Geographical Coordinate System

Celestial Coordinate Systems

Astronomical Coordinate Systems

Dr. Sukanta Deb

Department of Physics, Cotton University

Panbazar, Guwahati (Assam)

Lecture - I

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Outline of the Talk

1 Geographical Coordinate System

2 Celestial Coordinate Systems

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Table of Contents

1 Geographical Coordinate System

2 Celestial Coordinate Systems

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Geographical Coordinate System: Longitude and Latitude

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Geographical Coordinate System: Longitude and Latitude

Reference Point: Greenwhich, Reference Circle: Earth’s Equator

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Table of Contents

1 Geographical Coordinate System

2 Celestial Coordinate Systems

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Great Circle and Small Circle

Great Circle: Any plane passing through the center of the sphere is
called a great circle.
Small Circle: Any plane intersecting the sphere but not passing
through the center of the sphere is called a small circle.

Note: The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is

along a great circle.
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Spherical Triangle
The sides of a spherical triangle must be arcs of great circles. Arcs
>> >
AB, BDP and PCA form a spherical triangle and obey the
following sine rule:
sin A sin B sin P
= = ,
sin a sin b sin p
> > >
where a=BDP, b=PCA and p=AB.

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Great Circles

The arcs of a great circle on the sphere, is the analogue of a

straight line, on the plane.
Spherical angle is defined as the angle between the tangents
to the two arcs of great circles at the point of intersection. It
is also defined as the angle between the planes of the two
great circles where they intersect at the centre of the sphere.
A spherical triangle is made up of three arcs of great circles,
all less than 180◦ .
The sum of the angles is not fixed, but will always be greater
than 180◦ . If any side of the triangle is exactly 90◦ , the
triangle is called quadrantal.

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Celestial Sphere

An imaginary sphere surrounding

Earth with celestial objects on its
inside surface is called celestial
sphere.
Celestial Poles: Directions in
which Earth’s rotation axis points
Celestial Equator: Points in the
sky parallel to the Earth’s equator
Meridian: Any great semi-circle
passing through the the north
and south celestial poles is called
meridian.

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Horizon Coordinate System: Altitude and Azimuth

Reference Point: North point, Reference Circle1 : Horizon

> >
Altitude: AX=AOX=a, Azimuth: AN=NOA=A. Azimuth is
measured along the horizon from north point to the vertical circle
through the star towards east. Altitude is measured from horizon
to the star along the vertical circle.
1
Also called Fundamental Great Circle
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Horizon Coordinate System: Observer’s Meridian

An observer is situated at O on the earth’s surface. The point
on the celestial sphere directly overhead the observer is called
zenith (Z) and the point on celestial sphere directly beneath
the observer is called nadir.
If we take a plane perpendicular to OZ and bisect the celestial
sphere, the plane is called the horizon of the observer or the
celestial horizon. The observer can only see those objects
which are above her/his horizon.
Any great circle passing through the zenith Z, the north
celestial pole P (direction of polaris, a pole star) and south
celestial pole (diagonally opposite to P) is called the
observer’s/celestial meridian. It cuts the horizon NESW at the
north point (N) and south point (S). If the observer is facing
towards north, then 90◦ of her/his right will be east (E) and
90◦ of her/his left will be west (W).
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Horizon Coordinate System: Observer’s Meridian

Any great circle passing through Z is called a vertical circle.
>>
The arcs ZN, ZS, etc. are called verticals (see previous figure).

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Horizon Coordinate System: Altitude and Azimuth

Figure: Convention for measuring altitude and azimuth.

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Horizon (alt-az) Coordinate System

In this system of coordinates:
1 Azimuth gives the direction in which to look for the object.

2 The altitude then gives the angle by which the telescope is to

be raised from the horizon to locate the object.

3 Convenient for small telescopes.

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Alt-az Mount

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Horizon (alt-az) Coordinate System

Figure: An alt-az mounted telescope - the 4.2 m William Herschel

Telescope (WHT) on La Palma.
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Horizon Coordinate System: Drawbacks

The horizon coordinate system suffers from two drawbacks:
1 Since the horizon at different locations on the earth is

different, the coordinates of the same object at the same time

are different for observers located at different places.
2 As the earth rotates (diurnal motion), the celestial objects

move in planes normal to the polar axis. Since these planes

are generally inclined to the horizon, the coordinates of any
object keep changing with time for any given observer.

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Assignment

1 Show that the altitude of the North

Celestial Pole is equal to the latitude
of the observer.
2 Show that
(i) Sine rule:

sin a sin b sin c

= =
sin A sin B sin C
(ii) Cosine rule: February 2nd, the Moon
appeared at altitude +39◦ ,
cos a =cosb cos c + sin b sin c cos A azimuth 196◦ , while
cos b =cosc cos a + sin c sin a cos B Saturn is at altitude +34◦ ,
cos c =cosa cos b + sin a sin b cos C azimuth 210◦ . How far
apart did the two objects
3 From St.Andrews, at 6 pm on 1998 appear?
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Motion of Stars around Celestial Pole

Figure: At night, stars seem to revolve around the celestial pole.

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Ecliptic

Figure: The apparent path of the Sun around the Earth in a year is called
the Ecliptic. Ecliptic plane is defined as the plane (infinitely large
imaginary plane) on which the Earth orbits around the Sun. This is used
as a reference plane for the Solar System. Most planets orbit the Sun on
or near the plane. The ecliptic is inclined to at an angle ∼ 23◦ .5 with
respect to the Celestial equator.
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Constellations on the Ecliptic

As the Earth orbits the Sun, we see the Sun in different locations
against the background of constellation of stars. Set of
constellations through which the Ecliptic passes is called the
Zodiac. The Earth reaches the same location in its orbit on the
same calender date each year. Note: Constellations are group of
stars that make an imaginary shape in the night sky.
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First Equatorial Coordinate System (HA & Dec)

The shortcomings in horizon coordinate system are eliminated in
the equatorial system. We need a system of celestial coordinates
which is fixed on the sky, independent of the observer’s time and
place.

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First Equatorial Coordinate System (HA & Dec)

Reference line (meridian): Celestial/Observer’s meridian (also

called principal vertical), Reference Circle: Celestial equator.
The meridian passing through the zenith, north and the south
cepestial poles is called observer’s meridian. This is
represented by PZS as shown in the figure).
The declination (δ) of X is the angular distance along the
meridian from the celestial equator to X. It is measured from
−90◦ at the SCP to +90◦ at the NCP. Any point on the
celestial equator has declination δ = 0.
The Hour Angle or HA (H) of object X is the angular
distance between the meridian of X and the observer’s
meridian. It is measured westwards in hours, 0h − 24h, since
the Earth rotates 360◦ in 24 hours.

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First Equatorial Coordinate (HA & Dec)

An object on the meridian (culminating) has HA = 0h. Its HA

then steadily increases as the object moves westwards. At H
= 23h, it is just one hour short of culminating again.
This system is still dependent on the time of observation, but
an object’s declination generally doesn’t change rapidly, and
its Hour Angle can be determined quite simply, given the time
and the location. Hour angle varies from 0 to 24h during a
day.

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Equinoxes and Solstices

The path of the Sun around Earth traces out an ellipse in one year
and is called ecliptic. The ecliptic is tilted at an angle of 23◦ .5
with respect to the celestial equator.

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Equinoxes and Solstices

Equninoxes
The ecliptic intersects the celesial equator exactly at two
points, called equinoxes, from the Latin for “equal nights”.
The equinox where the Sun ascends from the southern to the
northern hemisphere is called the spring or vernal equinox (also
called first point of aries denoted by a ) because the Sun is
there on March 21. The vernal equinox is chosen to be 0h RA.
The Sun again crosses the celestial equator halfway around, at
12 h RA. This position is called the autumnal equinox
(denoted by ab ) because the Sun is there on September 23.
a
sign for Aries
b
sign for Libra

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Equinoxes and Solstices

Solstices
The positions where the Sun reaches its highest and lowest points
are called solstices, from the Latin for “the Sun stops” as it
changes direction.
The Sun is highest in the sky (in the northern hemisphere)
when it is at 6h RA. This position is called the summer
solstice because the Sun is there on June 21. The Sun then
has a declination of +23◦ .5.
The Sun is lowest in the sky (as seen from the northern
hemisphere) when it is at 18h RA. This position is called the
winter solstice because the Sun is there on December 21. The
Sun then has a declination of −23◦ .5.

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Second Equatorial Coordinate System (RA & Dec)

Refernce Point: First point of Aries or Vernal equinox (),
Reference Circle: Celestial Equator

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Second Equatorial Coordinate System (RA & Dec)

The declination (δ) of X is the angular distance along the

meridian from the celestial equator to X. It is measured from
−90◦ at the SCP to +90◦ at the NCP. Any point on the
celestial equator has declination δ = 0.
The Right Ascension or RA (α) of object X is the angle along
the celestial equator measured eastwards from the vernal
equinox to the meridian of X.
Like Hour angle, RA is measured in hours 0-24h, but it goes
in the opposite direction
The equatorial coordinates (α and δ) have the advantage that
they remain fixed for all the observers and are not time
dependent. So it becomes much easier to refer to any celestial
object.

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Celestial Coordinate Systems

Figure: Schematic of an equatorial mounting. The mount rotates about

two axes, one of which (the polar axis) is aligned with the Earth’s
rotation axis, and hence the celestial pole, the other axis is at right
angles to it (declination axis). Rotation about the polar axis scans out a
circle of constant declination and varying right ascension; rotation about
the declination axis scans out a circle of constant right ascension and
varying declination.

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Siderial Time

Since a star’s HA increases with time, it follows that hour angle can
be used as a definition of time. In fact, astronomers use the hour
angle of the first point of Aries, HA , as a measure of time known
as sidereal time. Since the location of the observer’s meridian is
dependent on the longitude of the observer, the hour angle of the
first point of Aries is known as the local sidereal time (LST):

LST =HA

and is zero when the first point of Aries passes the observer’s
meridian.
RA is measured eastwards from the first point of Aries (), and
the star’s RA is shown in white. HA is measured westwards from
the observer’s meridian and the star’s HA is shown in yellow.

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Siderial Time

Remembering that the local sidereal time is equal to the hour

angle of the first point of Aries, it is clear from the figure that
LST =HAx + RAx ,
where HAx and RAx are the hour angle and right ascension of the
star (X), respectively. This relationship holds for any celestial
object. Since the hour angle of an object is zero when an object
crosses the observer’s meridian, it follows that a star transits when
the local sidereal time is equal to its right ascension.
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Telescope Mountings

Astronomical telescopes are usually mounted in one of two ways.

Each mounting has two axes.
1 Altazimuth mounting:

(i) altitude axis (for moving the telescope up and down)

(ii) azimuth axis (for moving the telescope side to side)
2 Equatorial mounting:
(i) polar axis (for moving the telescope around the polar axis of
the Earth)
(ii) declination axis (for moving the telescope at right angles to
the polar axis)

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Telescope Mountings

Figure: (a) Alt-azimuth mounting; (b) Equatorial mounting.

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Telescope Mountings

Figure: Equatorial and Alt-azimuth mounting.

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Polar Alignment in Equatorial Mounting

Figure: (a) Polar axis alignment in equatorial mounting.

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Tracking a Star

Figure: Tracking a star in both types of mountings.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

1 Alt-azimuth mounting:
Advantages: A relatively cheap and simple type of mounting
Disadvantages: The telescope must be moved about both the
azimuth axis (left and right) as well as the altitude axis (up
and down) to follow a star across the sky as the Earth rotates.
2 Equitorial mounting:
Advantages: Because one axis (the polar axis) of the telescope
is in line with the Earth’s axis the telescope has only to move
about this axis to follow a star across the sky. The declination
of the telescope is fixed and then can remain unaltered if the
telescope is set up properly.
Disadvantages: A more costly and sophisticated mounting but
well worth it for the advantage in the ease with which it can
follow a star.

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Ecliptic Coordinate System: (λ, β)

When dealing with the positions and motions of solar system

objects, it is often more convenient to refer positions to the mean
orbital plane of the solar system using ecliptic coordinates.
Reference Point: Vernal equinox, Reference circle: Ecliptic
Coordinates: Ecliptic longitude (λ), Ecliptic latitude (β)
Ecliptic longitude, λ, is analogous to right ascension and is
measured from the vernal equinox , in the same direction as right
ascension but along the ecliptic rather than the celestial equator.
Ecliptic latitude, β, is analogous to declination, but measures
distance north or south of the ecliptic, attaining 90◦ at the north
ecliptic pole (NEP) and −90◦ at the south ecliptic pole (SEP).

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Ecliptic Coordinate System: (λ, β)

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Galactic Coordinate System: (l, b)

The equatorial system is geocentric and

thus provides an inappropriate viewpoint
for problems of Galactic structure and
dynamics.
Reference point: lies in the
direction of the Galactic center as
seen from the Earth, Reference
circle: Galactic equator which is
coincident with the plane of the
Milky Way Galaxy. The plane is
inclined at an angle of 62◦ .87 to
celestial equator.

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Galactic Coordinate System: (l, b)

Galactic longitude, l, is analogous to right ascension and is

measured along the galactic equator in the same direction as
right ascension. The zero-point of galactic longitude is in the
direction of the Galactic Centre (GC), in the constellation of
Sagittarius ; it is defined precisely by taking the galactic
longitude of the north celestial pole to be exactly 123◦ . The
galactic longitude of the star X as shown in the figure is given
by the angle between GC and Y.
Galactic latitude, b, is analogous to declination, but measures
distance north or south of the galactic equator, attaining
+90◦ at the north galactic pole (NGP) and −90◦ at the south
galactic pole (SGP). The galactic latitude of the star X in the
>
figure is the arc YX and is north.

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Time
The time we keep on our clocks is Solar Time which is
measured with respect to the sun and is not a fixed point
(because of earth’s revolution around Sun)
Solar time is based on the mean solar day, but as the
1 orbit of earth around sun is an ellipse and is
2 inclined at an angle of 23.5 degrees to the equator
the time the sun reaches its highest point each day varies
throughout the year which implies that the length of the day
varies throughout the year.
To overcome this problem of variable duration of day, we
define a fictitious body called mean sun which moves along
the equator at a constant angular velocity which is equal to
the mean angular velocity of the real sun during the year.
The difference between mean noon and when the sun is at
highest point is called the Equation of Time. This varies from
-14 to +16 minutes during the year.
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Time

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Solar vs Siderial Time

The time measured with respect to fixed stars is called sidereal
time. The Solar day is not the same as the Sidereal day. A sidereal
day is ∼ 4 minutes shorter (due to Earth’s orbiting Sun), so stars
come up ∼ 4 minutes sooner every (solar) day.

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Solar Day vs Siderial Day

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Basics on Rotation of Axes

Let î and ĵ be the unit vectors along the
X and Y -axes respectively. Let the axes
OX and OY be rotated anticlockwise
through an angle θ. Let the rotated
coordinate system be (X 0 , Y 0 ). Let iˆ0
and jˆ0 be the unit vectors along the X 0
and Y 0 axes respectively. Then the
coordinates of any point P in the two
system are related by:
! ! !
x0 iˆ0 .î iˆ0 .ĵ x The rotation matrix given by
= ˆ0
y0 j .î jˆ0 .ĵ y cos θ sin θ
!
! ! ! consists of
x0 cos θ sin θ x − sin θ cos θ
⇒ =
y0 − sin θ cos θ y directions cosines as components.

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Rotation about Z-Axis

    
x0 cos θ sin θ 0 x
 0 
y  = − sin θ cos θ 0 y 
 
z0 0 0 1 z
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Conversion Between Different Coordinate Systems

Let us consider a sphere of unit radius.

The coordinates of the point P can be
expressed by rectangular coordinates
(x, y, z) or by two angles ψ and θ. We
have

z = sin θ
y = cos θ sin ψ
x = cos θ cos ψ. (1)

The rotated coordinate system     

(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) is obtained by rotating the x0 1 0 0 x
 0 
coordinate system (x, y, z) around its y  = 0 cos χ sin χ  y 
 

x-axis by an angle χ. We have z0 0 − sin χ cos χ z

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Conversion Between Different Coordinate Systems

⇒ x0 =x
y 0 =y cos χ + z sin χ
z 0 = − y sin χ + z cos χ. (2)

(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ): defines the position of the point P in the rotated

coordinate system.
We can define the angles ψ 0 and θ0 which give the position of
the point P in the rotated coordinate system (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ). That
is
z 0 = sin θ0
y 0 = cos θ0 sin ψ 0
x0 = cos θ0 cos ψ 0 . (3)
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Conversion Between Different Coordinate Systems

Substituting the values of (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and (x, y, z) from

equations (1) and (3) into equation (2), we get

cos ψ 0 cos θ0 = cos ψ cos θ

sin ψ 0 cos θ0 = sin ψ cos θ cos χ + sin θ sin χ
sin θ0 = − sin ψ cos θ sin χ + sin θ cos χ. (4)

The above equations are quite sufficient for all coordinate

transformations.

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Sine and Cosine Rules for Spherical Triangles

Let us set up the coordinate frames in a
suitable way. The z axis points towards
the vertex A and the z 0 axis, towards B.
Now the vertex C corresponds to the
point P in the earlier figure. The angles
ψ, θ, ψ 0 , θ0 and χ can be expressed in
terms of the angles and sides of the
spherical triangle:

ψ =A − 90◦ , θ = 90◦ − b,
ψ 0 =90◦ − B, θ0 = 90◦ − a, χ = c.
Substituting these values into the equation (4) we get
cos (90◦ − B) cos (90◦ − a) = cos (A − 90◦ ) cos (90◦ − b)
sin (90◦ − B) cos (90◦ − a) = sin (A − 90◦ ) cos (90◦ − b) cos c+
sin (90◦ − b) sin c
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Sine and Cosine Rules for Spherical Triangles

sin (90◦ − a) = − sin (A − 90◦ ) cos (90◦ − b) sin c + sin (90◦ − b) cos c
From the above equations, we get
sin B sin a = sin A sin b
cos B sin a = − cos A sin b cos c + cos b sin c
cos a = cos A sin b sin c + cos b cos c.
These three equations give the formula for solving spherical
triangles. The first equation gives the sine rule. Rearranging we
have
sin a sin b
= .
sin A sin B
sin b sin c
Similarly, = .
sin B sin C
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Sine and Cosine Rules for Spherical Triangles

So the sine rule is usually expressed as:

sin a sin b sin c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
The third equation gives the cosine rule:

cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A.

Similarly,

cos b = cos c cos a + sin c sin a cos B

cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C.

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Conversions: Horizon and Equatorial Coordinates

To convert between the horizon and
equatorial coordinates for an object X,
we use a spherical triangle often called
“The Astronomical Triangle”: XPZ,
where is the zenith, P is the North
Celestial Pole, and X is the object.
The sides of the triangle are:
(i) PZ is the observer’s
co-latitude=90◦ − φ, (ii) ZX is the
zenith distance of X = 90◦ − a,
(ii) The angle at Z is
and (iii) PX is the north polar
360◦ − A, where A is the
distance of X=90◦ − δ.
azimuth of A, and (iii) The
The angles of the triangle are: angle at X is q, the parallactic
(i) The angle at P is H, the local angle.
Hour Angle of X,
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Conversions from Equatorial to Horizon Coordinates

We assume we know the observer’s latitude φ and the Local
Sidereal Time LST. Given RA (α) and declination (δ), we have
local Hour Angle H=LST-RA, in hours. Convert H to degrees
(multiply by 15).
Given H, δ and φ, we require azimuth A and altitude a. By the
cosine rule:
cos (90◦ − a) = cos (90◦ − δ) cos (90◦ − φ)+
sin (90◦ − δ) sin (90◦ − φ) cos H
⇒ sin a = sin δ sin φ + cos δ cos φ cos H.
This gives us the altitude of a. By the sine rule:
sin (360◦ − A) sin H
◦
=
sin (90 − δ) sin (90◦ − a)
sin A sin H
⇒− =−
cos δ cos a
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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Conversions from Equatorial to Horizon Coordinates

sin H cos δ
⇒ sin A = − .
cos a
This gives the azimuth A. Or by the cosine rule,

cos (90◦ − δ) = cos (90◦ − φ) cos (90◦ − a)+

sin (90◦ − φ) sin (90◦ − a) cos (360◦ − A)
⇒ sin δ = sin φ sin a + cos φ cos a cos A
sin δ − sin φ sin a
⇒ cos A = .
cos φ cos a
which gives the azimuth A.

Dr. Sukanta Deb Astronomical Coordinate Systems 58 / 66

 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Conversions from Equatorial to Horizon Coordinates

Here are all the equations together:

H =LST − α
sin a = sin δ sin φ + cos δ cos φ cos H
sin H cos δ
sin A = −
cos a
sin δ − sin φ sin a
cos A =
cos φ cos a

Dr. Sukanta Deb Astronomical Coordinate Systems 59 / 66

 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Conversions from Horizon to Equatorial Coordinates

Given φ, a and A, what ar α and δ?
Use the cosine rule to get δ:

sin δ = sin a sin φ + cos a cos φ cos A.

Use the sine rule to get H,

sin A cos a
sin H = − ,
cos δ
Or use the cosine rule instead:

sin a = sin δ sin φ + cos δ cos φ cos H

sin a − sin δ sin φ
⇒ cos H =
cos δ cos φ
Having calculated H, ascertain the Local Sidereal Time (LST).
Then the RA follows from α = LST − H.
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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Conversions from Horizon to Equatorial Coordinates

Here are all the equations together:

sin δ = sin a sin φ + cos a cos φ cos A

sin A cos a
sin H = −
cos δ
sin a − sin δ sin φ
cos H =
cos δ cos φ
α =LST − H.

Dr. Sukanta Deb Astronomical Coordinate Systems 61 / 66

 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Relation between Ecliptic and Equatorial Coordinates

Draw the triangle KPX, where P is the North Celestial pole, K is
the north pole of the ecliptic, and X is the object in question.

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Relation between Ecliptic and Equatorial Coordinates

Applying the cosine rule:

cos (90◦ − δ) = cos (90◦ − β) cos  + sin (90◦ − β) sin  cos (90◦ − λ)
⇒ sin δ = sin β cos  + cos β sin  sin λ.

Alternatively, applying the same rule to the other cornerm we get

cos (90◦ − β) = cos (90◦ − δ) cos  + sin (90◦ − δ) sin  sin α

⇒ sin β = sin δ cos  − cos δ sin  sin α.

Now applying the sine rule to the same triangle:

sin (90◦ − β) sin (90◦ − δ)

=
sin (90◦ + α) sin (90◦ − λ)
⇒ cos λ cos β = cos α cos δ.

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Relation between Ecliptic and Equatorial Coordinates

Grouping these three relations together, we have:

sin δ = sin β cos  + cos β sin  sin λ

sin β = sin δ cos  − cos δ sin  sin α
cos λ cos β = cos α cos δ

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

Assignment

Show that, for any object on the ecliptic,

tan δ = sin α tan 

where (α, δ) are the object’s Right Ascension and declination, and
 is the obliquity of the ecliptic.

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 Geographical Coordinate System
Celestial Coordinate Systems

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