.3
tion of the earth were stopped. Stars would appear nearly seconds per year, has the greatest proper motion of the navi-
stationary in the sky but would undergo a small annual cycle gational stars in the Northern Hemisphere. In a few thousand
of change due to aberration. The motion of the earth in its orbit years proper motion will be sufficient to materially alter
is sufficiently fast to cause the light from stars to appear to shift some familiar configurations of stars, notably Ursa Major.
slightly in the direction of the earth’s motion. This is similar to
the effect one experiences when walking in vertically-falling 1519. The Ecliptic
rain that appears to come from ahead due to the observer’s own
forward motion. The apparent direction of the light ray from The ecliptic is the path the sun appears to take among
the star is the vector difference of the motion of light and the the stars due to the annual revolution of the earth in its orbit.
motion of the earth, similar to that of apparent wind on a mov- It is considered a great circle of the celestial sphere, in-
ing vessel. This effect is most apparent for a body clined at an angle of about 23°26' to the celestial equator,
perpendicular to the line of travel of the earth in its orbit, for but undergoing a continuous slight change. This angle is
called the obliquity of the ecliptic. This inclination is due tions are the reverse of those six months earlier; the
to the fact that the axis of rotation of the earth is not perpen- Northern Hemisphere is having its winter, and the Southern
dicular to its orbit. It is this inclination which causes the sun Hemisphere its summer. This is the winter solstice. Three
to appear to move north and south during the year, giving months later, when both hemispheres again receive equal
the earth its seasons and changing lengths of periods of amounts of sunshine, the Northern Hemisphere is having
daylight. spring and the Southern Hemisphere autumn, the reverse of
Refer to Figure 1519a. The earth is at perihelion early conditions six months before. This is the vernal equinox.
in January and at aphelion 6 months later. On or about June The word “equinox,” meaning “equal nights,” is ap-
21, about 10 or 11 days before reaching aphelion, the north- plied because it occurs at the time when days and nights are
ern part of the earth’s axis is tilted toward the sun. The north of approximately equal length all over the earth. The word
polar regions are having continuous sunlight; the Northern “solstice,” meaning “sun stands still,” is applied because the
Hemisphere is having its summer with long, warm days and sun stops its apparent northward or southward motion and
short nights; the Southern Hemisphere is having winter momentarily “stands still” before it starts in the opposite di-
with short days and long, cold nights; and the south polar rection. This action, somewhat analogous to the “stand” of
region is in continuous darkness. This is the summer sol- the tide, refers to the motion in a north-south direction only,
stice. Three months later, about September 23, the earth has and not to the daily apparent revolution around the earth.
moved a quarter of the way around the sun, but its axis of Note that it does not occur when the earth is at perihelion or
rotation still points in about the same direction in space. aphelion. Refer to Figure 1519a. At the time of the vernal
The sun shines equally on both hemispheres, and days and equinox, the sun is directly over the equator, crossing from
nights are the same length over the entire world. The sun is the Southern Hemisphere to the Northern Hemisphere. It ris-
setting at the North Pole and rising at the South Pole. The es due east and sets due west, remaining above the horizon
Northern Hemisphere is having its autumn, and the South- for approximately 12 hours. It is not exactly 12 hours be-
ern Hemisphere its spring. This is the autumnal equinox. cause of refraction, semidiameter, and the height of the eye
In another three months, on or about December 22, the of the observer. These cause it to be above the horizon a little
Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and condi- longer than below the horizon. Following the vernal equi-
Figure 1519a. Apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic.

nox, the northerly declination increases, and the sun climbs Since the earth travels faster when nearest the sun, the
higher in the sky each day (at the latitudes of the United northern hemisphere (astronomical) winter is shorter than
States), until the summer solstice, when a declination of its summer by about seven days.
about 23°26' north of the celestial equator is reached. The Everywhere between the parallels of about 23°26'N
sun then gradually retreats southward until it is again over and about 23°26'S the sun is directly overhead at some time
the equator at the autumnal equinox, at about 23°26' south during the year. Except at the extremes, this occurs twice:
of the celestial equator at the winter solstice, and back over once as the sun appears to move northward, and the second
the celestial equator again at the next vernal equinox. time as it moves southward. This is the torrid zone. The
The sun is nearest the earth during the northern northern limit is the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern
hemisphere winter; it is not the distance between the limit’s the Tropic of Capricorn. These names come from
earth and sun that is responsible for the difference in the constellations which the sun entered at the solstices
temperature during the different seasons. The reason is when the names were first applied more than 2,000 years
to be found in the altitude of the sun in the sky and the ago. Today, the sun is in the next constellation toward the
length of time it remains above the horizon. During the west because of precession of the equinoxes. The parallels
summer the rays are more nearly vertical, and hence about 23°26' from the poles, marking the approximate lim-
more concentrated, as shown in Figure 1519b. Since the its of the circumpolar sun, are called polar circles, the one
sun is above the horizon more than half the time, heat is in the Northern Hemisphere being the Arctic Circle and the
being added by absorption during a longer period than it one in the Southern Hemisphere the Antarctic Circle. The
is being lost by radiation. This explains the lag of the areas inside the polar circles are the north and south frigid
seasons. Following the longest day, the earth continues zones. The regions between the frigid zones and the torrid
to receive more heat than it dissipates, but at a decreas- zones are the north and south temperate zones.
ing proportion. Gradually the proportion decreases until The expression “vernal equinox” and associated ex-
a balance is reached, after which the earth cools, losing pressions are applied both to the times and points of
more heat than it gains. This is analogous to the day, occurrence of the various phenomena. Navigationally,
when the highest temperatures normally occur several the vernal equinox is sometimes called the first point of
hours after the sun reaches maximum altitude at meridi- Aries (symbol ) because, when the name was given,
an transit. A similar lag occurs at other seasons of the the sun entered the constellation Aries, the ram, at this
year. Astronomically, the seasons begin at the equinoxes time. This point is of interest to navigators because it is
and solstices. Meteorologically, they differ from place to the origin for measuring sidereal hour angle. The ex-
place. pressions March equinox, June solstice, September
equinox, and December solstice are occasionally applied
as appropriate, because the more common names are as-
sociated with the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere
and are six months out of step for the Southern
Hemisphere.
The axis of the earth is undergoing a precessional
motion similar to that of a top spinning with its axis tilt-
ed. In about 25,800 years the axis completes a cycle and
returns to the position from which it started. Since the
celestial equator is 90° from the celestial poles, it too is
moving. The result is a slow westward movement of the
equinoxes and solstices, which has already carried them
about 30°, or one constellation, along the ecliptic from
the positions they occupied when named more than
2,000 years ago. Since sidereal hour angle is measured
from the vernal equinox, and declination from the celes-
tial equator, the coordinates of celestial bodies would be
changing even if the bodies themselves were stationary.
This westward motion of the equinoxes along the ecliptic
is called precession of the equinoxes. The total amount,
called general precession, is about 50.27 seconds per
year (in 1975). It may be considered divided into two
components: precession in right ascension (about 46.10
seconds per year) measured along the celestial equator,
Figure 1519b. Sunlight in summer and winter. Compare and precession in declination (about 20.04" per year)
the surface covered by the same amount of sunlight on measured perpendicular to the celestial equator. The an-
the two dates. nual change in the coordinates of any given star, due to
precession alone, depends upon its position on the celes-
tial sphere, since these coordinates are measured relative crease, and eventually other stars, in their turn, will
to the polar axis while the precessional motion is relative become the Pole Star.
to the ecliptic axis. The precession of the earth’s axis is the result of grav-
Due to precession of the equinoxes, the celestial itational forces exerted principally by the sun and moon on
poles are slowly describing circles in the sky. The north the earth’s equatorial bulge. The spinning earth responds to
celestial pole is moving closer to Polaris, which it will these forces in the manner of a gyroscope. Regression of the
pass at a distance of approximately 28 minutes about the nodes introduces certain irregularities known as nutation in
year 2102. Following this, the polar distance will in- the precessional motion.
Figure 1519c. Precession and nutation.

1520. The Zodiac in the rate of revolution and rotation of the earth. The error
due to lack of uniform rate of revolution is removed by us-
The zodiac is a circular band of the sky extending 8° ing a fictitious mean sun. Thus, mean solar time is nearly
on each side of the ecliptic. The navigational planets and equal to the average apparent solar time. Because the accu-
the moon are within these limits. The zodiac is divided into mulated difference between these times, called the
12 sections of 30° each, each section being given the name equation of time, is continually changing, the period of
and symbol (“sign”) of a constellation. These are shown in daylight is shifting slightly, in addition to its increase or de-
Figure 1520. The names were assigned more than 2,000 crease in length due to changing declination. Apparent and
years ago, when the sun entered Aries at the vernal equinox, mean suns seldom cross the celestial meridian at the same
Cancer at the summer solstice, Libra at the autumnal equi- time. The earliest sunset (in latitudes of the United States)
nox, and Capricornus at the winter solstice. Because of occurs about two weeks before the winter solstice, and the
precession, the zodiacal signs have shifted with respect to latest sunrise occurs about two weeks after winter solstice.
the constellations. Thus at the time of the vernal equinox, A similar but smaller apparent discrepancy occurs at the
the sun is said to be at the “first point of Aries,” though it is summer solstice.
in the constellation Pisces. The complete list of signs and Universal Time is a particular case of the measure
names is given below. known in general as mean solar time. Universal Time is the
mean solar time on the Greenwich meridian, reckoned in
1521. Time And The Calendar days of 24 mean solar hours beginning with 0 hours at mid-
night. Universal Time and sidereal time are rigorously
Traditionally, astronomy has furnished the basis for related by a formula so that if one is known the other can be
measurement of time, a subject of primary importance to found. Universal Time is the standard in the application of
the navigator. The year is associated with the revolution of astronomy to navigation.
the earth in its orbit. The day is one rotation of the earth If the vernal equinox is used as the reference, a sidere-
about its axis. al day is obtained, and from it, sidereal time. This
The duration of one rotation of the earth depends upon indicates the approximate positions of the stars, and for this
the external reference point used. One rotation relative to reason it is the basis of star charts and star finders. Because
the sun is called a solar day. However, rotation relative to of the revolution of the earth around the sun, a sidereal day
the apparent sun (the actual sun that appears in the sky) is about 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than a solar day, and
does not provide time of uniform rate because of variations there is one more sidereal than solar days in a year. One
Figure 1520. The zodiac.

mean solar day equals 1.00273791 mean sidereal days. Be- at full moon. However, there are two points at which the
cause of precession of the equinoxes, one rotation of the plane of the moon’s orbit intersects the ecliptic. These are
earth with respect to the stars is not quite the same as one the nodes of the moon’s orbit. If the moon passes one of
rotation with respect to the vernal equinox. One mean solar these points at the same time as the sun, a solar eclipse takes
day averages 1.0027378118868 rotations of the earth with place. This is shown in Figure 1522.
respect to the stars. The sun and moon are of nearly the same apparent size
In tide analysis, the moon is sometimes used as the ref- to an observer on the earth. If the moon is at perigee, the
erence, producing a lunar day averaging 24 hours 50 moon’s apparent diameter is larger than that of the sun, and
minutes (mean solar units) in length, and lunar time. its shadow reaches the earth as a nearly round dot only a
Since each kind of day is divided arbitrarily into 24 few miles in diameter. The dot moves rapidly across the
hours, each hour having 60 minutes of 60 seconds, the earth, from west to east, as the moon continues in its orbit.
length of each of these units differs somewhat in the various Within the dot, the sun is completely hidden from view, and
kinds of time. a total eclipse of the sun occurs. For a considerable distance
Time is also classified according to the terrestrial me- around the shadow, part of the surface of the sun is ob-
ridian used as a reference. Local time results if one’s own scured, and a partial eclipse occurs. In the line of travel of
meridian is used, zone time if a nearby reference meridian the shadow a partial eclipse occurs as the round disk of the
is used over a spread of longitudes, and Greenwich or Uni- moon appears to move slowly across the surface of the sun,
versal Time if the Greenwich meridian is used. hiding an ever-increasing part of it, until the total eclipse
The period from one vernal equinox to the next (the cy- occurs. Because of the uneven edge of the mountainous
cle of the seasons) is known as the tropical year. It is moon, the light is not cut off evenly. But several last illumi-
approximately 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds, nated portions appear through the valleys or passes between
though the length has been slowly changing for many cen- the mountain peaks. These are called Baily’s Beads. A total
turies. Our calendar, the Gregorian calendar, approximates eclipse is a spectacular phenomenon. As the last light from
the tropical year with a combination of common years of the sun is cut off, the solar corona, or envelope of thin, il-
365 days and leap years of 366 days. A leap year is any year luminated gas around the sun becomes visible. Wisps of
divisible by four, unless it is a century year, which must be more dense gas may appear as solar prominences. The
divisible by 400 to be a leap year. Thus, 1700, 1800, and only light reaching the observer is that diffused by the at-
1900 were not leap years, but 2000 will be. A critical mis- mosphere surrounding the shadow. As the moon appears to
take was made by John Hamilton Moore in calling 1800 a continue on across the face of the sun, the sun finally
leap year, causing an error in the tables in his book, The emerges from the other side, first as Baily’s Beads, and then
Practical Navigator. This error caused the loss of at least as an ever widening crescent until no part of its surface is
one ship and was later discovered by Nathaniel Bowditch obscured by the moon.
while writing the first edition of The New American Practi- The duration of a total eclipse depends upon how near-
cal Navigator. ly the moon crosses the center of the sun, the location of the
See Chapter 18 for an in-depth discussion of time. shadow on the earth, the relative orbital speeds of the moon
and earth, and (principally) the relative apparent diameters
1522. Eclipses of the sun and moon. The maximum length that can occur
is a little more than seven minutes.
If the orbit of the moon coincided with the plane of the If the moon is near apogee, its apparent diameter is less
ecliptic, the moon would pass in front of the sun at every than that of the sun, and its shadow does not quite reach the
new moon, causing a solar eclipse. At full moon, the moon earth. Over a small area of the earth directly in line with the
would pass through the earth’s shadow, causing a lunar moon and sun, the moon appears as a black disk almost cov-
eclipse. Because of the moon’s orbit is inclined 5° with re- ering the surface of the sun, but with a thin ring of the sun
spect to the ecliptic, the moon usually passes above or below around its edge. This annular eclipse occurs a little more
the sun at new moon and above or below the earth’s shadow often than a total eclipse.
Figure 1522. Eclipses of the sun and moon.

If the shadow of the moon passes close to the earth, but who can see the moon can see the eclipse.
not directly in line with it, a partial eclipse may occur with- During any one year there may be as many as five
out a total or annular eclipse. eclipses of the sun, and always there are at least two. There
An eclipse of the moon (or lunar eclipse) occurs when may be as many as three eclipses of the moon, or none. The
the moon passes through the shadow of the earth, as shown total number of eclipses during a single year does not exceed
in Figure 1522. Since the diameter of the earth is about 3 1/2 seven, and can be as few as two. There are more solar than
times that of the moon, the earth’s shadow at the distance of lunar eclipses, but the latter can be seen more often because
the moon is much larger than that of the moon. A total eclipse of the restricted areas over which solar eclipses are visible.
of the moon can last nearly 1 3/4 hours, and some part of the The sun, earth, and moon are nearly aligned on the line
moon may be in the earth’s shadow for almost 4 hours. of nodes twice each eclipse year of 346.6 days. This is less
During a total solar eclipse no part of the sun is visible than a calendar year because of regression of the nodes. In
because the moon is in the line of sight. But during a lunar a little more than 18 years the line of nodes returns to ap-
eclipse some light does reach the moon, diffracted by the at- proximately the same position with respect to the sun, earth,
mosphere of the earth, and hence the eclipsed full moon is and moon. During an almost equal period, called the saros,
visible as a faint reddish disk. A lunar eclipse is visible over a cycle of eclipses occurs. During the following saros the
the entire hemisphere of the earth facing the moon. Anyone cycle is repeated with only minor differences.
COORDINATES
1523. Latitude And Longitude uneven distribution of the mass of the earth, lines of equal
astronomic latitude and longitude are not circles, although
Latitude and longitude are coordinates used to locate the irregularities are small. In the United States the prime
positions on the earth. This section discusses three different vertical component (affecting longitude) may be a little
definitions of these coordinates. more than 18", and the meridional component (affecting
Astronomic latitude is the angle (ABQ, Figure 1523) latitude) as much as 25".
between a line in the direction of gravity (AB) at a station Geodetic latitude is the angle (ACQ, Figure 1523)
and the plane of the equator (QQ'). Astronomic longitude between a normal to the spheroid (AC) at a station and the
is the angle between the plane of the celestial meridian at a plane of the geodetic equator (QQ'). Geodetic longitude
station and the plane of the celestial meridian at Greenwich. is the angle between the plane defined by the normal to the
These coordinates are customarily found by means of celes- spheroid and the axis of the earth and the plane of the geo-
tial observations. If the earth were perfectly homogeneous detic meridian at Greenwich. These values are obtained
and round, these positions would be consistent and satisfac- when astronomical latitude and longitude are corrected for
tory. However, because of deflection of the vertical due to deflection of the vertical. These coordinates are used for
charting and are frequently referred to as geographic lat-
itude and geographic longitude, although these
expressions are sometimes used to refer to astronomical
latitude.
Geocentric latitude is the angle (ADQ, Figure 1523)
at the center of the ellipsoid between the plane of its equa-
tor (QQ') and a straight line (AD) to a point on the surface
of the earth. This differs from geodetic latitude because
the earth is a spheroid rather than a sphere, and the merid-
ians are ellipses. Since the parallels of latitude are
considered to be circles, geodetic longitude is geocentric,
and a separate expression is not used. The difference be-
tween geocentric and geodetic latitudes is a maximum of
about 11.6' at latitude 45°.
Because of the oblate shape of the ellipsoid, the length
of a degree of geodetic latitude is not everywhere the same,
increasing from about 59.7 nautical miles at the equator to
about 60.3 nautical miles at the poles. The value of 60 nau-
tical miles customarily used by the navigator is correct at
Figure 1523. Three kinds of latitude at point A. about latitude 45°.
MEASUREMENTS ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
1524. Elements Of The Celestial Sphere upper branch is frequently used in navigation, and references
to a celestial meridian are understood to mean only its upper
The celestial sphere (section 1501) is an imaginary branch unless otherwise stated. Celestial meridians take the
sphere of infinite radius with the earth at its center (Figure names of their terrestrial counterparts, such as 65° west.
1524a). The north and south celestial poles of this sphere are An hour circle is a great circle through the celestial
located by extension of the earth’s axis. The celestial equa- poles and a point or body on the celestial sphere. It is simi-
tor (sometimes called equinoctial) is formed by projecting lar to a celestial meridian, but moves with the celestial
the plane of the earth’s equator to the celestial sphere. A ce- sphere as it rotates about the earth, while a celestial merid-
lestial meridian is formed by the intersection of the plane of ian remains fixed with respect to the earth.
a terrestrial meridian and the celestial sphere. It is the arc of The location of a body on its hour circle is defined by
a great circle through the poles of the celestial sphere. the body’s angular distance from the celestial equator. This
The point on the celestial sphere vertically overhead of distance, called declination, is measured north or south of
an observer is the zenith, and the point on the opposite side the celestial equator in degrees, from 0° through 90°, simi-
of the sphere vertically below him is the nadir. The zenith lar to latitude on the earth.
and nadir are the extremities of a diameter of the celestial A circle parallel to the celestial equator is called a par-
sphere through the observer and the common center of the allel of declination, since it connects all points of equal
earth and the celestial sphere. The arc of a celestial meridian declination. It is similar to a parallel of latitude on the earth.
between the poles is called the upper branch if it contains The path of a celestial body during its daily apparent revo-
the zenith and the lower branch if it contains the nadir. The lution around the earth is called its diurnal circle. It is not
Figure 1524a. Elements of the celestial sphere. The celestial equator is the primary great circle.
Figure 1524b. A point on the celestial sphere can be located by its declination and sidereal hour angle.
Figure 1524c. A point on the celestial sphere can be located by its declination and hour angle.
actually a circle if a body changes its declination. Since the from the vernal equinox, is called right ascension and is
declination of all navigational bodies is continually chang- usually expressed in time units.
ing, the bodies are describing flat, spherical spirals as they The second method of locating the hour circle is to in-
circle the earth. However, since the change is relatively dicate its angular distance west of a celestial meridian
slow, a diurnal circle and a parallel of declination are usu- (Figure 1524c). If the Greenwich celestial meridian is used
ally considered identical. as the reference, the angular distance is called Greenwich
A point on the celestial sphere may be identified at the hour angle (GHA), and if the meridian of the observer, it
intersection of its parallel of declination and its hour circle. is called local hour angle (LHA). It is sometimes more
The parallel of declination is identified by the declination. convenient to measure hour angle either eastward or west-
Two basic methods of locating the hour circle are in ward, as longitude is measured on the earth, in which case
use. First, the angular distance west of a reference hour cir- it is called meridian angle (designated “t”).
cle through a point on the celestial sphere, called the vernal A point on the celestial sphere may also be located us-
equinox or first point of Aries, is called sidereal hour an- ing altitude and azimuth coordinates based upon the horizon
gle (SHA) (Figure 1524b). This angle, measured eastward as the primary great circle instead of the celestial equator.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1525. The Celestial Equator System Of Coordinates the vernal equinox.

Declination is angular distance north or south of the ce-
If the familiar graticule of latitude and longitude lines is lestial equator (d in Figure 1525a). It is measured along an
expanded until it reaches the celestial sphere of infinite radius, hour circle, from 0° at the celestial equator through 90° at
it forms the basis of the celestial equator system of coordi- the celestial poles. It is labeled N or S to indicate the direc-
nates. On the celestial sphere latitude becomes declination, tion of measurement. All points having the same
while longitude becomes sidereal hour angle, measured from declination lie along a parallel of declination.
Figure 1525a. The celestial equator system of coordinates, showing measurements of declination, polar distance, and
local hour angle.
Polar distance (p) is angular distance from a celestial The average rate of the moon is about 15.5°.
pole, or the arc of an hour circle between the celestial pole As the celestial sphere rotates, each body crosses each
and a point on the celestial sphere. It is measured along an branch of the celestial meridian approximately once a day.
hour circle and may vary from 0° to 180°, since either pole This crossing is called meridian transit (sometimes called
may be used as the origin of measurement. It is usually con- culmination). It may be called upper transit to indicate cross-
sidered the complement of declination, though it may be ing of the upper branch of the celestial meridian, and lower
either 90° – d or 90° + d, depending upon the pole used. transit to indicate crossing of the lower branch.
Local hour angle (LHA) is angular distance west of The time diagram shown in Figure 1525b illustrates the
the local celestial meridian, or the arc of the celestial equator relationship between the various hour angles and meridian
between the upper branch of the local celestial meridian and angle. The circle is the celestial equator as seen from above
the hour circle through a point on the celestial sphere, mea- the South Pole, with the upper branch of the observer’s me-
sured westward from the local celestial meridian, through ridian (PsM) at the top. The radius PsG is the Greenwich
360°. It is also the similar arc of the parallel of declination meridian; Ps is the hour circle of the vernal equinox. The
and the angle at the celestial pole, similarly measured. If the sun’s hour circle is to the east of the observer’s meridian; the
Greenwich (0°) meridian is used as the reference, instead of moon’s hour circle is to the west of the observer’s meridian
the local meridian, the expression Greenwich hour angle Note that when LHA is less than 180°, t is numerically the
(GHA) is applied. It is sometimes convenient to measure the same and is labeled W, but that when LHA is greater than
arc or angle in either an easterly or westerly direction from 180°, t = 360° – LHA and is labeled E. In Figure 1525b arc
the local meridian, through 180°, when it is called meridian GM is the longitude, which in this case is west. The relation-
angle (t) and labeled E or W to indicate the direction of mea- ships shown apply equally to other arrangements of radii,
surement. All bodies or other points having the same hour except for relative magnitudes of the quantities involved.
angle lie along the same hour circle.
Because of the apparent daily rotation of the celestial 1526. The Horizons
sphere, hour angle continually increases, but meridian an-
gle increases from 0° at the celestial meridian to 180°W, The second set of celestial coordinates with which the
which is also 180°E, and then decreases to 0° again. The navigator is directly concerned is based upon the horizon as
rate of change for the mean sun is 15° per hour. The rate of the primary great circle. However, since several different
all other bodies except the moon is within 3' of this value. horizons are defined, these should be thoroughly under-
stood before proceeding with a consideration of the horizon
system of coordinates.
The line where earth and sky appear to meet is called
the visible or apparent horizon. On land this is usually an
irregular line unless the terrain is level. At sea the visible
horizon appears very regular and often very sharp. Howev-
er, its position relative to the celestial sphere depends
primarily upon (1) the refractive index of the air and (2) the
height of the observer’s eye above the surface.
Figure 1526 shows a cross section of the earth and celes-
tial sphere through the position of an observer at A above the
surface of the earth. A straight line through A and the center
of the earth O is the vertical of the observer and contains his
zenith (Z) and nadir (Na). A plane perpendicular to the true
vertical is a horizontal plane, and its intersection with the ce-
lestial sphere is a horizon. It is the celestial horizon if the
plane passes through the center of the earth, the geoidal ho-
rizon if it is tangent to the earth, and the sensible horizon if
it passes through the eye of the observer at A. Since the radi-
us of the earth is considered negligible with respect to that of
the celestial sphere, these horizons become superimposed,
and most measurements are referred only to the celestial ho-
rizon. This is sometimes called the rational horizon.
Figure 1525b. Time diagram. Local hour angle, Greenwich If the eye of the observer is at the surface of the earth,
hour angle, and sidereal hour angle are measured westward his visible horizon coincides with the plane of the geoidal
through 360°. Meridian angle is measured eastward or horizon; but when elevated above the surface, as at A, his
westward through 180° and labeled E or W to indicate the eye becomes the vertex of a cone which is tangent to the
direction of measurement. earth atthe small circle BB, and which intersects the celestial
above but is actually slightly below the geometrical horizon

as shown in Figure 1526.
For any elevation above the surface, the celestial hori-
zon is usually above the geometrical and visible horizons,
the difference increasing as elevation increases. It is thus
possible to observe a body which is above the visible hori-
zon but below the celestial horizon. That is, the body’s
altitude is negative and its zenith distance is greater than 90°.
1527. The Horizon System Of Coordinates
This system is based upon the celestial horizon as the

primary great circle and a series of secondary vertical cir-
cles which are great circles through the zenith and nadir of
the observer and hence perpendicular to his horizon (Figure
1527a). Thus, the celestial horizon is similar to the equator,
and the vertical circles are similar to meridians, but with
one important difference. The celestial horizon and vertical
circles are dependent upon the position of the observer and
hence move with him as he changes position, while the pri-
mary and secondary great circles of both the geographical
Figure 1526. The horizons used in navigation. and celestial equator systems are independent of the ob-
server. The horizon and celestial equator systems coincide
sphere in B'B', the geometrical horizon. This expression is for an observer at the geographical pole of the earth and are
sometimes applied to the celestial horizon. mutually perpendicular for an observer on the equator. At
Because of refraction, the visible horizon C'C' appears all other places the two are oblique.
Figure 1527a. Elements of the celestial sphere. The celestial horizon is the primary great circle.
The vertical circle through the north and south points complement of altitude. For a body above the celestial ho-
of the horizon passes through the poles of the celestial equa- rizon it is equal to 90° – h and for a body below the celestial
tor system of coordinates. One of these poles (having the horizon it is equal to 90° – (– h) or 90° + h.
same name as the latitude) is above the horizon and is called The horizontal direction of a point on the celestial
the elevated pole. The other, called the depressed pole, is sphere, or the bearing of the geographical position, is called
below the horizon. Since this vertical circle is a great circle azimuth or azimuth angle depending upon the method of
through the celestial poles, and includes the zenith of the measurement. In both methods it is an arc of the horizon (or
observer, it is also a celestial meridian. In the horizon sys- parallel of altitude), or an angle at the zenith. It is azimuth
tem it is called the principal vertical circle. The vertical (Zn) if measured clockwise through 360°, starting at the
circle through the east and west points of the horizon, and north point on the horizon, and azimuth angle (Z) if mea-
hence perpendicular to the principal vertical circle, is called sured either clockwise or counterclockwise through 180°,
the prime vertical circle, or simply the prime vertical. starting at the north point of the horizon in north latitude
As shown in Figure 1527b, altitude is angular distance and the south point of the horizon in south latitude.
above the horizon. It is measured along a vertical circle, The ecliptic system is based upon the ecliptic as the
from 0° at the horizon through 90° at the zenith. Altitude primary great circle, analogous to the equator. The points
measured from the visible horizon may exceed 90° because 90° from the ecliptic are the north and south ecliptic poles.
of the dip of the horizon, as shown in Figure 1526. Angular The series of great circles through these poles, analogous to
distance below the horizon, called negative altitude, is pro- meridians, are circles of latitude. The circles parallel to the
vided for by including certain negative altitudes in some plane of the ecliptic, analogous to parallels on the earth, are
tables for use in celestial navigation. All points having the parallels of latitude or circles of longitude. Angular dis-
same altitude lie along a parallel of altitude. tance north or south of the ecliptic, analogous to latitude, is
Zenith distance (z) is angular distance from the ze- celestial latitude. Celestial longitude is measured eastward
nith, or the arc of a vertical circle between the zenith and a along the ecliptic through 360°, starting at the vernal equi-
point on the celestial sphere. It is measured along a vertical nox. This system of coordinates is of interest chiefly to
circle from 0° through 180°. It is usually considered the astronomers.
Figure 1527b. The horizon system of coordinates, showing measurement of altitude, zenith distance, azimuth, and
azimuth angle.
Earth Celestial Equator Horizon Ecliptic
equator celestial equator horizon ecliptic

poles celestial poles zenith; nadir ecliptic poles
meridians hours circle; celestial meridians vertical circles circles of latitude
prime meridian hour circle of Aries principal or prime vertical circle circle of latitude through Aries
parallels parallels of declination parallels of altitude parallels of latitude
latitude declination altitude celestial altitude
colatitude polar distance zenith distance celestial colatitude
longitude SHA; RA; GHA; LHA; t azimuth; azimuth angle; amplitude celestial longitude
Figure 1528. The four systems of celestial coordinates and their analogous terms.
1528. Summary Of Coordinate Systems 1529. Diagram On The Plane Of The Celestial Meridian
The four systems of celestial coordinates are analogous From an imaginary point outside the celestial sphere
to each other and to the terrestrial system, although each has and over the celestial equator, at such a distance that the
distinctions such as differences in directions, units, and lim- view would be orthographic, the great circle appearing as
its of measurement. Figure 1528 indicates the analogous the outer limit would be a celestial meridian. Other celestial
term or terms under each system. meridians would appear as ellipses. The celestial equator
Figure 1529a. Measurement of celestial equator system of Figure 1529b. Measurement of horizon system of
coordinates. coordinates.
would appear as a diameter 90° from the poles, and parallels A celestial body can be located by altitude and azimuth
of declination as straight lines parallel to the equator. The in a manner similar to that used with the celestial equator sys-
view would be similar to an orthographic map of the earth. tem. If the altitude is 25°, this angle is measured from the
A number of useful relationships can be demonstrated horizon toward the zenith and the parallel of altitude is drawn
by drawing a diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian as a straight line parallel to the horizon, as shown at hh' in the
showing this orthographic view. Arcs of circles can be sub- lower diagram of Figure 1529b. The plan view from above
stituted for the ellipses without destroying the basic the zenith is shown in the upper diagram. If north is taken at
relationships. Refer to Figure 1529a. In the lower diagram the left, as shown, azimuths are measured clockwise from
the circle represents the celestial meridian, QQ' the celestial this point. In the figure the azimuth is 290° and the azimuth
equator, Pn and Ps the north and south celestial poles, re- angle is N70°W. The vertical circle is located by measuring
spectively. If a star has a declination of 30° N, an angle of either arc. Point A thus located can be projected vertically
30° can be measured from the celestial equator, as shown. downward to A' on the horizon of the lower diagram, and the
It could be measured either to the right or left, and would vertical circle represented approximately by the arc of a cir-
have been toward the south pole if the declination had been cle through A' and the zenith and nadir. The center of this
south. The parallel of declination is a line through this point circle is on NS, extended if necessary. The body is at the in-
and parallel to the celestial equator. The star is somewhere tersection of the parallel of altitude and the vertical circle.
on this line (actually a circle viewed on edge). Since the upper diagram serves only to locate A' on the lower
To locate the hour circle, draw the upper diagram so diagram, the two can be combined, point A located on the
that Pn is directly above Pn of the lower figure (in line with lower diagram and projected upward to A', as shown. Since
the polar axis Pn-Ps), and the circle is of the same diameter the body of the example has an azimuth greater than 180°, it
as that of the lower figure. This is the plan view, looking is on the western or “front” side of the diagram.
down on the celestial sphere from the top. The circle is the Since the celestial meridian appears the same in both
celestial equator. Since the view is from above the north ce- the celestial equator and horizon systems, the two diagrams
lestial pole, west is clockwise. The diameter QQ' is the can be combined and, if properly oriented, a body can be lo-
celestial meridian shown as a circle in the lower diagram. If cated by one set of coordinates, and the coordinates of the
the right half is considered the upper branch, local hour another system can be determined by measurement.
gle is measured clockwise from this line to the hour circle, Refer to Figure 1529c, in which the black lines repre-
as shown. In this case the LHA is 80°. The intersection of sent the celestial equator system, and the red lines the
the hour circle and celestial equator, point A, can be pro- horizon system. By convention, the zenith is shown at the
jected down to the lower diagram (point A') by a straight top and the north point of the horizon at the left. The west
line parallel to the polar axis. The elliptical hour circle can point on the horizon is at the center, and the east point direct-
be represented approximately by an arc of a circle through ly behind it. In the figure the latitude is 37°N. Therefore, the
A', Pn, Ps. The center of this circle is somewhere along the zenith is 37° north of the celestial equator. Since the zenith
celestial equator line QQ', extended if necessary. It is usu- is established at the top of the diagram, the equator can be
ally found by trial and error. The intersection of the hour found by measuring an arc of 37° toward the south, along the
circle and parallel of declination locates the star. celestial meridian. If the declination is 30°N and the LHA is
Since the upper diagram serves only to locate point A' in 80°, the body can be located as shown by the black lines, and
the lower diagram, the two can be combined. That is, the LHA described above.
arc can be drawn in the lower diagram, as shown, and point A The altitude and azimuth can be determined by the re-
projected upward to A'. In practice, the upper diagram is not verse process to that described above. Draw a line hh'
drawn, being shown here for illustrative purposes. through the body and parallel to the horizon, NS. The alti-
In this example the star is on that half of the sphere to- tude, 25°, is found by measurement, as shown. Draw the arc
ward the observer, or the western part. If LHA had been of a circle through the body and the zenith and nadir. From
greater than 180°, the body would have been on the eastern A', the intersection of this arc with the horizon, draw a ver-
or “back” side. tical line intersecting the circle at A. The azimuth, N70°W,
From the east or west point over the celestial horizon, is found by measurement, as shown. The prefix N is applied
the orthographic view of the horizon system of coordinates to agree with the latitude. The body is left (north) of ZNa,
would be similar to that of the celestial equator system from the prime vertical circle. The suffix W applies because the
a point over the celestial equator, since the celestial meridian LHA, 80°, shows that the body is west of the meridian.
is also the principal vertical circle. The horizon would ap- If altitude and azimuth are given, the body is located by
pear as a diameter, parallels of altitude as straight lines means of the red lines. The parallel of declination is then
parallel to the horizon, the zenith and nadir as poles 90° from drawn parallel to QQ', the celestial equator, and the decli-
the horizon, and vertical circles as ellipses through the ze- nation determined by measurement. Point L' is located by
nith and nadir, except for the principal vertical circle, which drawing the arc of a circle through Pn, the star, and Ps.
would appear as a circle, and the prime vertical, which From L' a line is drawn perpendicular to QQ', locating L.
would appear as a diameter perpendicular to the horizon. The meridian angle is then found by measurement. The dec-
Figure 1529c. Diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian. Figure 1529d. A diagram on the plane of the celestial
meridian for lat. 45°N.
lination is known to be north because the body is between body’s azimuth is 000° or 180°. In this case it is 180° because
the celestial equator and the north celestial pole. The merid- the body is south of the zenith. The maximum altitude occurs
ian angle is west, to agree with the azimuth, and hence LHA at meridian transit. In this case the arc S4 represents the max-
is numerically the same. imum altitude, 65°. The zenith distance, z, is the arc Z4, 25°.
Since QQ'and PnPs are perpendicular, and ZNa and NS A body is not in the zenith at meridian transit unless its dec-
are also perpendicular, arc NPn is equal to arc ZQ. That is, lination’s magnitude and name are the same as the latitude.
the altitude of the elevated pole is equal to the declination Continuing on, the sun moves downward along the
of the zenith, which is equal to the latitude. This relation- “front” or western side of the diagram. At position 3 it is again
ship is the basis of the method of determining latitude by an on the prime vertical. The altitude is the same as when previ-
observation of Polaris. ously on the prime vertical, and the azimuth angle is
The diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian is numerically the same, but now measured toward the west.
useful in approximating a number of relationships. Consider The azimuth is 270°. The sun reaches position 2 six hours af-
Figure 1529d. The latitude of the observer (NPn or ZQ) is ter meridian transit and sets at position 1. At this point, the
45°N. The declination of the sun (Q4) is 20°N. Neglecting azimuth angle is numerically the same as at sunrise, but west-
the change in declination for one day, note the following: At erly, and Zn = 360° – 63° = 297°. The amplitude is W27°N.
sunrise, position 1, the sun is on the horizon (NS), at the After sunset the sun continues on downward, along its
“back” of the diagram. Its altitude, h, is 0°. Its azimuth an- parallel of declination, until it reaches position 5, on the
gle, Z, is the arc NA, N63°E. This is prefixed N to agree with lower branch of the celestial meridian, about midnight. Its
the latitude and suffixed E to agree with the meridian angle negative altitude, arc N5, is now greatest, 25°, and its azi-
of the sun at sunrise. Hence, Zn = 063°. The amplitude, A, muth is 000°. At this point it starts back up along the “back”
is the arc ZA, E27°N. The meridian angle, t, is the arc QL, of the diagram, arriving at position 1 at the next sunrise, to
110°E. The suffix E is applied because the sun is east of the start another cycle.
meridian at rising. The LHA is 360° – 110° = 250°. Half the cycle is from the crossing of the 90° hour circle
As the sun moves upward along its parallel of declina- (the PnPs line, position 2) to the upper branch of the celestial
tion, its altitude increases. It reaches position 2 at about meridian (position 4) and back to the PnPs line (position 2).
0600, when t = 90°E. At position 3 it is on the prime verti- When the declination and latitude have the same name (both
cal, ZNa. Its azimuth angle, Z, is N90°E, and Zn = 090°. north or both south), more than half the parallel of declina-
The altitude is Nh' or Sh, 27°. tion (position 1 to 4 to 1) is above the horizon, and the body
Moving on up its parallel of declination, it arrives at po- is above the horizon more than half the time, crossing the 90°
sition 4 on the celestial meridian about noon-when t and hour circle above the horizon. It rises and sets on the same
LHA are both 0°, by definition. On the celestial meridian a side of the prime vertical as the elevated pole. If the declina-
tion is of the same name but numerically smaller than the All of these relationships, and those that follow, can be
latitude, the body crosses the prime vertical above the hori- derived by means of a diagram on the plane of the celestial
zon. If the declination and latitude have the same name and meridian. They are modified slightly by atmospheric re-
are numerically equal, the body is in the zenith at upper tran- fraction, height of eye, semidiameter, parallax, changes in
sit. If the declination is of the same name but numerically declination, and apparent speed of the body along its diur-
greater than the latitude, the body crosses the upper branch of nal circle.
the celestial meridian between the zenith and elevated pole It is customary to keep the same orientation in south
and does not cross the prime vertical. If the declination is of latitude, as shown in Figure 1529e. In this illustration the
the same name as the latitude and complementary to it (d + L latitude is 45°S, and the declination of the body is 15°N.
= 90°), the body is on the horizon at lower transit and does Since Ps is the elevated pole, it is shown above the southern
not set. If the declination is of the same name as the latitude horizon, with both SPs and ZQ equal to the latitude, 45°.
and numerically greater than the colatitude, the body is above The body rises at position 1, on the opposite side of the
the horizon during its entire daily cycle and has maximum prime vertical from the elevated pole. It moves upward
and minimum altitudes. This is shown by the black dotted along its parallel of declination to position 2, on the upper
line in Figure 1529d. branch of the celestial meridian, bearing north; and then it
If the declination is 0° at any latitude, the body is above moves downward along the “front” of the diagram to posi-
the horizon half the time, following the celestial equator tion 1, where it sets. It remains above the horizon for less
QQ', and rises and sets on the prime vertical. If the declina- than half the time because declination and latitude are of
tion is of contrary name (one north and the other south), the contrary name. The azimuth at rising is arc NA, the ampli-
body is above the horizon less than half the time and crosses tude ZA, and the azimuth angle SA. The altitude circle at
the 90° hour circle below the horizon. It rises and sets on the meridian transit is shown at hh'.
opposite side of the prime vertical from the elevated pole. A diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian can be
If the declination is of contrary name and numerically used to demonstrate the effect of a change in latitude. As the
smaller than the latitude, the body crosses the prime vertical latitude increases, the celestial equator becomes more near-
below the horizon. This is the situation with the sun in win- ly parallel to the horizon. The colatitude becomes smaller,
ter follows when days are short. If the declination is of
contrary name and numerically equal to the latitude, the
body is in the nadir at lower transit. If the declination is of
contrary name and complementary to the latitude, the body
is on the horizon at upper transit. If the declination is of
contrary name and numerically greater than the colatitude,
the body does not rise.
Figure 1529e. A diagram on the plane of the celestial Figure 1529f. Locating a point on an ellipse of a diagram
meridian for lat. 45°S. on the plane of the celestial meridian.
NAVIGATIONAL COORDINATES
Prec
Coordinat Measured Measured Direc- Maximum
Symbol Measured to Units i- Labels
e from along tion value
sion
latitude L, lat. equator meridian N, S parallel °, ′ 0′.1 90° N, S
colatitude colat. poles meridian S, N parallel °, ′ 0′.1 90° —

prime
longitude λ, long.
meridian
parallel E, W local meridian °, ′ 0′.1 180° E, W
celestial parallel of
declination d, dec.
equator
hour circle N, S
declination
°, ′ 0′.1 90° N, S
polar parallel of
distance
p elevated pole hour circle S, N
declination
°, ′ 0′.1 180° —
parallel of
altitude h horizon vertical circle up
altitude
°, ′ 0′.1 90°* —
zenith parallel of
distance
z zenith vertical circle down
altitude
°, ′ 0′.1 180° —
azimuth Zn north horizon E vertical circle ° 0°.1 360° —

azimuth
angle
Z north, south horizon E, W vertical circle ° 0°.1 180° or 90° N, S...E, W
amplitude A east, west horizon N, S body ° 0°.1 90° E, W...N, S
Greenwich Greenwich parallel of

hour angle
GHA celestial
declination
W hour circle °, ′ 0′.1 360° —
meridian
local hour parallel of
angle
LHA local celestial
meridian declination
W hour circle °, ′ 0′.1 360° —
meridian parallel of
angle
t local celestial
E, W hour circle °, ′ 0′.1 180° E, W
sidereal hour circle of parallel of

hour angle
SHA vernal
declination
W hour circle °, ′ 0′.1 360° —
equinox
right hour circle of parallel of

RA vernal E hour circle h, m, s 1s 24h —
ascension equinox declination
lower branch
Greenwich Greenwich parallel of hour circle h, m, s
mean time
GMT celestial declination
W
mean sun 1s 24h —
meridian
local mean lower branch parallel of hour circle

LMT local celestial W h, m, s 1s 24h —
time meridian declination mean sun
lower branch parallel of hour circle

zone time ZT zone celestial W h, m, s 1s 24h —
meridian declination mean sun
Greenwich lower branch

Greenwich parallel of hour circle h, m, s
apparent GAT celestial declination
W
apparent sun 1s 24h —
time meridian
local lower branch parallel of hour circle h, m, s
apparent LAT local celestial
declination
W
apparent sun 1s 24h —
time meridian
Greenwich Greenwich hour circle

parallel of h, m, s
sidereal GST celestial
declination
W vernal 1s 24h —
time meridian equinox
local hour circle
local celestial parallel of h, m, s
sidereal LST
W vernal 1s 24h —
time equinox
*When measured from celestial horizon.
Figure 1529g. Navigational Coordinates.

increasing the number of circumpolar bodies and those and a pole. In great-circle sailing these places are the point
which neither rise nor set. It also increases the difference in of departure and the destination. In celestial navigation they
the length of the days between summer and winter. At the are the assumed position (AP) of the observer and the geo-
poles celestial bodies circle the sky, parallel to the horizon. graphical position (GP) of the body (the place having the
At the equator the 90° hour circle coincides with the hori- body in its zenith). The GP of the sun is sometimes called
zon. Bodies rise and set vertically; and are above the the subsolar point, that of the moon the sublunar point,
horizon half the time. At rising and setting the amplitude is that of a satellite (either natural or artificial) the subsatellite
equal to the declination. At meridian transit the altitude is point, and that of a star its substellar or subastral point.
equal to the codeclination. As the latitude changes name, When used to solve a celestial observation, either the celes-
the same-contrary name relationship with declination re- tial or terrestrial triangle may be called the astronomical
verses. This accounts for the fact that one hemisphere has triangle.
winter while the other is having summer. The navigational triangle is shown in Figure 1530a on
The error arising from showing the hour circles and a diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian. The earth
vertical circles as arcs of circles instead of ellipses increases is at the center, O. The star is at M, dd' is its parallel of dec-
with increased declination or altitude. More accurate results lination, and hh' is its altitude circle.
can be obtained by measurement of azimuth on the parallel In the figure, arc QZ of the celestial meridian is the lat-
of altitude instead of the horizon, and of hour angle on the itude of the observer, and PnZ, one side of the triangle, is
parallel of declination instead of the celestial equator. Refer the colatitude. Arc AM of the vertical circle is the altitude
to Figure 1529f. The vertical circle shown is for a body hav- of the body, and side ZM of the triangle is the zenith dis-
ing an azimuth angle of S60°W. The arc of a circle is shown tance, or coaltitude. Arc LM of the hour circle is the
in black, and the ellipse in red. The black arc is obtained by declination of the body, and side PnM of the triangle is the
measurement around the horizon, locating A' by means of polar distance, or codeclination.
A, as previously described. The intersection of this arc with The angle at the elevated pole, ZPnM, having the hour
the altitude circle at 60° places the body at M. If a semicir- circle and the celestial meridian as sides, is the meridian an-
cle is drawn with the altitude circle as a diameter, and the gle, t. The angle at the zenith, PnZM, having the vertical
azimuth angle measured around this, to B, a perpendicular circle and that arc of the celestial meridian, which includes
to the hour circle locates the body at M', on the ellipse. By the elevated pole, as sides, is the azimuth angle. The angle
this method the altitude circle, rather than the horizon, is, in at the celestial body, ZMPn, having the hour circle and the
effect, rotated through 90° for the measurement. This re- vertical circle as sides, is the parallactic angle (X) (some-
finement is seldom used because actual values are usually times called the position angle), which is not generally used
found mathematically, the diagram on the plane of the me-
ridian being used primarily to indicate relationships.
With experience, one can visualize the diagram on the
plane of the celestial meridian without making an actual
drawing. Devices with two sets of spherical coordinates, on
either the orthographic or stereographic projection, pivoted
at the center, have been produced commercially to provide
a mechanical diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian.
However, since the diagram’s principal use is to illustrate
certain relationships, such a device is not a necessary part
of the navigator’s equipment.
Figure 1529g summarizes navigation coordinate systems.
1530. The Navigational Triangle
A triangle formed by arcs of great circles of a sphere is

called a spherical triangle. A spherical triangle on the ce-
lestial sphere is called a celestial triangle. The spherical
triangle of particular significance to navigators is called the
navigational triangle, formed by arcs of a celestial merid-
ian, an hour circle, and a vertical circle. Its vertices are the
elevated pole, the zenith, and a point on the celestial sphere
(usually a celestial body). The terrestrial counterpart is also
called a navigational triangle, being formed by arcs of two
meridians and the great circle connecting two places on the
earth, one on each meridian. The vertices are the two places Figure 1530a. The navigational triangle.
by the navigator. 3. Given meridian angle, declination, and altitude, to

find azimuth angle. This may be used to find azi-
A number of problems involving the navigational tri- muth when the altitude is known.
angle are encountered by the navigator, either directly or 4. Given the latitude of two places on the earth and the
indirectly. Of these, the most common are: difference of longitude between them, to find the
1. Given latitude, declination, and meridian angle, to initial great-circle course and the great-circle dis-
find altitude and azimuth angle. This is used in the tance. This involves the same parts of the triangle
reduction of a celestial observation to establish a as in 1, above, but in the terrestrial triangle, and
line of position. hence is defined differently.
2. Given latitude, altitude, and azimuth angle, to find
declination and meridian angle. This is used to Both celestial and terrestrial navigational triangles are
identify an unknown celestial body. shown in perspective in Figure 1530b.
Figure 1530b. The navigational triangle in perspective.

IDENTIFICATION OF STARS AND PLANETS
1531. Introduction sisting of a Greek letter followed by the

possessive form of the name of the constellation,
A basic requirement of celestial navigation is the such as α Cygni (Deneb, the brightest star in the
ability to identify the bodies observed. This is not diffi- constellation Cygnus, the swan). Roman letters
cult because relatively few stars and planets are are used when there are not enough Greek letters.
commonly used for navigation, and various aids are Usually, the letters are assigned in order of bright-
available to assist in their identification. Some naviga- ness within the constellation; however, this is not
tors may have access to a computer which can identify always the case. For example, the letter designa-
the celestial body observed given inputs of DR position tions of the stars in Ursa Major or the Big Dipper
and observed altitude. No problem is encountered in the are assigned in order from the outer rim of the
identification of the sun and moon. However, the planets bowl to the end of the handle. This system of star
can be mistaken for stars. A person working continually designation was suggested by John Bayer of
with the night sky recognizes a planet by its changing po- Augsburg, Germany, in 1603. All of the 173 stars
sition among the relatively fixed stars. The planets are included in the list near the back of the Nautical
identified by noting their positions relative to each other, Almanac are listed by Bayer’s name, and, when
the sun, the moon, and the stars. They remain within the applicable, their common name.
narrow limits of the zodiac, but are in almost constant
motion relative to the stars. The magnitude and color • Flamsteed’s Number: This system assigns numbers
may be helpful. The information needed is found in the to stars in each constellation, from west to east in the
Nautical Almanac. The “Planet Notes” near the front of order in which they cross the celestial meridian. An
that volume are particularly useful. example is 95 Leonis, the 95th star in the constella-
Sometimes the light from a planet seems steadier than tion Leo. This system was suggested by John
that from a star. This is because fluctuation of the unsteady Flamsteed (1646-1719).
atmosphere causes scintillation or twinkling of a star, which
has no measurable diameter with even the most powerful • Catalog Number: Stars are sometimes designated
telescopes. The navigational planets are less susceptible to by the name of a star catalog and the number of the
the twinkling because of the broader apparent area giving star as given in the catalog, such as A. G. Washing-
light. ton 632. In these catalogs, stars are listed in order
Planets can also be identified by planet diagram, star from west to east, without regard to constellation,
finder, sky diagram, or by computation. starting with the hour circle of the vernal equinox.
This system is used primarily for fainter stars having
1532. Stars no other designation. Navigators seldom have occa-
sion to use this system.
The Nautical Almanac lists full navigational infor-
mation on 19 first magnitude stars and 38 second 1533. Star Charts
magnitude stars, plus Polaris. Abbreviated information
is listed for 115 more. Additional stars are listed in The It is useful to be able to identify stars by relative po-
Astronomical Almanac and in various star catalogs. sition. A star chart (Figure 1533) is helpful in locating
About 6,000 stars of the sixth magnitude or brighter (on these relationships and others which may be useful. This
the entire celestial sphere) are visible to the unaided eye method is limited to periods of relatively clear, dark skies
on a clear, dark night. with little or no overcast. Stars can also be identified by
Stars are designated by one or more of the following the Air Almanac sky diagrams, a star finder, Pub. No.
naming systems: 249, or by computation by hand or calculator.
Star charts are based upon the celestial equator sys-
• Common Name: Most names of stars, as now used, tem of coordinates, using declination and sidereal hour
were given by the ancient Arabs and some by the angle (or right ascension). The zenith of the observer is
Greeks or Romans. One of the stars of the Nautical at the intersection of the parallel of declination equal to
Almanac, Nunki, was named by the Babylonians. his latitude, and the hour circle coinciding with his celes-
Only a relatively few stars have names. Several of tial meridian. This hour circle has an SHA equal to 360°
the stars on the daily pages of the almanacs had no – LHA (or RA = LHA ). The horizon is every-
name prior to 1953. where 90° from the zenith. A star globe is similar to a
terrestrial sphere, but with stars (and often constella-
• Bayer’s Name: Most bright stars, including those tions) shown instead of geographical positions. The
with names, have been given a designation con- Nautical Almanac includes instructions for using this
Figure 1531a. Navigational stars and the planets.

Figure 1531b. Constellations.

Figure 1533. Star chart.

device. On a star globe the celestial sphere is shown as it 20° beyond each celestial pole, and about 60° (four hours)
would appear to an observer outside the sphere. Constella- each side of the central hour circle (at the celestial equator).
tions appear reversed. Star charts may show a similar view, Therefore, they do not coincide exactly with that half of the
but more often they are based upon the view from inside the celestial sphere above the horizon at any one time or place.
sphere, as seen from the earth. On these charts, north is at the The zenith, and hence the horizon, varies with the position
top, as with maps, but east is to the left and west to the right. of the observer on the earth. It also varies with the rotation
The directions seem correct when the chart is held overhead, of the earth (apparent rotation of the celestial sphere). The
with the top toward the north, so the relationship is similar charts show all stars of fifth magnitude and brighter as they
to the sky. appear in the sky, but with some distortion toward the right
The Nautical Almanac has four star charts. The two and left edges.
principal ones are on the polar azimuthal equidistant pro- The overprinted lines add certain information of use in
jection, one centered on each celestial pole. Each chart locating the stars. Only Polaris and the 57 stars listed on the
extends from its pole to declination 10° (same name as daily pages of the Nautical Almanac are named on the
pole). Below each polar chart is an auxiliary chart on the charts. The almanac star charts can be used to locate the ad-
Mercator projection, from 30°N to 30°S. On any of these ditional stars given near the back of the Nautical Almanac
charts, the zenith can be located as indicated, to determine and the Air Almanac. Dashed lines connect stars of some of
which stars are overhead. The horizon is 90° from the ze- the more prominent constellations. Solid lines indicate the
nith. The charts can also be used to determine the location celestial equator and useful relationships among stars in
of a star relative to surrounding stars. different constellations. The celestial poles are marked by
The Air Almanac contains a folded chart on the rectan- crosses, and labeled. By means of the celestial equator and
gular projection. This projection is suitable for indicating the the poles, one can locate his zenith approximately along the
coordinates of the stars, but excessive distortion occurs in re- mid hour circle, when this coincides with his celestial me-
gions of high declination. The celestial poles are represented ridian, as shown in the table below. At any time earlier than
by the top and bottom horizontal lines the same length as the those shown in the table the zenith is to the right of center,
celestial equator. To locate the horizon on this chart, first lo- and at a later time it is to the left, approximately one-quarter
cate the zenith as indicated above, and then locate the four of the distance from the center to the outer edge (at the ce-
cardinal points. The north and south points are 90° from the lestial equator) for each hour that the time differs from that
zenith, along the celestial meridian. The distance to the ele- shown. The stars in the vicinity of the North Pole can be
vated pole (having the same name as the latitude) is equal to seen in proper perspective by inverting the chart, so that the
the colatitude of the observer. The remainder of the 90° (the zenith of an observer in the Northern Hemisphere is up
latitude) is measured from the same pole, along the lower from the pole.
branch of the celestial meridian, 180° from the upper branch
containing the zenith. The east and west points are on the ce- 1534. Stars In The Vicinity Of Pegasus
lestial equator at the hour circle 90° east and west (or 90° and
270° in the same direction) from the celestial meridian. The In autumn the evening sky has few first magnitude
horizon is a sine curve through the four cardinal points. Di- stars. Most are near the southern horizon of an observer in
rections on this projection are distorted. the latitudes of the United States. A relatively large number
The star charts shown in Figure 1534 through Figure of second and third magnitude stars seem conspicuous, per-
1537, on the transverse Mercator projection, are designed haps because of the small number of brighter stars. High in
to assist in learning Polaris and the stars listed on the daily the southern sky three third magnitude stars and one second
pages of the Nautical Almanac. Each chart extends about magnitude star form a square with sides nearly 15° of arc in
Fig. 1534 Fig.1535 Fig. 1536 Fig. 1537
Local sidereal time 0000 0600 1200 1800

LMT 1800 Dec. 21 Mar. 22 June 22 Sept. 21
LMT 2000 Nov. 21 Feb. 20 May 22 Aug. 21
LMT 2200 Oct. 21 Jan. 20 Apr. 22 July 22
LMT 0000 Sept. 22 Dec. 22 Mar. 23 June 22
LMT 0200 Aug. 22 Nov. 22 Feb. 21 May 23
LMT 0400 July 23 Oct. 22 Jan 21 Apr. 22
LMT 0600 June 22 Sept. 21 Dec. 22 Mar. 23
Table 1533. Locating the zenith on the star diagrams.
length. This is Pegasus, the winged horse. Only Markab at the southwestern corner and Alpheratz
Figure 1534. Stars in the vicinity of Pegasus.

at the northeastern corner are listed on the daily pages of the 1535. Stars In The Vicinity Of Orion
Nautical Almanac. Alpheratz is part of the constellation
Andromeda, the princess, extending in an arc toward the As Pegasus leaves the meridian and moves into the
northeast and terminating at Mirfak in Perseus, legendary western sky, Orion, the hunter, rises in the east. With the
rescuer of Andromeda. possible exception of Ursa Major, no other configuration of
A line extending northward through the eastern side of stars in the entire sky is as well known as Orion and its im-
the square of Pegasus passes through the leading (western) mediate surroundings. In no other region are there so many
star of M-shaped (or W-shaped) Cassiopeia, the legendary first magnitude stars.
mother of the princess Andromeda. The only star of this The belt of Orion, nearly on the celestial equator, is
constellation listed on the daily pages of the Nautical Alma- visible in virtually any latitude, rising and setting almost on
nac is Schedar, the second star from the leading one as the the prime vertical, and dividing its time equally above and
configuration circles the pole in a counterclockwise direc- below the horizon. Of the three second magnitude stars
tion. If the line through the eastern side of the square of forming the belt, only Alnilam, the middle one, is listed on
Pegasus is continued on toward the north, it leads to second the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
magnitude Polaris, the North Star (less than 1° from the Four conspicuous stars form a box around the belt. Ri-
north celestial pole) and brightest star of Ursa Minor, the gel, a hot, blue star, is to the south. Betelgeuse, a cool, red
Little Dipper. Kochab, a second magnitude star at the other star lies to the north. Bellatrix, bright for a second magni-
end of Ursa Minor, is also listed in the almanacs. At this tude star but overshadowed by its first magnitude
season Ursa Major is low in the northern sky, below the ce- neighbors, is a few degrees west of Betelgeuse. Neither the
lestial pole. A line extending from Kochab through Polaris second magnitude star forming the southeastern corner of
leads to Mirfak, assisting in its identification when Pegasus the box, nor any star of the dagger, is listed on the daily pag-
and Andromeda are near or below the horizon. es of the Nautical Almanac.
Deneb, in Cygnus, the swan, and Vega are bright, first A line extending eastward from the belt of Orion, and
magnitude stars in the northwestern sky. curving toward the south, leads to Sirius, the brightest star
The line through the eastern side of the square of Pegasus in the entire heavens, having a magnitude of –1.6. Only
approximates the hour circle of the vernal equinox, shown at Mars and Jupiter at or near their greatest brilliance, the sun,
Aries on the celestial equator to the south. The sun is at Aries moon, and Venus are brighter than Sirius. Sirius is part of
on or about March 21, when it crosses the celestial equator the constellation Canis Major, the large hunting dog of Ori-
from south to north. If the line through the eastern side of Pe- on. Starting at Sirius a curved line extends northward
gasus is extended southward and curved slightly toward the through first magnitude Procyon, in Canis Minor, the small
east, it leads to second magnitude Diphda. A longer and hunting dog; first magnitude Pollux and second magnitude
straighter line southward through the western side of Pegasus Castor (not listed on the daily pages of the Nautical Alma-
leads to first magnitude Fomalhaut. A line extending north- nac), the twins of Gemini; brilliant Capella in Auriga, the
easterly from Fomalhaut through Diphda leads to Menkar, a charioteer; and back down to first magnitude Aldebaran,
third magnitude star, but the brightest in its vicinity. Ankaa, the follower, which trails the Pleiades, the seven sisters. Al-
Diphda, and Fomalhaut form an isosceles triangle, with the debaran, brightest star in the head of Taurus, the bull, may
apex at Diphda. Ankaa is near or below the southern horizon also be found by a curved line extending northwestward
of observers in latitudes of the United States. Four stars farther from the belt of Orion. The V-shaped figure forming the
south than Ankaa may be visible when on the celestial merid- outline of the head and horns of Taurus points toward third
ian, just above the horizon of observers in latitudes of the magnitude Menkar. At the summer solstice the sun is be-
extreme southern part of the United States. These are Acamar, tween Pollux and Aldebaran.
Achernar, Al Na’ir, and Peacock. These stars, with each other If the curved line from Orion’s belt southeastward to
and with Ankaa, Fomalhaut, and Diphda, form a series of tri- Sirius is continued, it leads to a conspicuous, small, nearly
angles as shown in Figure 1534. Almanac stars near the equilateral triangle of three bright second magnitude stars
bottom of Figure 1534 are discussed in succeeding articles. of nearly equal brilliancy. This is part of Canis Major. Only
Two other almanac stars can be located by their posi- Adhara, the westernmost of the three stars, is listed on the
tions relative to Pegasus. These are Hamal in the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac. Continuing on with
constellation Aries, the ram, east of Pegasus, and Enif, west somewhat less curvature, the line leads to Canopus, second
of the southern part of the square, identified in Figure 1534. brightest star in the heavens and one of the two stars having
The line leading to Hamal, if continued, leads to the Pleia- a negative magnitude (–0.9). With Suhail and Miaplacidus,
des (the Seven Sisters), not used by navigators for celestial Canopus forms a large, equilateral triangle which partly en-
observations, but a prominent figure in the sky, heralding closes the group of stars often mistaken for Crux. The
the approach of the many conspicuous stars of the winter brightest star within this triangle is Avior, near its center.
evening sky. Canopus is also at one apex of a triangle formed with Adha-
ra to the north and Suhail to the east, another triangle with
Acamar to the west and Achernar to the southwest, and an-
Figure 1535. Stars in the vicinity of Orion.

other with Achernar and Miaplacidus. Acamar, Achernar, called Libra, the scales.
and Ankaa form still another triangle toward the west. Be- Returning to Corvus, a line from Gienah, extending di-
cause of chart distortion, these triangles do not appear in the agonally across the figure and then curving somewhat
sky in exactly the relationship shown on the star chart. Oth- toward the east, leads to Menkent, just beyond Hydra.
er daily-page almanac stars near the bottom of Figure 1535 Far to the south, below the horizon of most northern
are discussed in succeeding articles. hemisphere observers, a group of bright stars is a prominent
In the winter evening sky, Ursa Major is east of Polaris, feature of the spring sky of the Southern Hemisphere. This is
Ursa Minor is nearly below it, and Cassiopeia is west of it. Crux, the Southern Cross. Crux is about 40° south of Corvus.
Mirfak is northwest of Capella, nearly midway between it and The “false cross” to the west is often mistaken for Crux.
Cassiopeia. Hamal is in the western sky. Regulus and Alphard Acrux at the southern end of Crux and Gacrux at the northern
are low in the eastern sky, heralding the approach of the con- end are listed on the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
figurations associated with the evening skies of spring. The triangles formed by Suhail, Miaplacidus, and Canopus,
and by Suhail, Adhara, and Canopus, are west of Crux. Suhail is
1536. Stars In The Vicinity Of Ursa Major in line with the horizontal arm of Crux. A line from Canopus,
through Miaplacidus, curved slightly toward the north, leads to
As if to enhance the splendor of the sky in the vicinity of Acrux. A line through the east-west arm of Crux, eastward and
Orion, the region toward the east, like that toward the west, then curving toward the south, leads first to Hadar and then to
has few bright stars, except in the vicinity of the south celes- Rigil Kentaurus, both very bright stars. Continuing on, the
tial pole. However, as Orion sets in the west, leaving Capella curved line leads to small Triangulum Australe, the Southern
and Pollux in the northwestern sky, a number of good navi- Triangle, the easternmost star of which is Atria.
gational stars move into favorable positions for observation.
Ursa Major, the great bear, appears prominently above 1537. Stars In The Vicinity Of Cygnus
the north celestial pole, directly opposite Cassiopeia, which
appears as a “W” just above the northern horizon of most As the celestial sphere continues in its apparent west-
observers in latitudes of the United States. Of the seven ward rotation, the stars familiar to a spring evening observer
stars forming Ursa Major, only Dubhe, Alioth, and Alkaid sink low in the western sky. By midsummer, Ursa Major has
are listed on the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac. moved to a position to the left of the north celestial pole, and
The two second magnitude stars forming the outer part the line from the pointers to Polaris is nearly horizontal.
of the bowl of Ursa Major are often called the pointers be- Ursa Minor, is standing on its handle, with Kochab above
cause a line extending northward (down in spring evenings) and to the left of the celestial pole. Cassiopeia is at the right
through them points to Polaris. Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, of Polaris, opposite the handle of Ursa Major.
contains Polaris at one end and Kochab at the other. Rela- The only first magnitude star in the western sky is Arc-
tive to its bowl, the handle of Ursa Minor curves in the turus, which forms a large, inconspicuous triangle with
opposite direction to that of Ursa Major. Alkaid, the end of the handle of Ursa Major, and Alphecca,
A line extending southward through the pointers, and the brightest star in Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown.
curving somewhat toward the west, leads to first magnitude The eastern sky is dominated by three very bright
Regulus, brightest star in Leo, the lion. The head, shoul- stars. The westernmost of these is Vega, the brightest
ders, and front legs of this constellation form a sickle, with star north of the celestial equator, and third brightest star
Regulus at the end of the handle. Toward the east is second in the heavens, with a magnitude of 0.1. With a declina-
magnitude Denebola, the tail of the lion. On toward the tion of a little less than 39°N, Vega passes through the
southwest from Regulus is second magnitude Alphard, zenith along a path across the central part of the United
brightest star in Hydra, the sea serpent. A dark sky and con- States, from Washington in the east to San Francisco on
siderable imagination are needed to trace the long, winding the Pacific coast. Vega forms a large but conspicuous tri-
body of this figure. angle with its two bright neighbors, Deneb to the
A curved line extending the arc of the handle of Ursa northeast and Altair to the southeast. The angle at Vega
Major leads to first magnitude Arcturus. With Alkaid and is nearly a right angle. Deneb is at the end of the tail of
Alphecca, brightest star in Corona Borealis, the Northern Cygnus, the swan. This configuration is sometimes
Crown, Arcturus forms a large, inconspicuous triangle. If called the Northern Cross, with Deneb at the head. To
the arc through Arcturus is continued, it leads next to first modern youth it more nearly resembles a dive bomber,
magnitude Spica and then to Corvus, the crow. The bright- while it is still well toward the east, with Deneb at the
est star in this constellation is Gienah, but three others are nose of the fuselage. Altair has two fainter stars close by,
nearly as bright. At autumnal equinox, the sun is on the ce- on opposite sides. The line formed by Altair and its two
lestial equator, about midway between Regulus and Spica. fainter companions, if extended in a northwesterly direc-
A long, slightly curved line from Regulus, east-south- tion, passes through Vega, and on to second magnitude
easterly through Spica, leads to Zubenelgenubi at the Eltanin. The angular distance from Vega to Eltanin is
southwestern corner of an inconspicuous box-like figure about half that from Altair to Vega. Vega and Altair,
Figure 1536. Stars in the vicinity of Ursa Major.

Figure 1537. Stars in the vicinity of Cygnus.

with second magnitude Rasalhague to the west, form a the sun for observation.
large equilateral triangle. This is less conspicuous than When the meridian passage occurs at midnight, the body
the Vega-Deneb-Altair triangle because the brilliance of is in opposition to the sun and is visible all night; planets may
Rasalhague is much less than that of the three first mag- be observable in both morning and evening twilights. As the
nitude stars, and the triangle is overshadowed by the time of meridian passage decreases, the body ceases to be ob-
brighter one. servable in the morning, but its altitude above the eastern
Far to the south of Rasalhague, and a little toward the horizon during evening twilight gradually increases; this con-
west, is a striking configuration called Scorpius, the scorpi- tinues until the body is on the meridian at twilight. From then
on. The brightest star, forming the head, is red Antares. At onwards the body is observable above the western horizon and
the tail is Shaula. its altitude at evening twilight gradually decreases; eventually
Antares is at the southwestern corner of an approxi- the body comes too close to the sun for observation. When the
mate parallelogram formed by Antares, Sabik, Nunki, and body again becomes visible, it is seen as a morning star low in
Kaus Australis. With the exception of Antares, these stars the east. Its altitude at twilight increases until meridian passage
are only slightly brighter than a number of others nearby, occurs at the time of morning twilight. Then, as the time of me-
and so this parallelogram is not a striking figure. At winter ridian passage decreases to 0h, the body is observable in the
solstice the sun is a short distance northwest of Nunki. west in the morning twilight with a gradually decreasing alti-
Northwest of Scorpius is the box-like Libra, the scales, tude, until it once again reaches opposition.
of which Zubenelgenubi marks the southwest corner. Only about one-half the region of the sky along the
With Menkent and Rigil Kentaurus to the southwest, ecliptic, as shown on the diagram, is above the horizon at
Antares forms a large but unimpressive triangle. For most one time. At sunrise (LMT about 6h) the sun and, hence, the
observers in the latitudes of the United States, Antares is region near the middle of the diagram, are rising in the east;
low in the southern sky, and the other two stars of the trian- the region at the bottom of the diagram is setting in the
gle are below the horizon. To an observer in the Southern west. The region half way between is on the meridian. At
Hemisphere Crux is to the right of the south celestial pole, sunset (LMT about 18h) the sun is setting in the west; the
which is not marked by a conspicuous star. A long, curved region at the top of the diagram is rising in the east. Mark-
line, starting with the now-vertical arm of Crux and extending the planet diagram of the Nautical Almanac so that east
ing northward and then eastward, passes successively is at the top of the diagram and west is at the bottom can be
through Hadar, Rigil Kentaurus, Peacock, and Al Na’ir. useful to interpretation.
Fomalhaut is low in the southeastern sky of the southern If the curve for a planet intersects the vertical line con-
hemisphere observer, and Enif is low in the eastern sky at near- necting the date graduations below the shaded area, the
ly any latitude. With the appearance of these stars it is not long planet is a morning star; if the intersection is above the
before Pegasus will appear over the eastern horizon during the shaded area, the planet is an evening star.
evening, and as the winged horse climbs evening by evening A similar planet location diagram in the Air Almanac
to a position higher in the sky, a new annual cycle approaches. represents the region of the sky along the ecliptic within
which the sun, moon, and planets always move; it shows, for
1538. Planet Diagram each date, the sun in the center and the relative positions of
the moon, the five planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
The planet diagram in the Nautical Almanac shows, in Saturn and the four first magnitude stars Aldebaran, Antares,
graphical form for any date during the year, the LMT of me- Spica, and Regulus, and also the position on the ecliptic
ridian passage of the sun, for the five planets Mercury, which is north of Sirius (i.e. Sirius is 40° south of this point).
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and of each 30° of SHA. The first point of Aries is also shown for reference. The mag-
The diagram provides a general picture of the availability of nitudes of the planets are given at suitable intervals along the
planets and stars for observation, and thus shows: curves. The moon symbol shows the correct phase. A straight
line joining the date on the left-hand side with the same date
1. Whether a planet or star is too close to the sun for of the right-hand side represents a complete circle around the
observation. sky, the two ends of the line representing the point 180° from
2. Whether a planet is a morning or evening star. the sun; the intersections with the curves show the spacing of
3. Some indication of the planet’s position during the bodies along the ecliptic on the date. The time scale indi-
twilight. cates roughly the local mean time at which an object will be
4. The proximity of other planets. on the observer’s meridian.
5. Whether a planet is visible from evening to morn- At any time only about half the region on the diagram is
ing twilight. above the horizon. At sunrise the sun (and hence the region
near the middle of the diagram), is rising in the east and the
A band 45m wide is shaded on each side of the curve region at the end marked “West” is setting in the west; the
marking the LMT of meridian passage of the sun. Any planet region half-way between these extremes is on the meridian,
and most stars lying within the shaded area are too close to as will be indicated by the local time (about 6h). At the time
of sunset (local time about 18h) the sun is setting in the west, small peg in the center. On one side the north celestial
and the region at the end marked “East” is rising in the east. pole is shown at the center, and on the opposite side the
The diagram should be used in conjunction with the south celestial pole is at the center. All of the stars listed
Sky Diagrams. on the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac are shown on
a polar azimuthal equidistant projection extending to the
1539. Star Finders opposite pole. The south pole side is shown in Figure
1539a. Many copies of an older edition, No. 2102C, show-
Various devices have been devised to help an observer ing the stars listed in the almanacs prior to 1953, and
find individual stars. The most widely used is the Star Find- having other minor differences, are still in use. These are
er and Identifier, formerly published by the U.S. Navy not rendered obsolete by the newer edition, but should be
Hydrographic Office, and now published commercially. The corrected by means of the current almanac. The rim of
current model, No. 2102D, as well as the previous 2102C each side is graduated to half a degree of LHA (or
model, patented by E. B. Collins, employs the same basic 360° – SHA).
principle as that used in the Rude Star Finder patented by Ten transparent templates of the same diameter as the
Captain G. T. Rude, USC&GS, and later sold to the Hydro- star base are provided. There is one template for each 10°
graphic Office. Successive models reflect various of latitude, labeled 5°, 15°, 25°, etc., plus a 10th (printed in
modifications to meet changing conditions and requirements. red) showing meridian angle and declination. The older edi-
The star base of No. 2102D consists of a thin, white, tion (No. 2102C) did not have the red meridian angle-
opaque, plastic disk about 8 1/2 inches in diameter, with a declination template. Each template can be used on either
Figure 1539a. The south pole side of the star base of No. 2102D.
side of the star base, being centered by placing a small circle of the body. From the celestial equator, shown as a
center hole in the template over the center peg of the circle midway between the center and the outer edge, mea-
star base. Each latitude template has a family of altitude sure the declination (from the almanac) of the body toward
curves at 5° intervals from the horizon (from altitude the center if the pole and declination have the same name
10° on the older No. 2102C) to 80°. A second family of (both N or both S), and away from the center if they are of
curves, also at 5° intervals, indicates azimuth. The contrary name. Use the scale along the north-south azimuth
north-south azimuth line is the celestial meridian. The line of any template as a declination scale. The meridian an-
star base, templates, and a set of instructions are kept in gle-declination template (the latitude 5° template of No.
a circular leatherette container. 2102C) has an open slot with declination graduations along
Since the sun, moon, and planets continually change one side, to assist in plotting positions, as shown in Figure
apparent position relative to the “fixed” stars, they are not 1539b. In the illustration, the celestial body being located
shown on the star base. However, their positions at any has a 360° – SHA of 285°, and a declination of 14.5°S. It is
time, as well as the positions of additional stars, can be plot- not practical to attempt to plot to greater precision than the
ted. To do this, determine 360° – SHA of the body. For the nearest 0.1°. Positions of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn,
stars and planets, SHA is listed in the Nautical Almanac. on June 1, 1975, are shown plotted on the star base in Figure
For the sun and moon, 360° – SHA is found by subtracting 1539c. It is sometimes desirable to plot positions of the sun
GHA of the body from GHA at the same time. Locate and moon to assist in planning. Plotted positions of stars
360° – SHA on the scale around the rim of the star base. A need not be changed. Plotted positions of bodies of the solar
straight line from this point to the center represents the hour system should be replotted from time to time, the more rap-
Figure 1539b. Plotting a celestial body on the star base of No. 2102D.
idly moving ones more often than others. The satisfactory until the arrow on the celestial meridian (the north-south azi-
interval for each body can be determined by experience. It muth line) is over LHA on the star based graduations.
is good practice to record the date of each plotted position The small cross at the origin of both families of curves now
of a body of the solar system, to serve later as an indication represents the zenith of the observer. The approximate alti-
of the interval since it was plotted. tude and azimuth of the celestial bodies above the horizon
To orient the template properly for any given time, pro- can be visually interpolated from the star finder. Consider
ceed as follows: enter the almanac with GMT, and determine Polaris (not shown) as at the north celestial pole. For more
GHA at this time. Apply the longitude to GHA , sub- accurate results, the template can be lifted clear of the cen-
tracting if west, or adding if east, to determine LHA . If ter peg of the star base, and shifted along the celestial
LMT is substituted for GMT in entering the almanac, LHA meridian until the latitude, on the altitude scale, is over the
can be taken directly from the almanac, to sufficient ac- pole. This refinement is not needed for normal use of the
curacy for orienting the star finder template. Select the device. It should not be used for a latitude differing more
template for the latitude nearest that of the observer, and cen- than 5° from that for which the curves were drawn. If the
ter it over the star base, being careful that the correct sides altitude and azimuth of an identified body shown on the star
(north or south to agree with the latitude) of both template and base are known, the template can be oriented by rotat-
star base are used. Rotate the template relative to the star base, ing it until it is in correct position relative to that body.
Figure 1539c. A template in place over the star base of No. 2102D.
1540. Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (Pub. ence to an almanac. Any method of solving a spherical
No. 249) triangle, with two sides and the included angle being given,
is suitable for this purpose. A large-scale, carefully-drawn
Volume I of Pub. No. 249 can be used as a star finder diagram on the plane of the celestial meridian, using the re-
for the stars tabulated at any given time. For these bodies finement shown in Figure 1529f, should yield satisfactory
the altitude and azimuth are tabulated for each 1° of latitude results.
and 1° of LHA (2° beyond latitude 69°). The principal Although no formal star identification tables are in-
limitation is the small number of stars listed. cluded in Pub. No. 229, a simple approach to star
identification is to scan the pages of the appropriate lati-
1541. Air Almanac Sky Diagram tudes, and observe the combination of arguments which
give the altitude and azimuth angle of the observation. Thus
Near the back of the Air Almanac are a number of sky the declination and LHA Z are determined directly. The
diagrams. These are azimuthal equidistant projections of the star’s SHA is found from SHA ★ = LHA ★ – LHA .
celestial sphere on the plane of the horizon, at latitudes 75°N, From these quantities the star can be identified from the
50°N, 25°N, 0°, 25°S, and 50°S, at intervals of 2 hours of lo- Nautical Almanac.
cal mean time each month. A number of the brighter stars, the Another solution is available through an interchange of
visible planets, and several positions of the moon are shown arguments using the nearest integral values. The procedure
at their correct altitude and azimuth. These are of limited val- consists of entering Pub. No. 229 with the observer’s latitude
ue to marine navigators because of their small scale; the large (same name as declination), with the observed azimuth angle
increments of latitude, time, and date; and the limited number (converted from observed true azimuth as required) as LHA
of bodies shown. However, in the absence of other methods, and the observed altitude as declination, and extracting from
particularly a star finder, these diagrams can be useful. Al- the tables the altitude and azimuth angle respondents. The
lowance can be made for variations from the conditions for extracted altitude becomes the body’s declination; the ex-
which each diagram is constructed. Instructions for use of the tracted azimuth angle (or its supplement) is the meridian
diagrams are included in the Air Almanac. angle of the body. Note that the tables are always entered
with latitude of same name as declination. In north latitudes
1542. Identification By Computation the tables can be entered with true azimuth as LHA.
If the respondents are extracted from above the C-S
If the altitude and azimuth of the celestial body, and the Line on a right-hand page, the name of the latitude is actual-
approximate latitude of the observer, are known, the navi- ly contrary to the declination. Otherwise, the declination of
gational triangle can be solved for meridian angle and the body has the same name as the latitude. If the azimuth
declination. The meridian angle can be converted to LHA, angle respondent is extracted from above the C-S Line, the
and this to GHA. With this and GHA at the time of ob- supplement of the tabular value is the meridian angle, t, of
servation, the SHA of the body can be determined. With the body. If the body is east of the observer’s meridian, LHA
SHA and declination, one can identify the body by refer- = 360° – t; if the body is west of the meridian, LHA = t.

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CHAPTER 15

Table 1500. Astronomical symbols.

1502. Relative And Apparent Motion 1503. Astronomical Distances

Figure 1501. The celestial sphere.

a distance of nearly a fifth of a mile, and Pluto would 1504. Magnitude

The distance from the earth to the sun varies from

The principal bodies orbiting the sun are called planets.

Figure 1506. Orbits of the earth and moon.

Figure 1510. Planetary configurations.

A galaxy is a vast collection of clusters of stars and clouds

Twilight Lighter limit Darker limit At darker limit

civil –0°50' –6° Horizon clear; bright stars visible

Figure 1519a. Apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic.

Figure 1519c. Precession and nutation.

Figure 1520. The zodiac.

Figure 1522. Eclipses of the sun and moon.

MEASUREMENTS ON THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

1525. The Celestial Equator System Of Coordinates the vernal equinox.

above but is actually slightly below the geometrical horizon

1527. The Horizon System Of Coordinates

This system is based upon the celestial horizon as the

Earth Celestial Equator Horizon Ecliptic

equator celestial equator horizon ecliptic

latitude L, lat. equator meridian N, S parallel °, ′ 0′.1 90° N, S

colatitude colat. poles meridian S, N parallel °, ′ 0′.1 90° —

azimuth Zn north horizon E vertical circle ° 0°.1 360° —

amplitude A east, west horizon N, S body ° 0°.1 90° E, W...N, S

Greenwich Greenwich parallel of

sidereal hour circle of parallel of

right hour circle of parallel of

local mean lower branch parallel of hour circle

lower branch parallel of hour circle

Greenwich lower branch

Greenwich Greenwich hour circle

Figure 1529g. Navigational Coordinates.

1530. The Navigational Triangle

A triangle formed by arcs of great circles of a sphere is

by the navigator. 3. Given meridian angle, declination, and altitude, to

Figure 1530b. The navigational triangle in perspective.

IDENTIFICATION OF STARS AND PLANETS

1531. Introduction sisting of a Greek letter followed by the

Figure 1531a. Navigational stars and the planets.

Figure 1531b. Constellations.

Figure 1533. Star chart.

Fig. 1534 Fig.1535 Fig. 1536 Fig. 1537

Local sidereal time 0000 0600 1200 1800

Table 1533. Locating the zenith on the star diagrams.

Figure 1534. Stars in the vicinity of Pegasus.

Figure 1535. Stars in the vicinity of Orion.

Figure 1536. Stars in the vicinity of Ursa Major.

Figure 1537. Stars in the vicinity of Cygnus.

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