IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 1

Topic 5: Soil systems and society

Shreya Mozumdar

IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 5: Soil systems and society

5.1. Introduction to soil systems

• Soil is a mixture of inorganic mineral particles and organic material from decomposed flora
and fauna that covers the underlying bedrock, and in which a wide variety of terrestrial
plants grow.
• IMPORTANCE OF SOIL
o All food we consume depends on soil.
o Plants grow in soil and we either consume plants or animals that depend on them
for food.
o Soil is a habitat for organisms.
o As well as holding minerals and water that plants use, soil filters water that passes
through it.
o Soils store and transfer heat, affecting atmospheric temperature that can affect
interactions between soil and atmospheric moisture.
o Soil is part of the lithosphere, where life processes and soil formation take place.
• SOIL AS A SYSTEM
o STORAGES
§ Organic matter
§ Organisms
§ Nutrients
§ Minerals
§ Air
§ Water
o TRANSFERS
§ Biological mixing
§ Translocation
§ Leaching
§ Soil erosion
§ Infiltration
§ Percolation
o TRANSFORMATIONS
§ Decomposition
§ Nitrification
§ Salinization
§ Weathering
§ Denitrification
§ Respiration
§ Photosynthesis
o INPUTS
§ Organic matter (left litter)
§ Inorganic matter
§ Precipitation
§ Air
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 2
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Pollutants
§ Energy
§ Fertilisers
o OUTPUTS
§ Oxygen
§ Nitrogen
§ Heat
§ Nutrient uptake by plants
§ Soil erosion
• Soil is made of:
o Mineral particles from underlying rock
o Organic remains of plants and animals
o Water in spaces between soil grains
o Air in spaces between soil grains
• Rock particles provide the skeleton of the soil. They are derived from the underlying rock
or from particles transported to the environment.
o E.g. insoluble: gravel, sand, silt, clay, chalk
Soluble: mineral salts, nitrogen compounds, phosphorous, etc.
• Humus gives soil a dark colour and returns mineral nutrients to the soil when it breaks
down. It absorbs and retains a lot of water.
o E.g. decomposing plant and animal matter
• Water allows mineral salts to move through the soil so plants can use them. The rapid
downward movement of water can cause leaching, while upward movement can cause
salinization.
• Air in well-aerated soils provides oxygen for respiration of soil organisms.
• Soil organisms like invertebrates break down organic matter. Large burrowing soil animals
help to mix and aerate the soil.
• SOIL PROFILE
o Soil profile is a vertical succession down through a soil, which reveals distinct
layers or horizons in the soil.
O horizon
A horizon

E horizon

B horizon

C horizon

R horizon

o O Horizon – This is the soil surface layer made of newly added organic material
from organisms that die and land on the soil.
o A Horizon – This is the upper layer of the soil. In many soils, humus builds up here.
Incomplete decomposition leads to the formation of a layer of organic material
called the humus.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 3
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o B Horizon – This is the layer where soluble minerals and organic matter tends to
be deposited from the layer above. Clay and iron salts are usually deposited.
o C Horizon – This layer is made of weathered rock from which the soil formed.
o R Horizon – This is the parent material or bedrock.
• Soil forms due to an interaction between the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere.
• The lithosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering the Earth. It is inorganic and composed
of minerals.
• Weathering of the lithosphere provides the inorganic components of the soil, including
elements like phosphorous and potassium.
• When soil develops from the parent rock, the minerals in the rock are subject to different
processes and rates of weathering.
• Parent rock is the upper layer of rock on which soil forms under the influence of biological
and biochemical processes, and human activity. It contributes to soil’s:
o Depth
o Texture
o Drainage
o Quality
o Colour
Clay
(<0.002mm)

Soil Silt (0.002-

Particles 0.05mm)

Sand (0.05 -
2mm)

• The proportion of each of these particles in a soil gives the soil its texture.

Sandy (High on
sand)

Clayey (High on
Soil Textures
clay)

Loamy (High on silt,

equal proportions of
sand and clay)

Factor Sandy soil Clay soil Loamy soil

Porosity Large pores Small pores Some large, some
small pores
Aeration (air Large pores hold lots Small pores do not hold The large pores hold
spaces) of air much air air
Drainage Very good: large Poor: small pore spaces The small pores can
(permeability) pores cannot hold trap the water do not retain water
water so it drains allow it to flow
freely through
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 4
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

Nutrient/mineral High, but they are High, but too much Intermediate:
content washed out quickly water and too little air nutrients are stored in
due to leaching make it unusable for small pore spaces and
plants leached from large
ones
Biota Low: too few Low: too little space High: equal amounts
nutrients and too and too little air of air, water and
little water nutrients.
Primary Low Low High
productivity
Ease of use Easy Difficult Easy

• Loam is the best type of soil for farming because it has an equal proportion of sand and
clay particles. Sand allows for good drainage and air supply, while clay retains water
and supplies nutrients.
• SOIL PROCESSES
o Translocation is the sorting of materials and formation of layers in soil by
water carrying particles either up or down.
o Salinization occurs when precipitation is less than evaporation at the soil
surface. It leads water from the lower soil layers to move upwards. It dissolves
minerals and brings them to the surface – the minerals are left behind and form
an impermeable crust when the water evaporates.
o Leaching occurs when precipitation is greater than evaporation, water flows
down in the soil, dissolving minerals and transporting them downwards.
• Clay soils have many small pores that lead to a large overall pore space, however, they
are not permeable as they easily trap water. It can also retain nutrients between pores,
making difficult for plants to absorb.
• Clay soils have high acidity. As the soil, absorbs more water, clay particles fill up with
positive hydrogen ions (H+). The water is thus bound tightly to the particles, making it
acidic.
• This also reduces the amount of other positive ions that can bind, thus, potassium,
magnesium and ammonium are lost in leaching. These are important nutrients.
• Aluminum and iron ions become more available to plants as soil becomes more acidic.
These are toxic to plants.
• Soil is a non-renewable resource because its formation takes a very long time.
• Soil use often exceeds soil formation – it is thus a non-renewable resource/ natural
capital.
• Fertile soil has enough nutrients for healthy plant growth. The main ones are NPK –
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
• Many other nutrients are also required that may be removed when crops are harvested.
These can be replaced by:
o Chemical fertilisers
o Growing legumes
o Crop rotation
o Applying organic matter (manure, compost)
 IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 5
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

5.2. Terrestrial food production systems and food choices

Types of Food production

Systems

Subsistence Extensive Intensive Pastoral Arable

Commercial

farming for self- uses more land uses less land with
sufficiency to grow large-scale with less raising animals growing crops
production of more
enough for one's crops/livestock crops/livestock per
family or crops and/or
per unit area unit area
community livestock for sale
in a commerical
market
highly labour lower inputs high inputs
intensive large, proft-
making scale
low inputs of low output per high output per
chemicals and unit area unit area
macinery high inputs of
capital,
chemicals,
low capital machinery
levels and
technology
Not labour
intensive
no surplus, low
output

high technology

High output

• Agribusiness is the business of agricultural production, including farming, seeds, breeding,

use of chemicals, machinery, harvesting, distribution, processing and storage.

Commercial farming Subsistence farming

Scale Large-scale: reliant on Small-scale: labour-intensive,
chemicals, machinery, fossil relies on some chemicals
fuels
Mechanisation Heavy machinery can damage Using animals and manual
the soil and uses fossil fuels labour is less damaging to soil.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 6
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

Manure from animals is also a

sustainable fertilizer. No
burning of fossil fuels.
Livestock/crops Growing crops and animals that Using indigenous crops and
choices are not native to the area livestock makes it cheaper and
necessitates irrigation, imports, causes fewer soil degradation
etc. which have high costs and problems.
can lead to salinization
Water use High water demands for Water is also required, it may be
irrigation, may cause water unsustainably but it is less
shortage elsewhere likely
Fertilisers/pesticides Monoculture occurs which Crop rotation, biological pest
requires more fertilisers and control cause fewer problems.
pesticides due to quicker soil However, some intensive
exhaustion farmers may use fertilisers and
pesticides.
Antibiotics Animals kept in close quarters Animals allowed to roam freely
contract more diseases and contract less diseases
require antibiotics to be used
routinely. This can cause super-
bugs in local ecosystem
Legislation Regulated by the government Not regulated by government so
• May be subsidised and thus may pollute a lot
be more unsustainable
• May be forced to regulate
pollution
Pollinators May require specific pollinators Biodiverse farm (mixed crops)
to be brought in, like bees, may pollinators have different
not be suited to the environment habitats, enough insects to
and die out since they only pollute all of them.
pollinate one crop.
• REASONS FOR FOOD WASTAGE IN MEDCs
o Large amounts of food are bought by small families
o Food is sorted to ensure that there is only high-quality produce, so any produce
considered subpar is disposed of and wasted, even if it can be used or suitable to
eat.
o Packaging sizes and portions may be too large.
• REASONS FOR FOOD WASTAGE IN LEDCs
o Poor storage facilities mean the food goes bad before consumption.
o Transport facilities are poor so there may be difficulties in reaching the food to the
market.
o Low-quality food is disposed of even if it can be used.
o Competition to domestic farmers from cheap imports – the imports are consumed
and there may be excess produced by farmers which isn’t consumed
o Poor government policies for agriculture and preventing wastage
o Lack of education about not wasting food
o High production of low-quality goods which cannot be consumed
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 7
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

• FACTORS DETERMINING FOOD CHOICES

o Climate – determines the types of crops that can be grown in a place
o Culture and religion – some religions forbid eating certain types of meat or may
advocate for vegetarianism
o Political – subsidisation of foods, tariffs on imports, etc.
o Socio-economic – demand and supply of foods
• FACTORS FOR COMPARING FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS (NOTE: You must
choose two named systems in countries and be able to properly describe, compare and
contrast the below factors for both. This is a potential and very likely Paper 2 9-mark
question.)
o Inputs: water, fertiliser, pesticide, labour, etc.
o Outputs: quality, yield, transport, processing, packaging, etc.
o System characteristics: diversity, sustainability
o Environmental impacts: pollution, soil degradation, eutrophication, etc.
o Socio-economic: type of farming, imports/exports, govt policies, etc.
• TERRESTRIAL VS AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
o Terrestrial system: food is harvested from the first or second trophic level (plant
crops, chicken, livestock, etc.)
o Aquatic system: harvested from higher trophic levels (fish, big fish, etc.)
§ There is more efficient use of solar energy in terrestrial systems because the
lower trophic levels have more energy in them.
• INCREASING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF FOOD SUPPLY
Measures
Improving • Mixed cropping and interplanting
agricultural • Leaving stubble of previous crop, conserves water and soil
technology • Planting buffer zones – absorbs nutrient run-off
• Biological pest control
• Drip irrigation
Alter crops • Use GMOs or HYVs (high-yielding variety)
and method of • Aquaculture and hydroponics
farming • Soil conservation
Green • Agroecology: recycling nutrients and energy on farms within closed
Revolution systems, crops animals balancing inputs and outputs.
• Drought-resistant plants, increasing shade, covering bare soil
Reducing • Improving storage facilities for food in LEDCs
food waste • Improving distribution
• Making use of rejected produce for juices, etc.
Changing • Eating less meat
attitudes • Organic food consumption
towards food • Educating about food wastage
choices • Consumption of insects
Others • Reduce food processing, packaging and transport
• Improve labelling and increase consumer awareness of food
production efficiency
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 8
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

• FUTURE OF FOOD PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY

o GMO crops, organisms and meat will be more frequently used: synthetic meat,
crops, HYV
o Conditions for agriculture will deteriorate due to climate change, leading LEDCs to
import more food (leads to less/more rain in LEDC)
o More meat will be consumed due to increased standards of living
o Climate change will make conditions more favourable to agriculture in MEDCs
(becomes warmer), thus they will produce and export more food.
o Aquaculture and hydroponics will decrease.

5.3. Soil degradation and conservation

Processes that take away
the soil (soil erosion).
They allow erosion by
wind and/or water.
Processes that cause
soil degradation Processes that make the
soil less usuable.
Chemicals are added to
the soil that make it
unusable.
• PROCESSES LEADING TO SOIL DEGRADATION
o Overgrazing
§ This occurs when too many animals graze in the same place.
§ This leaves bare patches of soil where the roots of the vegetation no longer
hold the soil together.
§ This makes the soil prone to erosion by rain (due to lack of interception and
increased surface run-off), and by wind (by being blown away).
§ E.g. overgrazing caused extreme soil degradation in the Sahel region of
Africa.
o Over-cropping/overcultivation
§ This is growing too many crops or not allowing land to rest for some period.
§ This depleted nutrients in the soil and make the soil friable – dry and liable
to wind erosion.
§ This reduces the fertility of the soil since no nutrients are being added to it.
§ This means that crops cannot grow, making the soil more susceptible to
erosion by wind and water.
§ E.g. The Dust Bowl – wind erosion in the Midwest USA due to overuse of
the land.
o Deforestation
§ Removal of vegetation means there are no roots to hold the soil together,
making it more liable to erosion.
§ Deforestation reduces interception and increases surface run-off, making it
easier for rain to wash away soil and nutrients in it.
§ This leads to soil degradation.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 9
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

o Unsustainable agricultural practices

§ Total removal of crops after harvest (leaving no crop stubble) makes soil
liable to erosion.
§ Growing crops with bare soil in between leaves the open patches vulnerable
to erosion.
§ Ploughing in the direction of the slope on mountains makes ready-made
channels for water to flow through, taking soil with it.
§ In many irrigation systems, most water evaporates before reaching crops
since it is just spread over the soil. The minerals in the water remain in the
top soil and form a hard, salty crust that makes soil unusable (salinization).
§ Monoculture is when only one crop is grown in the soil for a long period of
time. This depletes the same nutrients from the soil, making it lose its
fertility.
• PROCESSES OF SOIL EROSION
o Sheet wash: large areas of soil are washed away during storms or landslides
o Gullying: rainfall forms channels on hillsides, as they get deeper, they wash soil
away with water flowing through them.
o Wind erosion: on dry soils, winds remove the surface layers.
• SOIL CONSERVATION MEASURES
o Adding soil conditioners
§ These are added when the soil becomes acidic.
§ Soil can become acidic because of many reasons
• Acid rain – water infiltrating through the soil is acidic, making soil
acidic.
• Breakdown of organic matter releases carbon dioxide, which
dissolves in soil water to create carbonic acid.
• Nitrification of ammonium into nitrates increases acidity.
• Removal of nutrients through leaching increases acidity.
§ Soil conditioners typically include lime and organic materials. They
increase pH and thus reduce acidification of soil.
• Lime makes clay particles stick together to form larger, sand-like
particles that allow better drainage and aeration, allowing
decomposition by microorganisms and adding nutrients to the soil.
• Organic materials (straw, manure) improve soil texture and provide
nutrients once decomposed.
o Wind reduction
§ Planting trees and bushes between fields (shelter belts) or alternating high
and low crops in adjacent fields (strip cultivation) helps prevent wind
erosion.
o Soil-conserving cultivation techniques
§ Growing cover crops (crops that grow quickly to cover the soil) between the
main crops, between sowing and harvest can keep soil particles in place.
§ Terracing reduces the steepness of slopes by creating terraces and
preventing wind and water from removing the soil.
§ Ploughing breaks up the soil structure and increases drainage. However, it
can be bad for microbial activity and directly sowing improves soil
biodiversity.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 10
Topic 5: Soil systems and society
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Contour farming is ploughing and cultivating along contour lines,

perpendicular to the slope. This forms ridges that act as small terraces that
trap water and soil from flowing downhill, reducing soil erosion.
o Improved irrigation techniques
§ Covering irrigation canals prevents evaporation before water reaches the
field, reducing water loss and salinization risk.
§ Trickle irrigation, or drip irrigation, consists of a system of pipes covering
the field. The pipes have small openings next to the plants where the water
is dispensed in drops, allowing the roots to absorb it before it evaporates.
o Stop ploughing marginal land
§ Ploughing land on the edge of deserts which may not be suitable for
agriculture should be stopped.
§ This makes forested areas prone to desertification.
o Crop rotation
§ Growing the same crop year after year leads more pests and diseases to build
up, and impoverishes the soil.
§ Crop rotation can involve leaving the ground fallow (bare) for some time,
or growing several different crops in a year to get a maximised yield and
vary the nutrients that are added to and removed from the soil.
§ This is because some crops are ‘hungrier’ for nutrients – for example,
cereals remove many nutrients from the soil. Legumes add nitrogen back to
the soil, and thus are a good option for crop rotation.