Collecting Data Through Observation and Interviews

Observation as a Method of Collecting Data

Observation is one of the means of collecting data in qualitative research. As a method, data can be
obtained by watching and listening purposively to people’s behavior (Almeida et al. 2016, 96). According
to Kawulich (2012), observation is a primary tool that helps you document what is happening in a particular
research setting. Further, she noted that the researcher’s position in the research setting is taken into
consideration as this will affect the quality of data that will be collected, the researcher’s relationship with
the participants and the validity of the study.

The two major types of observation are:

1) Participant Observation. This type of observation is characterized by the researcher’s interaction or
participation with participants and become part of their community (Driscoll 2011, 160). The
researcher acts as observer and participant at the same time (Kawulich 2012).
2) Direct Observation. In this kind of observation, the researcher does not participate with the activities of
the group under study. S/He acts as a passive observer (Almeida et al. 2016, 96) and records the
participants’ behavior.

Observational research is a “successful” instrument to the extent that it satisfies the research
objectives by capturing relevant events and participants along with the constructs of interest. There are two
tools used in conducting the observation– the observation guide and the observation grid. These tools serve
to keep the observer on track towards these objectives and generally facilitate the ethnographic data
gathering process.

Types of Observational Tools

1) Observation Guide
➢ It helps to maintain the observer’s focus while also giving the observer scope to reflect on the
context associated with each site. The purpose of this observation tool is to:
• reminds the observer of the key points of observation as well as the topics of interest associated
with each; and
• acts as the motivation for a reflexive exercise in which the observer can reflect on his/her own
relationship and contribution to the observed at any moment in time (e.g., how the observer was
affected by the observations) (Roller and Lavrakas 2015).
2) Observation Grid
➢ The grid is like the guide in that, it helps remind the observer of the events and issues of most
import; however, unlike the guide, the observation grid is a spreadsheet or log of sorts that enables
the observer to record (and record his reflections of) observable events in relationship to the
constructs of interest. The grid might show, for instance, the relevant constructs or research issues
as column headings and the specific foci of observation as rows.

When conducting observation in the research setting, a researcher may play the one of the
following:
1) Complete Participant. As the term denotes, the researcher is part of the group under study and
participates in the group members’ activities. However, the participants are not aware that
they are being observed and studied.
2) Participant as Observer. Here, the researcher is still part of the group under study and
participates in the group members’ activities. The participants are fully aware that they are
being observed and studied.
3) Observer as Participant. The researcher is not part of the group under study but still participates
in the group members’ activities. The participants under study are aware of the research and
its objectives.
4) Complete Observer. Here, the researcher is not part of the group under study and does not take
part of their activities. The participants are not also aware that they are being observed and
studied.

Advantages of Observation
1) It enables a researcher to access things in the research setting that may not seen by the general
public (Kawulich 2012).
2) It allows the researcher to give rich and detailed description of the social setting by means of the
field notes (Kawulich 2012).
3) It is one of the simplest ways to collect data and does not require too much technical knowledge
(Bhasin 2020).
4) It can be done with or without the participants’ knowledge.

Disadvantages of Observation
1) There is a chance of higher observer bias (Bhasin 2020).
2) Participants’ behavior may change because of the presence of the researcher, thus affecting the
data to be obtained (Educational Research Techniques 2015).
 3) It requires longer time frame to obtain deeper understanding of the research participants.
4) There may be an issue of non-conformity to informed consent.
5) Guidelines in Observation

Here are some guidelines that will help you when doing observation:
1) Be ready with your observation guide and research tools such as audio-video recorder, camera,
and notebook.
2) Focus your observation on the research problems that you are trying to answer.
3) Take notes or pictures so that you can use them in giving detailed analysis.
4) Allot ample time in your observation to have a deeper understanding of the subjects you are
observing.
5) Observe keenly. What you think about what you observe may be opposite to what is really
happening.
6) Ask informal questions from the participants for further clarification.

Becoming a skilled observer includes…

• Learning to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.
• Practice in writing descriptively.
• Acquiring discipline in recording notes.
• Knowing how to separate detail from trivia.
• Using rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.
• Reporting the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective.

Interview
The research interview has been defined as ‘a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer
for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and content specified by research
objectives of systematic description, prediction, or explanation. It involves the gathering of data through
direct verbal interaction between individuals. It is questioning in the verbal form.
As a research tool, interview is different from general interviewing in regard to preparation,
construction and execution. It is controlled by the researcher to avoid any biasness and distortion. In the
research interview, the interviewer asks specific questions pertaining to research objectives and the
respondent answers appropriately.

There are three main kinds of interview that may be used specifically as research tools:
1) Structured Interview. The structured interview is one in which the content and procedures are
organized in advance. This means that the sequence and wording of the questions are determined by
means of a schedule and the interviewer is left little freedom to make modifications. The interviewer
asks a predetermined set of questions which are arranged in chronological order. The interviewee
answers each question from a list of options.
2) Semi-structured Interview. Here, the interviewer asks a predetermined set of questions. There is no
list of options. The interviewee can answer the questions in his/her own words. Follow-up questions
can be asked by the interviewer for clarifications.
3) Unstructured Interview. The unstructured interview is an open situation, having greater flexibility and
freedom. The research purposes govern the questions asked, their content, sequence and wording are
entirely in the hands of the interviewer. There is no predetermined set of questions, no list of options,
no specific procedures. The interviewer asks questions on the context of the study. The interviewee
can answer freely and spontaneously. The interviewer can ask follow-up questions for clarification
and for more in-depth information.

Purposes of the interview

As a distinctive research technique, the interview may serve three purposes.
1) First, it may be used as the principal means of gathering information having direct bearing on the
research objectives.
2) Second, it may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest new ones; or as an explanatory device to help
identify variables and relationships.
 3) Third, the interview may be used in conjunction with other methods in a research undertaking. In this
connection, Kerlinger (1970) suggests that it might be used to follow up unexpected results, for
example, or to validate other methods, or to go deeper into the motivations of respondents and their
reasons for responding as they do.

Advantages of Interview
1) The researcher has the opportunity to ask questions directly to the participants of the study.
2) It can provide more in-depth information as the researcher is able to raise follow-up questions to
clarify or explore a point.
3) It can supplement information gained from observation, especially those that are non-verbal in
nature.
4) The researcher can explain the questions to the participants.
5) It has a wider application since in can be done with younger to older type of population.

Disadvantages of Interview
1) It can be time consuming for the researcher and the interviewee.
2) It requires the researcher to arrange the time and place of interview.
3) A limited number of people can be interviewed due to time restrictions.
4) The data obtained from limited number of participants may not reflect the views of a wider
population.

Interview Protocol
An interview protocol is more than a list of interview questions; it also extends to the procedural
level of interviewing and includes a script of what you will say before the interview, script for what you
will say at the conclusion of the interview, prompts for the interviewer to collect informed consent, and
prompts to remind the interviewer the information that she or he is interested in collecting. Interview
protocols become not only a set of questions, but also a procedural guide for directing a new qualitative
researcher through the interview process.

Writing Successful Interview Protocols

1) Pick a topic that is interesting to you.
2) Research should guide your questions.
3) Use a script for the beginning and end of your interview.
4) Questions should be open ended.
5) Start with the basics.
6) Begin with easy to answer questions and move towards ones that are more difficult or controversial.
7) The phrase “tell me about…”is great way to start a question.
8) Write big, expansive questions.
9) Use prompts.
10) Be willing to make “on the spot” revisions to your interview protocol.
11) Do not make the interview too long.
12) Practice with a friend.
13) Make sure that you have set up a second shorter interview to help you clarify
14) If needed, clear your project with your school’s Institutional Research Board (IRB).

Tips for the Interview

1) Start with your script. You developed the script so that you do not inadvertently neglect sharing
important information with your interviewee. While you do not need to read the script word for
word, it is important that you have it in front of you and you follow it carefully.
2) Collect consent. Collecting consent should be a part of your beginning script. Do not proceed with
your interview without collecting it. Give your participant plenty of time to read through the form
and ask as many questions about consent as she or he needs to ask.
3) Use some type of recording device and only take brief notes so you can maintain eye contact with
your interviewee.
4) Arrange to interview your respondent in a quiet, semi-private place.
 5) Be sure that both you and the interviewee block off plenty of uninterrupted time
for the interview.
6) Have genuine care, concern, and interest for the person you are interviewing.
7) Use basic counseling skills to help your interviewees feel heard.
8) Keep it focused.
9) LISTEN! LISTEN! LISTEN! Seriously, close your mouth and listen!
10) End with your script.

Conducting qualitative research can be exciting for both the seasoned researcher and the new
researcher alike. When others open up their lives for us to investigate, it is a gift for both the speaker who
is heard and for the listener who learns something from the investigation. As qualitative researchers who
conduct interviews, we are privileged to be able to do research by talking to others.

Inferring Patterns and Themes from Data in Research

Qualitative data analysis is a time-consuming process; it makes you deal with data coming from
wide source of information. It is good if all the data you collected coming from varied sources of knowledge
work favorably for your research study, but, ironically, some of these may have not strong relation to your
research questions.

The method that we will give focus to is the Thematic Analysis. This method in qualitative research
is based on initial coding and collating and then patterns and themes. Let us dive deeper on these processes.

What is Coding?
Coding is the process of analyzing the data and searching for essential information that answers the
research questions. Another definition of coding says that it is a process of filtering the data. These essential
words are marked or labeled or coded. They are considered essential if they occur or have been mentioned
several times by the informants.

Two types of codes in qualitative research:

1) PRESET are codes that have been identified prior to analysis. It is also called the deductive approach
wherein the codes/themes were determined beforehand, either from related theories or existing
knowledge
2) EMERGENT CODES are those that show up during analysis. It is also referred to as inductive
approach where the data is the one that determine the codes/themes.

Qualitative researchers use codes to easily identify meanings and group similar patterns or themes that
occur or transpire in the interview transcript of each participant. By using codes, the researcher can easily
make an inference.

What is collating?
Collating on the other hand is, your way of bringing together the coded data. Giving the data an
orderly appearance is putting them in a graph, specifically a table of responses.

PATTERNS AND THEMES

Patterns and themes are words or phrases that collectively describe the experience or thoughts of
every participant. These words and phrases become themes because they appear on several occasions and
are mentioned by many participants. They represent broad categories of information.

In order to identify themes, qualitative researchers use codes. Just like what is written above, these
codes are simply “labels” that help qualitative researchers identify similar experiences or thoughts. Codes
that are grouped together are themes. These are the words or phrases that will manifest in the interview
transcript and researchers during analysis. Qualitative researchers should be able to identify and locate
them. Hence, these words or phrases that describe participants’ experiences and thoughts should be coded
accordingly for easy reference and classification when interpreting the results.
 This ‘theme’ may be labeled by a word or expression taken directly from the data or by one created
by the researcher because it seems to best characterize the essence of what is being said.

Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:

1) Prepare and organize your data. Make sure that you have the transcript with you, collect all the notes
you have taken, documents and other materials needed. Do not forget the sources.
2) Review and explore the data. Read and understand each of those documents and notes.
3) Create initial codes. While you are at the reading mode, this would also be the time to generate codes.
4) Review those codes and revise or combine into themes. After reading and coding all the materials,
identify recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.
5) Present themes in a cohesive manner. Lay these themes consistently and taking into consideration the
audience, and the goals of your research. The findings should address each theme in turn and refer to
your statement of the problem.

Techniques on How to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data

Generating themes from a qualitative data can be a bit tricky but the more articles you read the more
themes can be produced. Literatures and the personal experience on the subject matter is also important.
This means that if you really know your study or topic, then, it would be easier to create themes.

Here are some techniques in identifying themes:

1) Word Repetitions - The researcher should understand what people are talking about by looking at the
words they use. Word repetitions can be analyzed by informal mode by simply reading the text and
note words or synonyms that people use a lot. And formal analysis of word frequencies that can be
done by generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting the number of times each
occurs.
2) Indigenous categories – It is a way of finding themes by looking for a local term that sounds
unfamiliar or used in unfamiliar ways. It also refers as "indigenous categories."
3) Key-words-in-context (KWIC) - is a technique that is based on a simple observation by
understanding a concept and looking at how it is used. Researchers identify key words and then
systematically search the body of text to find all instances of the word or phrase. Themes get identified
by physically sorting the examples into piles of similar meaning through finding the word and copying
its immediate context.
4) Compare and Contrast - Compare approach are based on the idea that themes represent the ways in
which texts are either similar or different from each other from the words "constant comparison
method.”
5) Social Science Queries – It refers to the interests in understanding how textual data illuminate
questions of importance to social science.

THEMATIC ANALYSIS
Thematic analysis is a method for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes within qualitative
data and it is also defined as a form of pattern recognition within the data.

Six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 1. Familiarization with the data: It involves deeper understanding of the data gathered by reading
it multiple times. In doing so will help you to gain familiarity of the content.
Phase 2. Coding: It involves generating concise labels or codes. You have to code the whole dataset and
make sure that the codes are relevant to your topic then collate them.
Phase 3. Searching for themes: This is now the phase where you will be generating themes from the
codes. You may want to go through your codes multiple times just to be sure that you are collating
relative codes.
Phase 4. Reviewing themes: From the initial generation of themes, you may still see some irrelevant
themes when you try to connect it with your topic. To prevent this, you have to review the generated
themes and then compare it to the dataset and then to your topic.
 Phase 5. Defining and naming themes: Once you are done with your final themes, you now have to
make a detailed analysis of each. There should be a “story” behind those themes since it will be
further discussed in the results and discussion part. Aside from that, this phase also involves
deciding on an informative name for each theme.
Phase 6. Writing up: This final stage involves knitting together the analytic narrative explanation from
each generated theme, data extracts, and contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing
literature.

Relating Pertinent Findings with the Literature in Research

Discussion of Research Findings

DISCUSSION is the HEART of the research paper.
The discussion section is essentially written for the sake of explaining your findings.
• In very simple terms, what you did to answer the research questions and why you did it
that way.
• It explains the results of your study and connects the results to each research question.

Importance of a Good Discussion

This section is often considered the most important part of a research paper:
1) it most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to
develop creative solutions to problems based on the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more
profound understanding of the research problem you are studying.
2) it is where you explore the underlying meaning of your research, its possible implications in
other areas of study, and the possible improvements that can be made in order to further
develop the concerns of your research.
3) It is the section where you need to present the importance of your study and how it may be able
to contribute to and/or fill existing gaps in the field.
4) it is also where you state how the findings from your study revealed new gaps in the literature
that had not been previously exposed or adequately described.

A good discussion section relates:

❖ Current findings
❖ Existing knowledge reflected in Literature.
❖ Researcher’s own position and interpretation of the situation
❖ It should/may expose further knowledge gaps for further research.
❖ It should clearly point to conclusions and recommendations.

APPROACHES TO WRITING YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION

1) Explain your findings
2) Compare the findings
3) Evaluate the findings
4) Infer from the findings
Important Features of Discussion in Doing Research:
1) Placing or relating the findings of research in relation to research questions as well as in the context
of existing knowledge.
2) Opportunities to discuss comprehensively what exactly you know about your research topic by
discussing the meaningful results of your study.
3) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in scope as you relate these
findings to pertinent literature.
 4) The discussion of your research findings should not only tackle the summary of the results but it
should also depict novelty or original thinking.
5) Discussion of the research findings should be well-organized and broad in scope as you relate these
findings to pertinent literature.

Interpreting Your Results: The Role of the Literature Review

Interpreting your findings is about seeing whether what you found confirms or does not confirm the
findings of previous studies in your literature review. Your findings may also offer novel insights or
information.

For qualitative studies, organize this section around your themes. For each question or theme, go
back to your literature review and look at the major findings of previous studies. Relate your findings to
the findings of those previous studies and indicate where your findings aligned and where they did not
align. Offer possible explanations as to why your findings corroborated or contradicted the findings of
previous studies.

SUGGESTED STEPS IN DISCUSSION

1) Summarize and discuss important findings.
o Reiterate results in a straightforward manner.
o Use easily understood language.
2) Describe “WHY”.
o How meaningful
o How does it cover the research area
3) Link findings
o Make connections to similar research as stated in literature review
o Explain why it is different or similar.
4) Limitations
o Discuss limitations but not every single one
o Think like a critic.
5) Future research
o What are some questions that remained unanswered
o Make positive and practical suggestions/recommendations

The skill in writing a successful discussion is in moving backwards and forwards between others'
research and your own research, making it clear:
• which has been done by other people.
• which has been done by you.
• and how they complement each other.

Some suggestions to differentiate your own research from previous research in your writing:
Using cautious language
Discussing results and drawing conclusions involves making claims about interpretation,
significance and applicability. This is done within a research tradition where existing knowledge is always
being modified in the light of new results. As a researcher, you are expected to distinguish carefully
between:
➢ knowledge you are sure of because you have reliable evidence for it.
➢ other knowledge you are less sure of.
➢ other knowledge you think is only within the realms of possibility.

Words/Phrases that can be used in your discussion:

A. Background Information
o As mentioned in the literature review…
o Prior studies showed that students….
o Other research in … concluded that….
o This study set out with the aim of assessing the importance of…
o Very little was found in the literature on the question of…
B) Explanation of Results
o This result may be explained by …/a number of different factors …
o It may be that these students benefited from…
o There are several possible explanations for this result.
o A possible explanation for this might be …
o Another possible explanation for this is that…
o It is difficult to explain this result, but it might be related to…
o It seems possible that these results are due to …
o The reason for this is not clear but it may be due to ….
o This inconsistency/discrepancy may be due to….
o There are, however, other possible explanations.
C) Reference to Previous Research
Positive/Support
o This result of this study seems to confirm the findings of a study by Nonan (2018) in this field.
o These findings of this research are consistent with those of Dumo et al. (2017) who found…
o These findings supported the previous research….
o These findings confirmed the result of other research that…
o These findings agree with Diaz’s (2020) findings which showed…
o There are similarities between the attitudes expressed by….
o This study corroborates the earlier findings about…
o These results are consistent with those of the other studies which found…
o The present findings seem to be consistent with other research that…
Negative/Contradict
o These findings did not support previous research …
o The present findings did not seem to be consistent with other research that…
o In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of… was discovered.
o This study has been unable to demonstrate that…
o However, the findings of the current study do not support the study conducted by Corpuz (2018).
o However, this result has not been previously described in other studies.
D) Suggesting General Hypotheses and Implications
o These findings suggest that…
o The findings show that there exists a weak link between…
o It is possible that…
o It is therefore likely that such connections exist between…
o It can thus be suggested that…
o It is possible to hypothesize that these conditions are less likely to occur in…
o From the above discussion, it can be concluded that…
o It can therefore be assumed that the…
o The findings of this study suggest that…
 o It is possible to hypothesize that these conditions are less likely to occur in…
o From the above discussion, it can be concluded that…
o It can therefore be assumed that the…
o The findings of this study suggest that…

Drawing Conclusions from Patterns and Themes

Characteristics of Conclusions
Prieto, Naval, & Carey (2016, 166-167) lists four characteristics of a research conclusion:
1. The conclusion presents the interpretation and generalization of the study based on its findings.
Once you have finished interpreting the data through data analysis, you must summarize it all
in a statement that contains the results of your study.
2. It appropriately answers the research questions and problems raised at the beginning of the
investigation.
3. It must point out what was factually learned from the study. It must reveal the things you
discovered from the research.
4. It must be formulated concisely. It must be brief and short, but it must convey all necessary
information from the investigation.

Pointers in Writing Conclusions

1. Explain your point in simple and clear sentences
2. Use expressions that center on the topic rather than on yourself, the researcher.
3. Include only necessary items; exclude any piece of information or picture not closely related to
your report.
4. Have your conclusion contain only validly supported findings instead of falsified results.
5. Practice utmost honesty and objectivity in stating the results of your critical evaluation of
outcomes that you expect to support your conclusions.

What are Patterns & Themes from Data?

A theme is generated when similar issues and ideas expressed by participants within qualitative
data are brought together by the researcher into a single category or cluster. - This ‘theme’ may be labeled
by a word or expression taken directly from the data or by one created by the researcher because it seems
to best characterize the essence of what is being said.

Techniques to Identify Themes in Qualitative Data

1. Word Repetitions - We begin with word-based techniques. Word repetitions, key- indigenous terms,
and key-words-in-contexts (KWIC) all draw on a simple observation—if you want to understand
what people are talking about, look at the words they use. Word repetitions can be analyzed formally
 and informally. In the informal mode, investigators simply read the text and note words or
synonyms that people use a lot. A more formal analysis of word frequencies can be done by
generating a list of all the unique words in a text and counting the number of times each occurs.
2. Indigenous categories - Another way to find themes is to look for local terms that may sound
unfamiliar or are used in unfamiliar ways. Patton (1990:306, 393-400) refers to these as "indigenous
categories" and contrasts them with "analyst- constructed typologies." Grounded theorist refers to
the process of identifying local terms as in vivo coding (Strauss 1987:28-32, Strauss and Corbin
1990:61-74).
3. Key-words-in-context (KWIC) - Are closely associated with indigenous categories. KWIC is based
on a simple observation: if you want to understand a concept, then look at how it is used. In this
technique, researchers identify key words and then systematically search the corpus of text to find
all instances of the
word or phrase. Each time they find a word, they make a copy of it and its immediate context. Themes
get identified by physically sorting the examples into piles of similar meaning.
4. Compare and Contrast - The compare and contrast approach is based on the idea that themes
represent the ways in which texts are either similar or different from each other. Glazer and Strauss
(1967:101_116) refer to this as the "constant comparison method.”
5. Social Science Queries - Besides identifying indigenous themes— themes that characterize the
experience of informants— researchers are interested in understanding how textual data illuminate
questions of importance to social science. Spradley (1979:199–201) suggested searching interviews
for evidence of social conflict, cultural contradictions, informal methods of social control, things
that people do in managing impersonal social relationships, methods by which people acquire and
maintain achieved and ascribed status, and information about how people solve problems.

Strategies on How to Infer Data

Thematic Analysis
Thematic Analysis Braun and Clarke (2006) define thematic analysis as: “A method for identifying,
analyzing and reporting patterns within data.” Thematic analysis is a widely used method of analysis in
qualitative research. In 2006 Braun and Clarke published an article that described to novice researchers
how to use thematic analysis in a step-by-step manner. Braun and Clarke (2006) state that thematic analysis
is a foundational method of analysis that needed to be defined and described to solidify its place in
qualitative research.

The 6 Steps of Thematic Analysis:

1. Familiarization with the data: This phase involves reading and re-reading the data, to become
immersed and intimately familiar with its content.
2. Coding: This phase involves generating succinct labels (codes!) that identify important features of
the data that might be relevant to answering the research question. It involves coding the entire
dataset, and after that, collating all the codes and all relevant data extracts, together for later stages
of analysis.
3. Searching for themes: This phase involves examining the codes and collated data to identify
significant broader patterns of meaning (potential themes). It then involves collating data relevant
to each candidate theme, so that you can work with the data and review the viability of each
candidate theme.
4.Reviewing themes: This phase involves checking the candidate themes against the dataset, to
determine that they tell a convincing story of the data, and one that answers the research question.
In this phase, themes are typically refined, which sometimes involves them being split, combined,
or discarded.
5. Defining and naming themes: This phase involves developing a detailed analysis of each theme,
working out the scope and focus of each theme, determining the ‘story’ of each. It also involves
deciding on an informative name for each theme.
6.Writing up: This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data extracts, and
contextualizing the analysis in relation to existing literature.
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from
the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation
of the people and situations we are investigating.

Techniques in Collecting Qualitative Data

1. Observation - Observational data refer to the raw materials an observer collects from observations,
interviews, and materials, such as reports, that others have created. - Data may be recorded in
several ways: written notes, sketches, tape recordings, photographs, and videotapes.
2. Interviewing – Hold interview as it collects data from various people from different places, cultures
and etc. ▪Documents – Try finding information from written documents and other types of data
available.

Example:
Interviewer: Do we request school facilities to DepEd?
❖ Principal: Yes, of course Interviewer: How do we request school facilities to DepEd?
❖ Principal: The Annual Improvement Plan should present our requirement for facilities in our school,
from there, we will go to our Superintendent, and we will write all the needs for our school if DepEd
can provide, or to MOOE (Maintenance and Other Operating Expenses)
❖ Interviewer: How do they approve it? Do you need to show some outlines, plans or pictures for the
project?
❖ Principal: It is a must to show the annual improvement plan. If it is approved, next is to do the
request letter, once it is approved, DepEd will send monitoring on the necessity, once it is confirmed
and they have available funds, they will provide the budget.
❖ Interviewer: Do the PTA Officers or Students have some contribution? If so, what are they?
❖ Principal: Definitely, they have, we have the authorized PTA fee, from that fund we can have other
needs to be addressed, also from authorized voluntary fee for our other needs

Formulating Recommendations Based on Conclusions

Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations

Prieto, Naval, and Carey (2016, 170-171) offer the following guidelines in writing the
recommendations:
1. It must be brief – Be specific about your recommendations and write only what is necessary. You
do not have to include every step of your suggestions. One or two paragraphs of specific
recommendations would be enough.
2. It must be clear – While you do not have to include every step to implement your suggestion, be
clear about what your suggestions are. If you want people to initiate a program, be clear that you
are recommending a program to be initiated. If you are recommending an invention, identify what
specific invention are you suggesting.
3. It must be precise – Use the actual findings of your study as reasons for your recommendations.
What part of the findings revealed that a program must be created? Which findings support the idea
that the invention of a device is necessary?
4. It must be written by the beneficiaries’ order of priority – List your beneficiaries and your
recommendations to them in order from those who would benefit the most, to those who would
benefit the least. Normally, recommendations for future researchers are written at the last part after
the recommendations for other beneficiaries are given. Also, consider writing recommendations for
different
levels of society that are involved in your topics, such as lawmakers, organizations, and individual
professionals.
5. It must be logical – the recommendations must be reasonably based on the conclusions, and not
from researcher conjecture. This enables the beneficiaries to use the study as concrete proof and
reason to implement the said recommendation.
6. It must contain no new conclusions, discoveries, assumptions, or revelations – No further
conclusions or assumptions from the author must be placed in the recommendations. While the
 researcher may suggest related topics for future researchers to investigate, his assumptions about
these topics must not be included in the recommendations.

As you write these recommendations, you will have to look at what you have gotten out of your
paper while also thinking about any possible ideas you might have for later research studies. This can help
with producing a strong paper that will inspire people to think differently about whatever it is you have
written and could especially inspire new research to come about over time.
1. What Can Be Done?
When writing your recommendations, you can talk about the steps that should be followed in future
studies. These include steps that are needed to implement particular policies or actions that you want to
follow. Any resources that would be required in the process should be explained as well. You must be
specific when talking about what you might be interested in doing in the future with regards to making any
potential studies stand out and work to your favor.
2. Explain The Benefits
You can always mention the benefits of further studies in your field. Talk about how future studies
could be used to correct problems with the current research you have completed. You can also explain a
need to fill in certain gaps that you might not be able to get covered right now for any reason. You can
always use a timeline to help readers understand when potential developments could come about over time.
3. How Feasible Is a Study?
Next, you should talk about how feasible certain points in your study might be. This includes
understanding whether certain ideas should be explored in further detail later on. This works well if you
are trying to talk about certain points that might be worthwhile. You could even talk about potential new
developments in your field and whether your study is relevant to them or if additional developments have
to be incorporated into your work.
4. What Additional Research Is Needed?
There are often times when added research would be required to make it easier for a study to go
forward. Your research plans could include an analysis of the methods of study that could work in the
future and what points about a topic could be reviewed in such studies.

The recommendations that are incorporated into your paper can certainly be important to your work.
Be certain when writing your paper that you have clear recommendations that are easy to follow and can
be utilized right and are not overly complicated or tough to use in some way.

Listing References

Referencing Styles
There are many different styles of referencing, including Harvard, APA (from the American
Psychological Association), Chicago and Vancouver. The Harvard referencing system is of the most
popular styles and the remainder of this article deals with this system. However, your university may prefer
the use of a different system so check with your lecturer or in your course information as to which
referencing style to use.

What is Plagiarism?
• Presenting another's ideas as if they are your own – either directly or indirectly
• Copying or pasting text and images without saying where they came from
• Not showing when a quote is a quote
• Summarizing information without showing the original source
• Changing a few words in a section of text without acknowledging the original author

Referencing your Research

Referencing your research means directing your readers to the exact sources of data or information
stated in your report, particularly those stated in the review of related literature. This is easy for you if the
moment you collect data, you begin practicing a systematic, accurate, and complete recording of the
identities of the sources of data. Unmindful of proper referencing of your research causes the readers to
question the genuineness of the contents of your research paper. There are several styles of referencing
your research, namely, Harvadian, Vancouver, Turibian, APA, and MLA (Silverman, 2013).
Many prefer using two styles. The following are the important things you have to know about these
commonly used referencing styles.
The difference between APA and MLA is that APA stands for the American Psychology
Association where rules for writing concerning journals, article publications, research papers, authors and
books within the purview of natural science are created. MLA stands for Modern Language Association
that is used in the field of humanities for scientific and literary research work.
The main idea behind the APA style is to provide a comprehensive style of writing with proper
headlines and works cited list as references so that it becomes easy for the reader to read and realize.

STEPS FOR CITING

To write a proper citation we recommend following these steps, which will help you maintain accuracy
and clarity in acknowledging sources.
Step 1: Choose Your Citation Style
Find out the name of the citation style you must use from your instructor, the directions for an
assignment, or what you know your audience or publisher expects. Then search for your style at the Purdue
Online Writing Lab (OWL) or use Google or Bing to find your style’s stylebook/handbook and then
purchase it or ask for it at a library.
Step 2: Create In-Text Citations
Find and read your style’s rules about in-text citations, which are usually very thorough. Luckily,
there are usually examples provided that make it a lot easier to learn the rules.
Step 3: Determine the Kind of Source
After creating your in-text citation, now begin creating the full bibliographic citation that will
appear on the References or Bibliography page by deciding what kind of source you have to cite (book,
film, journal article, webpage, etc.).
Step 4: Study Your Style’s Rules for Bibliographic Citations
Next, you’ll need a full bibliographic citation for the same source. This citation will appear on the
References page or Bibliography page or Works Cited page. (APA style, which we’re using here, requires
a page called References.) Bibliographic citations usually contain more publication facts than you used for
your in-text citation, and the formatting for all of them is very specific.
Step 5: Identify Citation Elements
Figure out which bibliographic citation rules apply to the source you’ve just created an in-text
citation for. Then apply them to create your first bibliographic citation.
Step 6: Repeat the steps for creating an in-text citation and a bibliographic citation for each of your
sources.
Create your bibliographic citation by arranging publication information to match the example you
chose in Step 4. Pay particular attention to what is and is not capitalized and to what punctuation and spaces
separate each part that the example illustrates.