Shear Strength of Soils

 Soil failure usually occurs in the form of “shearing” along internal surface
within the soil.
 The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area
that the soil mass can offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane
inside it.
 The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of
the soil.
 Shear strength determination is a very important aspect in geotechnical
engineering. Understanding shear strength is the basis to analyze soil
stability problems like:
 Bearing capacity.
 Lateral pressure on earth-retaining structures
 Slope stability
In most foundations and earthwork engineering, failure results
from excessive applied shear stresses.

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shearresistance)

reaches the shear strength.
When soil is loaded, shearing stresses are induced in it. When the shearing stresses reach a limit, shear
deformation takes place, leading to the failure of the soil mass. The failure may be in the form of the
sinking of a footing, the movement of a wedge of soil behind a retaining wall forcing it to move out, or
the slide in an earth embankment. The shear strength of soil is the action of shear stress. The failure
conditions for soil may be expressed in terms of limiting shear stress, called shear strength, or as a
function of the principal stresses. The two forms of failure conditions are often but not always
interchangeable. All stability in soil mechanics involves a basic knowledge of the shearing properties and
shearing resistance of the soil. The shear strength is the most difficult to comprehend and one of the
most important soil characteristics. The method used to determine the shear characteristics in the
laboratory must be understood in detail in order to permit an intelligent application of laboratory
results to field conditions

The shearing resistance of soil is constituted basically of the following components

1. The structural resistance to displacement of the soil because of the interlocking of the particles
2. The frictional resistance to translocation between the individual soil particles at their contact points
and
3. Cohesion or adhesion between the surface of the soil particles
The shear strength in cohesionless soil results from inter-granular friction alone, while in all the soils it
results both from internal friction as well as cohesion, However, plastic undrained clay does not possess
internal friction.
Transcona Grain Elevator, Canada (Oct. 18, 1913)
 The soil grains slide over eachother along the
failure surface.

At failure, shear stress along the failure

surface (t) reaches the shear strength (tf).
 Retaining wall

Mobilized shear resistance

Retaining wall

Failure surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shear

resistance) reaches the shear strength.
 o Coulombt (1776) observed that there was a
stress-dependent component of shear
strength and a stress-independent
component.
o The stress-dependent component is
similar to sliding friction in solids
described above. The other component is 𝜏
related to the intrinsic COHESION of the
f
material. Coulomb proposed the following
equation forshear strength of soil:

𝜏𝑓 = shear strength of soil

𝜎𝑛 = Applied normal stress C = Cohesion
𝜙= Angle of internal friction (or angle of shearing resistance)
 Cohesion (c), is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soils(stress independent)

Internal Friction angle (φ), is a measure of the shear strength of soils due to friction (stress dependent).

For granular materials, there is no cohesion between particles

 Sign Convention Normal Stresses Shear Stresses
Positive Compression Counter clockwise rotation
Negative Tension Clockwise rotation

o Note that for convenience our sign convention has compressive forces and stresses
positive because most normal stresses in geotechnical engineering are compressive.

o These conventions are the opposite of those normally assumed in structural mechanics.
Coefficient of Friction (µ): W

F
𝐹
𝜇=
𝑁
𝜇 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

N
R
Angle of Friction
Consider a body of weight W which is placed over a rough surface and is subjected to an
external force P as shown in figure. The following forces are acting on the body
1. Self weight, W
2. External Force, P W
3. Frictional force, F
4. Normal reaction, N

The angle of friction for

two contacting surfaces P
is the angle between
the resultant R ( of
Frictional force F and B C
Normal Reaction N). It F
is denoted by 𝜙
In a triangle ABD N R
𝐴𝐷 𝐹
tan 𝜙 = = =𝜇
𝐴𝐵 𝑁
A D
Angle of Repose: when a plane is inclined to the horizontal by a certain angle, the
body placed on it will remain at rest up to a certain angle of inclination, beyond
which the body just begins to move. This maximum angle made by the inclined
plane with the horizontal, when the body placed on that plane is just at disturbed
at that particular angle of inclination.
Let us consider a body of weight W which is placed on an inclined plane as shown
in figure. The body is just at the point of sliding down the plane when the angle of
inclination is θ. The various forces acting on the body are self weight, normal
reaction and frictional force.
W
y
x

N
Applying equation conditions of equilibrium
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

Resolving the forces along the x-axis

−𝐹 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝐹 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
Resolving the forces along the y-axis
𝑁 − 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝐹
We know that 𝜇=
𝑁
𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝜇= = tan 𝜃
𝑊 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜙 = tan 𝜃
𝜙=𝜃
Angle of Friction = Angle of repose

Cone of Friction
The combination of resultant R of frictional force F and normal reaction N obtained by
applying forces in opposite directions successively form a right circular cone of angle
2𝜙. Known as the cone of friction
Theories of Failure for Soils
Of the many theories of failure that have been proposed the Mohr strength theory and Mohr
Coulomb theory have been well accepted by soil engineers. The essential points in Mohr strength
theory can be stated as follows :
1. Material fails essentially by shear.
2. The ultimate shear stress depends on the normal stress on the potential failure plane and the
properties of material.
3. In a three dimensional stress system the failure criterion is independent of intermediate principal
stress σ2
If and are the normal and shear stresses on any plane and β the angle of obliquity, that is the angle
made by resultant of σ and τ with the normal to plane,
then we have
σ = tanβ
On the potential failure plane will have limiting value and then the shear strength will be
represented by
τ= tanϕ
We note that Mohr did not consider cohesion of soil and hence this theory is applicable only for
cohesionless soils. Φ is called angle of internal friction. The line represented by τ= tanϕ
is called Mohr strength envelope. In practice, for a large range of values of σ, the Mohr envelope is
actually slightly curved as ϕ decreases slightly with increase in σ.
Mohr-Coulomb theory This theory was first proposed by Coulomb (1776) and later generalized by Mohr. If we plot shear
stress at failure as ordinate against normal stress as abscissa we obtain a curve called the strength envelope. It can be
represented by the equation
𝜏𝑓 = F(σ)
Coulomb assumed the relation between τf and σ to be linear and gave the following equation popularly known as Coulomb’s
equation
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
where c is the intercept of the strength envelope on the τ-axis and tanϕ the slope of the strength envelope. c is known as
cohesion and ϕ angle of internal friction or more comprehensively angle of shearing resistance. c and ϕ together are called
shear strength parameters and are variable for any soil depending on conditions of testing such as drainage conditions and
rate of strain. Mohr generalized the strength envelope, also known as failure envelope, as a curve which becomes flatter
with increasing normal stress, as shown in Figure. In conclusion it can be stated that the strength envelope will be a straight
line if ϕ is assumed to be constant. In the case of Mohr generalized envelope, a straight line can be fitted within a range of σ
values. The strength envelope will be tangential to any Mohr circle at failure as shown in Figure.
Based on values of shear strength parameters, soils can be described as (i) cohesive soil (ii) cohesionless
soil and (iii) purely cohesive soil. The strength envelopes for the three cases are shown in Figure.
According to Terzaghi, the shear strength of soil in
the t case of saturated soil is a function of effective
normal stress on the potential failure plane. The
Mohr strength envelope can then be represented by
the following equation.
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 ′
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
c’ and ϕ’ are referred to as effective cohesion and
effective angle of shearing resistance respectively
While c’ and ϕ’ are referred to as effective shear
strength parameters, c & ϕ are known as apparent
shear strength parameters
Most Important Concept:
Effective Stress
• Effective Stress is arguably the most important concept in
soil mechanics.
• It dictates the relationship between water pressure and the
mobilized stress in a soil matrix.
• Most simply, it is defined as:
Effective Stress = Total Stress – Pore Water Pressure
𝝈′ = 𝝈 − 𝒖
• Effective Stress = Actual Contact Forces between Soil Grains
• Total Stress = The total weight of soil and water within a
column.
• Pore Water Pressure = The buoyant forces pushing grains
apart.
Concept of Effective Stress
• Let’s take an example that we all remember from childhood: air hockey.
• When the air is off, the puck doesn’t slide as well.
• The reaction force, N, is equal to the weight of the puck.
• Friction is N multiplied by a friction coefficient.
Concept of Effective Stress
• If we turn on air on the table, the reaction force is no longer equal to the
weight.
• The normal decreases the by uplift force from air.
• Thus, friction decreases and the puck slides easily.
• This is conceptually the same as “buoyancy.”
Unconfined Compression Test
Unconfined compression test can be regarded as a special case of triaxial compression test in which no lateral pressure or
confining pressure is applied so that σ2 = σ3 = 0. The soil specimen is cylindrical in shape with length about 2 to 2.5 times
its diameter. The laboratory equipment for conducting unconfined compression test has facilities for compressing the
specimen at uniform rate of strain and measuring the axial deformation and corresponding axial compressive force. The
maxi mum compressive stress resisted by specimen before failure is called unconfined compressive strength. It is denoted
by qu and computed as shown below.

The unconfined compression test is a quick test in which no drainage is allowed. The test is conducted on saturated clay and
volume change is assumed to be zero. The undrained shear strength parameters obtained are denoted by cu and ϕu . The test
results are acceptable for soils having no friction or little friction. The failure envelopes for the two cases are shown in Fig
12.12 and Fig
The angle α which the failure plane makes with the horizontal is measured after carefully sketch ing the failed
specimen. In Fig is shown the equipment for conducting unconfined compression test in the laboratory. Unconfined
compression test can also be conducted in field. The soil specimen is placed between two conical seatings attached to
two metal plates. The soil specimen is loaded through a calibrated spring by manually operated screw jack at the top
of the machine. Then a graph of load versus deformation can be plotted.
Direct Shear Test
The soil specimen used in the test is usually square in plan of size 60 mm 60 mm and thickness about 20 to 25 mm [Fig (a)].
The direct shear test equipment essentially consists of (i) shear box, (ii) loading yoke for applying normal force, (iii) geared
jack for applying shear force and facilities for measuring shear force, shear displacement and vertical deformation for
volume change The shear box consists of two halves; the lower half is in contact with the shear box container which freely
slides on rollers and to which the shear force is applied by means of geared jack. The soil specimen is placed in the shear
box such that it gets sheared on a horizontal plane exactly at its mid-height. The specimen is sandwiched between a pair of
metal grid plates and a pair of porous plates (or non-porous plates) as shown in Fig . The grid plates provided with serrations
are placed with serrations at right angles to direction of shearing to provide grip on the specimen. For conduct ing drained
test perforated grid plates and porous stones are used. The principle of direst shear test is illustrated in Fig (b) and (c). A
normal stress is applied on the specimen and is kept constant throughout the test. The shear stress is caused by application
of shear force through geared jack and is transmitted to the top half of the shear box, which bears against shear force
measuring device (such as proving ring dial gauge), through the soil specimen. The shear stress is gradually increased until
the specimen fails and there will be no trans mission of shear force from lower half to top half of shear box. If test continues
beyond 20% strain it is usual to stop the test and define failure point as corresponding to any desired level of strain upto
20%. The test is conducted on preferably minimum of three specimens subjected to three different values of σ . By plotting
τf against σ the failure envelope is obtained. c and ϕ are obtained by measure ment from the plot. Fig (d) illustrates the
Mohr circle at failure drawn for a specimen sheared under a normal stressσ . The shear box test can be either strain
controlled or stress controlled. In the strain controlled shear box test the shear strain is made to increase at a constant rate
and the shear stress is measured. In the stress controlled shear box test the arrangement is for increasing the shear stress at
constant rate and measuring the shear strain.
Advantages of direct shear test
1. The direct shear test is a simple test compared to the triaxial compression test.
2. Since the thickness of the sample is small quick drainage and hence rapid dissipation of
pore pressure is possible.
Disadvantages of direct shear test
1. The shear stress is not uniformly distributed being more at the edge than at the center.
Because of this the entire shear strength is not mobilized simultaneously at all points on
the failure plane and this leads to progressive failure of the specimen.
2. The failure plane is predetermined. Therefore the specimen is not allowed to fail along its
weakest plane.
3. Shear displacement causes reduction in area under shear. Corrected area should be used in
computing normal and shear stresses.
4. The side walls of the shear box can cause lateral restraint on the edges of the specimen.
5. There is little control on drainage of pore water as compared with triaxial compression
test.
6. Measurement of pore pressure is not possible.
 Sensitivity and Thixotropy
When undisturbed saturated clays are disturbed or remoulded without change in water con tent,
they lose part of their shear strength. This phenomenon is referred to as sensitivity. The degree
of sensitivity is given by the ratio of undisturbed shear strength to the remoulded shear strength
under undrained condition.
𝝉𝒇 (𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅) 𝒄𝒖 (𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅)
𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝝉𝒕 (𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒅) 𝒄𝒖 (𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒆𝒅)
The sensitivity of clays is found to vary from about 1 to over 100. A typical classification of
clays based on sensitivity is given in the following table. If a remoulded soil is allowed to rest
without change in water content, it regains a part of the lost shear strength. This phenomenon is
referred to as thixotropy.