NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOOL

MATHS 202: MATRICES

FOR ND II
Outline
Definition of matrix
Order of a matrix
Types of matrices
Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
Multiplication of Matrices
Transpose of a matrix
Determinants
Adjoint of a Matrix
Inverse of a matrix
Solutions of Linear Equations using Matrices
Definition of matrix
A matrix is a set of numbers either real or complex (or elements) arranged in rows and columns to
form a rectangular array. A matrix having m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix. A
general way of representing a matrix is
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … … … … . 𝑎1𝑛
A = [ 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 … … … … . 𝑎2𝑛 ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … … … . . 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Matrices are usually denoted by capital letter A, B, C etc and its elements by small letters a, b, c
etc.

Order of a matrix
The order (or dimension) of a matrix is the number of rows by its number of columns. In describing
a matrix, the number of rows (m) is stated first and then the number of columns (n) second. If there
are 4 rows and 3 columns in a matrix, its order is 4 × 3 and is read as four by three.
For example
3 5 1
A= [ ]
0 2 −4
The order of matrix A above is a 2×3 matrix.

Types of matrices
1. Row matrix: a row matrix consists of 1 row only. It is also called a row vector.
e.g: [2 3 7] is a row matrix of order 1 × 3.
2. Column matrix: a column matrix consists of 1 column only. It is also called a column
3
vector. For example: [4]is a column matrix of order 3 × 1.
6
3. Null or zero matrix: is a matrix in which each element is “0”. Zero matrices are denoted by
the symbol O. A zero matrix 𝑂𝑚𝑛 has the property that for every matrix 𝐴𝑚𝑛 ,
𝐴+ 0=𝑂+𝐴=𝐴
4. Square matrix: a matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square
matrix. A square matrix is of order m × m or n × n. for example:
1 2
A=[ ] is a square matrix of order 2× 2
4 1
5. Diagonal matrix: is a square matrix with all its elements zero except the leading diagonal.
5 0 0
For example B = [0 4 0]
0 0 7
6. Scaler matrix: is a matrix in which all the diagonal elements are the same.
 5 0 0
For example A = [0 5 0]
0 0 5
7. Identity or Unit matrix: is a diagonal matrix in which the elements on the leading diagonal
are all unity. The unit matrix is denoted by I.
1 0 0
For example B = [0 1 0]
0 0 1

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

For matrices to be added or subtracted, they must be of the same order. The sum or differences is
then determined by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements.
Examples
4 2 3 1 8 9
𝐴=[ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
5 7 6 3 5 4
4+1 2+8 3+9
A+B = [ ]
5+3 7+5 6+4
5 10 12
=[ ]
8 12 10

8 1 6 2
𝐵= [ ] and 𝐴 = [ ]
3 4 7 −3
8−6 1−2
B–A=[ ]
3 − 7 4 − (−3)
2 −1
=[ ]
−4 7

Properties of matrix addition

1. Commutative 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
2. Associative (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
3. 𝐴 + 0 = 0 + 𝐴 = 𝐴, 𝐴−𝐴=0
Multiplication of Matrices
1. Scalar multiplication
To multiply a matrix by a single number (i.e a scaler), each individual element of the matrix
is multiplied by that factor.
For example
 8 1 40 5
5× [ ]= [ ]
3 4 15 20

2. Multiplication of two matrices

Multiplication of matrices is not done entry by entry like that of addition and subtraction.
Multiplication of matrices is done using a special procedure. This procedure is illustrated
below:
i. For two matrices to be multiplied, they must be compatible. The number of rows of the
first matrix should be equal to the number of columns of the second matrix. Note that
if two matrices are not compatible, they cannot be multiplied.
ii. Multiply the element of the first row in the first matrix by element of the first column
in the second matrix to obtain the first entry of the product matrix. When multiplying,
you start from the first element in the first row of the first matrix, then multiply it by
the first element in the first column of the second matrix followed by the second
element of the row multiplied by the second element of the column and the followed
by the third element of the row multiplied by the third element of the column
afterwards, you add everything up.
iii. We then multiply the first row of the first matrix by the second column of the second
matrix in the same manner and get the second entry of the first row our answer.
iv. We then multiply the second row of the first matrix by the first column of the second
matrix in the same manner and get the first entry of the second row of our answer
v. We then multiply the second row of the first matrix by the second column of the
second matrix in the same manner and get the second entry of the second row of our
answer,
Examples:
4 3
1 2 3
A= [ ] and B = [5 2]
4 5 6
1 7
Following the steps above
Step 1: Matrix A has an order of 2 × 3
Matrix B has an order of 3 × 2
Matrix AB = 2 × 2
Step 2:
4 3
1 2 3
A= [ ] and B = [5 2] AB = [ ]
4 5 6
1 7
4
[1 2 3] and [5] = 1×4 + 2×5 + 3×1 = 4+10+3=17
1

AB = [17 ]
Step 3:
3
[1 2 3] and [2]= 1×3 + 2×2 + 3×7=3+4+21=28
7
17 28
AB = [ ]

Step 4:
4
[4 5 6] and [5] = 4×4 + 5×5 + 6×1 = 16+25+6=47
1
17 28
AB = [ ]
47
Step 5:
3
[4 5 ]
6 and [2] = 4×3 + 5×2 + 6×7 = 12+10+42=64
7
17 28
AB = [ ]
47 64
Note:
1. Multiplication of matrices is not commutative i.e., AB ≠ BA in general.
2. For matrices A and B if AB = BA then A and B commute to each other
3. A matrix A can be multiplied by itself if and only if it is a square matrix. The product A.A in
such cases is written as A2. Similarly, we may define higher powers of a square matrix i.e.,
A. A2 = A3, A2. A2 = A4
4. In the product AB, A is said to be pre multiple of B and B is said
to be post multiple of A.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
1. 0𝐴 = 0; 𝐴0 = 0 0 is a scalar or compatible matrix
2. 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴; 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴
3. (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)
4. ∝ (𝐴𝐵) = (∝ 𝐴)𝐵 where ∝ is a scalar
5. 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶, (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶
6. (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 𝐵 𝑇
Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows with columns and columns with
rows. The transpose of a matrix A is denoted by AT. The transpose of an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A is the
𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix. Transposing a matrix converts a row vector to column vector and column vector to
row vector.
Properties of transpose
1. (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴
2. (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
3. For a scalar c, (𝑐𝐴)𝑇 = 𝑐𝐴𝑇
4. (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇
Example
0 7 3
𝐵=[ ] Find the transpose.
4 0 1
Matrix B is a 2 × 3, so the transpose is a 3 × 2
0 4
𝐵 𝑇 = [7 0]
3 1

Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 . It is a matrix which remains unchanged
when the transpose is taken.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = [𝑏 𝑑 𝑒 ] then 𝐴𝑇 = [ 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒]
𝑐 𝑒 𝑓 𝑐 𝑒 𝑓

Skew Symmetric
A square matrix is said to be skew symmetric if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇 . It is a matrix whose transpose is equal
to the matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of the matrix by -1.

For example
0 −4 1
𝐵=[ 4 0 −3]
−1 3 0
0 4 −1 0 −4 1
𝐵 𝑇 = [−4 0 3 ] = (−1) [4 0 −3]
−1 3 0 1 −3 0
𝐵 𝑇 = −𝐵
Singular and Non-singular Matrices
A square matrix A is called a singular matrix if the determinant |𝐴| = 0 and non-singular if |𝐴| ≠
0.

DETERMINANTS
The determinant of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 square matrix, written as 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 is an important scalar quantity that is
a function of the elements of the matrix. When written using the elements of the matrix the
determinant is enclosed between vertical bars |𝐴|. The determinant is obtained from the elements
of a matrix by specified operations which is the characteristics of the matrix. Determinants are
defined only for square matrices.
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] is given by det A=|𝐴|
21
𝑎 𝑎12
|𝐴| = |𝑎11 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21

The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] is given by det A=|𝐴|
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎
|𝐴| = | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
|𝐴| = 𝑎11 |𝑎22 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32

|𝐴| = 𝑎11 (𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎32 ) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎31 ) + 𝑎13 (𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎22 𝑎31 )

Each determinant in the sum is the determinant of a sub matrix of a 𝐴 obtained by deleting a
particular row and column of 𝐴. These determinants are called minors. We use the sign + or –,
according to (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑎𝑖𝑗

Where 𝑖 & 𝑗 represent row & column respectively.

The minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of a matrix obtained by eliminating a row and column. The
minors of the matrix A
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
 𝑎22 𝑎23
The minor of the element 𝑎11 is 𝑀11 = |𝑎 𝑎33 | and so on.
32

The cofactors 𝐶𝑖𝑗 of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 in a determinant is simply its minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 multiplied by either +1
or –1 depending on its position.
𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

The value of the determinant can be found by using its minor elements or cofactors using this
𝑎11 𝑀11 − 𝑎12 𝑀12 + 𝑎13 𝑀13 OR 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13
Each element gives rise to a cofactor, which is simply the minor of the element in the determinant
together with its place sign. The appropriate place signs are given by
+ − +
[− + −] for a 3 × 3 matrix
+ − +

Properties of determinants
1. Let 𝐴 & 𝐵 be two square matrices of same size. Then the following holds:
a. det(𝐴𝐵) = (det 𝐴)(det 𝐵)
b. det 𝐼 = 1
c. det 𝐴𝑇 = det 𝐴
2. Let 𝐸 be an elementary matrix and let 𝑘 be a non-zero real number:
a. If 𝐸 results from interchanging two rows of I, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐸 = −1.
b. If E results from multiplying a row of 𝐼 by 𝑘, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐸 = 𝑘.
c. If E results from adding k times one row of I to another row, then 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐸 = 1.
3. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix, then det 𝐴 = 0 if any of the following holds:
a. A has an entire row (or column) of zeros;
b. A has two equal rows (or columns);
c. A has two proportional rows (or columns).
4. A square matrix has an inverse if and only if det 𝐴 ≠ 0.
5. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be square matrices of the same size, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 if and only if 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼.
6. Let A be an n×n matrix then the following holds
a. 𝐴 is invertible.
b. 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 ≠ 0.
c. The row-reduced form of 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛.
d. The system 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 has precisely one solution for each 𝑛 × 1 matrix b.
e. The system 𝐴𝑥 = 0 has only the trivial solution.
Summary of properties of matrices
Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two square matrices of the same size. Then
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵) = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)(𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐵),
 (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 ,
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴𝑇 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴.
If 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are invertible, then
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1,
1
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴−1 = det 𝐴

Adjoint of a Matrix
To find the adjoint of a square matrix, we form the matrix of cofactors, then we write the transpose
of it. The adjoint of a matrix is denoted by
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑇
The adjoint of a 2 × 2 matrix
𝑎 𝑏
𝐴=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑
𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [ ]
−𝑐 𝑎

Examples
Find the determinant of the following Matrices.
2 3 5
7 2
𝐴= [ ] 𝐷 = [4 1 6]
3 1
1 4 0
Solution
7 2
𝐴= [ ]
3 1
7 2
Det A = |𝐴| = | |
3 1
=7×1−3×2=7−6=1
Det A = 1

2 3 5
𝐷 = [4 1 6]
1 4 0
2 3 5
det 𝐷 = |𝐷| = [4 1 6]
1 4 0
 = 2(1 × 0 − 4 × 6) − 3(4 × 0 − 1 × 6) + 5(4 × 4 − 1 × 1)
= 2 × −24 − 3 × −6 + 5 × 15 = −48 + 18 + 75 = 45
det 𝐷 = |𝐷| = 45
Find the adjoint of matrix D.
𝐷11 𝐷12 𝐷13
𝐶 = [𝐷21 𝐷22 𝐷23 ]
𝐷31 𝐷32 𝐷33
1 6 4 6 4 1
𝐷11 = + | | = −24 𝐷12 = − | |=6 𝐷13 = + | | = 15
4 0 1 0 1 4
3 5 2 5 2 3
𝐷21 = − | | = 20 𝐷22 = + | | = −5 𝐷23 = − | | = −5
4 0 1 0 1 4
3 5 2 5 2 3
𝐷31 = + | | = 13 𝐷32 = − | |=8 𝐷33 = + | | = −10
1 6 4 6 4 1

The matrix of cofactors is

−24 6 15
𝐶 = [ 20 −5 −5 ]
13 8 −10
−24 20 13
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐷 = 𝐶 𝑇 = [ 6 −5 8 ]
15 −5 −10

Inverse of a Matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix is important because it enables us to form the inverse of the matrix.
If each element of the adjoint of A is divided by the value of the determinant of A provided |𝐴| ≠
0, the resulting matrix is called the inverse of A. Inverse of a matrix is denoted by 𝐴−1 .
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|
Note
For a non-singular matrix A of order (𝑛 𝑥 𝑛), if there exist another matrix B of order (𝑛 𝑥 𝑛) such
that their product is the identity matrix I of order (𝑛 𝑥 𝑛) 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼. Then B is said to
be the inverse of A and is written as B = A-1. In order words, the product of a square matrix and
its inverse, in whatever order the factors are written, is the unit matrix of the same order.
Steps to obtain the inverse of a matrix:
 i. Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A.
ii. Form a matrix C of the cofactors of the elements of |𝐴|.
iii. Write the transpose of C to obtain the adjoint of A.
iv. Divide each element of CT by |𝐴|.
v. The resulting matrix is the inverse of A-1.

Examples: find the inverse of the following.

3 4
1. 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2
The adjoint of a 2 × 2 matrix is

|𝐴| = |3 4
|=3×2−1×4 =6−4=2
1 2
2 −4
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [ ]
−1 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1 2 −4
𝐴−1 = = [ ]
|𝐴| 2 −1 3
0 −2 −3
2. Find the inverse if it exists, of the matrix 𝐴 = [ 1 3 3]
−1 −2 −2
Soln
First, find |𝐴|
|𝐴| = 0(3 × −2 + 2 × 3) − (−2)(1 × −2 + 1 × 3) + (−3)(−1 × 2 + 1 × 3)
= 0(0) + 2(−2 + 3) + (−3)(−2 + 3) = 0 + 2 × 1 − 3 × 1 = 0 + 2 − 3
|𝐴| = −1 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
Cofactors of A are
3 3 1 3 1 3
𝐴11 = + | |=0 𝐴12 = − | | = −1 𝐴13 = + | |=1
−2 −2 −1 −2 −1 −2
−2 −3 0 −3 0 −2
𝐴21 = − | |=2 𝐴22 = + | | = −3 𝐴23 = − | |=2
−2 −2 −1 −2 −1 −2
−2 −3 0 −3 0 −2
𝐴31 = + | |= 3 𝐴32 = − | | = −3 𝐴33 = + | |=2
3 3 1 3 1 3

0 −1 1
𝐶 = [2 −3 2]
3 −3 2
 0 2 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑇 = [−1 −3 −3]
1 2 2
0 2 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1
So 𝐴−1 = |𝐴|
= [ −1 −3 −3]
−1
1 2 2
0 −2 −3
𝐴−1 = [ 1 3 3]
−1 −2 −2

Exercises
Find the determinant of the following matrices
1 −6 5
1. 𝑀 = [ 2 2 5]
−1 −4 1
1 1 2
2. 𝑀 = [2 3 1 ]
3 4 −5
1 2 4
3. 𝑀 = [2 7 3 ]
3 1 −5
3 4
4. 𝐵 = [ ]
2 −5
15 10
5. 𝐵 = [ ]
3 2
0 −2
6. 𝐵 = [ ]
6 30
3 6
7. 𝐵 = [ ]
3 3
Solve the following equations given by determinants
6 2
1. | |=0
3 𝑥

𝑥−1 4
2. | |=0
1 𝑥+2

6−𝛼 5
3. | |=0
6 5−𝛼

3 4 5
4. |7 7 7| = 0
𝑥 𝑥+1 9
 𝑥 4 5
5. |3 −1 𝑥 | = 0
3 𝑥 −1

4−𝜆 1 0
6. | 2 6−𝜆 1 |=0
0 1 4−𝜆

5 𝑥 3
7. | 𝑥 3 4| = 58
−2 −2 𝑥

SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS USING MATRICES

Using matrix inverse
Consider the linear equations
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑎23 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏3
This equation can be rewritten in matrix form as:
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎
[ 21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ] [𝑥2 ] = [𝑏2 ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥3 𝑏3
Let
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ] 𝑋 = [𝑥2 ] 𝐵 = [𝑏2 ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥3 𝑏3
Then the equation can be rewritten as
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
If 𝐵 ≠ 0, it is called a non-homogenous system of linear equation.
If 𝐵 = 0, it is called a homogenous system of linear equation.
In this case, 𝐵 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 is a non-singular matrix, then 𝐴−1 , exist.
Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝐴−1 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
We know that 𝐴−1 . 𝐴 = 𝐼
𝐼𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
Where 𝐴−1 𝐵 is an 𝑛 × 1 column matrix, since 𝑋 & 𝐴−1 𝐵 are of the same order, each element in 𝑋
is equal to the corresponding element of 𝐴−1 𝐵. These elements of 𝑋 are the solutions of the linear
equation.
If A is a singular matrix, then it as no inverse and either the system has no solution or the solution
is unique.

Examples
1. −4𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 9𝑥3 = 2
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 5
𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 8

Solution
Defining the matrix 𝐴, 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.
−4 2 −9 𝑥1 2
𝐴= [3 4 1] 𝑥
𝑋 = [ 2] 𝐵 = [5]
1 −3 2 𝑥3 8
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
Find 𝐴−1 .
−4 2 −9
|𝐴| = | 3 4 1|
1 −3 2
|𝐴| = −4(8 + 3) − 2(6 − 1) + (−9)(−9 − 4)
|𝐴| = −44 + 10 + 117 = 63
|𝐴| = 63
Cofactors of A are
4 1 3 1 3 4
𝐴11 = + | | = 11 𝐴12 = − | | = −5 𝐴13 = + | | = −13
−3 2 1 2 1 −3
2 −9 −4 −9 −4 2
𝐴21 = − | | = 23 𝐴22 = + | |=1 𝐴23 = − | | = −10
−3 2 1 2 1 −3
2 −9 −4 −9 −4 2
𝐴31 = + | | = 38 𝐴32 = − | | = −23 𝐴33 = + | | = −22
4 1 3 1 3 4
the matrix of cofactors is
11 −5 −13
𝐶 = [23 1 −10]
38 −23 −22
The transpose of C is the adjoint of the matrix
11 23 38
𝑇
𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 𝐶 = [ −5 1 −23]
−13 −10 −22
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1 11 23 38
𝐴−1 = = [ −5 1 −23]
|𝐴| 63
−13 −10 −22
𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
11 23 38 2
1
𝑋 = 63 [ −5 1 −23] × [5]
−13 −10 −22 8
1 11 × 2 + 23 × 5 + 38 × 8
𝑋= [ −5 × 2 + 1 × 5 − 23 × 8 ]
63
−13 × 2 − 10 × 5 − 22 × 8
1 441
𝑋= [−189]
63
−252
7
𝑋 = [−3]
−4
Therefore 𝑥1 = 7, 𝑥2 = −3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥3 = −4.
2. 𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 4
3𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 2
5𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = −1

Using Cramer’s Rule (method of determinants)

Consider a system of linear equations in two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1 … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2 … … … … … … … … . . . (2)
Multiply equation (1) by 𝑏2 and equation (2) by 𝑏1 and subtracting, we get
𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑏2
 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2 𝑏1
𝑥(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ) = (𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐2 )
(𝑏2 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐2 )
𝑥= … … … … … … … … … (3)
(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )
Multiply equation (1) by 𝑎2 and equation (2) by 𝑎1 and subtracting, we get
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑐1
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑎1 𝑐2
𝑦(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ) = 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1
(𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐1 )
𝑦= … … … … … … … … … (4)
(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )
Note that x and y from equations (3) and (4) has the same denominator (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ). So, the
system of equations (1) and (2) has solution only when (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 ) ≠ 0.
The solutions for x and y of the system of equations (1) and (2) can be written directly in terms
of determinants without any algebraic operations, as
𝑐 𝑏1
| 1 |
𝑐 𝑏2
𝑥= 2
𝑎 𝑏1
| 1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎1 𝑐1
|𝑎 𝑐 |
𝑦= 2 2
𝑎 𝑏1
| 1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2
This result is called Cramer’s Rule.
𝑎1 𝑏1
Here, | | = |𝐴| is the determinant of the coefficient of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in equations (1) and (2).
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑐 𝑏1 𝑎1 𝑐1
If | 1 | = |𝐴𝑥 | and |𝑎 𝑐2 | = |𝐴𝑦 |, then
𝑐2 𝑏2 2

|𝐴𝑥 |
𝑥=
|𝐴|

|𝐴𝑦 |
𝑦=
|𝐴|

Example
𝑥−𝑦 =2
 𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 5
Soln

|𝐴| = |1 −1
|=4+1=5
1 4

|𝐴𝑥 | = |2 −1| = 8 + 5 = 13
5 4
1 2
|𝐴𝑦 | = | |= 5−2= 3
1 5
|𝐴𝑥 | 13
𝑥= =
|𝐴| 5
|𝐴𝑦 | 3
𝑦= =
|𝐴| 5

Using Cramer’s rule to solve for 3 variables: 𝒙, 𝒚 & 𝒛

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2
𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3
Hence, the determinant of the coefficient is,
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝐴| = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| ≠ 0
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Then by Cramer’s Rule, the value of the variable is
𝑑1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝑑2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑑3 𝑏3 𝑐3 |𝐴𝑥 |
𝑥= =
|𝐴| |𝐴|
𝑎1 𝑑1 𝑐1
𝑎
| 2 𝑑2 𝑐2 |
𝑎3 𝑑3 𝑐3 |𝐴𝑦 |
𝑦= =
|𝐴| |𝐴|
 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑑1
|𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑑2 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑑3 |𝐴𝑧 |
𝑧= =
|𝐴| |𝐴|
Examples
1. −4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 9𝑧 = 2
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5
𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 8

Solution

−4 2 −9
|𝐴| = | 3 4 1 | = 63
1 −3 2

2 2 −9
|𝐴𝑥 | = |5 4 1 | = 441
8 −3 2

−4 2 −9
|𝐴𝑦 | = | 3 5 1 | = −189
1 8 2

−4 2 2
|𝐴𝑧 | = | 3 4 5| = −252
1 −3 8

|𝐴𝑥 | 441 |𝐴𝑦 | −189 |𝐴𝑧 | −252

𝑥= = =7 𝑦= = = −3 𝑧= = = −4
|𝐴| 63 |𝐴| 63 |𝐴| 63
Exercises
1 4 −3 2 1 0
1. If 𝐴 = [ ],𝐵 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = [ ], find 𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐶.
2 1 4 0 0 2
−1 2 1 0
2. Show that if 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then
0 1 −1 2
a. (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≠ 𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵 2
b. (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≠ 𝐴2 − 𝐵 2
−1 −2 5 2 −2 −1
3. Multiply this [−1 −1 3] [1 1 −2]
−1 −2 4 1 0 1
6 4 1 −2
4. Evaluate 𝑃𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑃 where 𝑃 = [ ] and 𝑄 = [ ] what do you conclude from
2 3 2 3
your result and why?
5. Find the inverse of the following matrices.
3 4
a. [ ]
4 5

2 7
b. [ ]
1 4
4 11 5
c. [1 4 2]
1 2 1

1 −2 1
d. [ 3 −1 5]
−1 4 0

1 −3 7 3
6. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ] show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼 and therefore 𝐵 = 𝐴−1 .
−2 7 2 1
7. Evaluate the following sums where possible.
0 6 −2 1 2 9
a. [1 8 2 ] + [1 0 4]
0 3 4 3 −4 1
1 −3 2 0
b. [ ]+[ ]
−2 54 4 1
1 2 1 3
c. [1 0] + [3 1 ]
4 1 4 −2
2
3 2
d. [−4] [ ]
4 −1
1
−2 0 1
3 1 2
e. [ ][ 1 3 0 ]
0 5 1
4 1 −1
1
f. [2] [3 0 4]
1
8. Write out the transpose of each of the following.
1 4
a. [ 0 2]
−6 10
2 1 2
b. [0 3 −5]
4 7 0
c. [10 4 6]
1 2 7 8
1 0
9. Let 𝐴 = [3 4], 𝐵 = [ 9 10] and 𝐶 = [ ]
1 1
5 6 11 12
a. Find 𝐴𝑇 , 𝐵 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇
b. Verify that (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵 𝑇
c. Find 𝐶 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴𝐶)𝑇
10. Find the inverse of the following matrices if it exists.
2 3
a. [ ]
3 5

−2 4
b. [ ]
3 −6

1 2 4
c. [−2 1 1]
1 1 1

1 4 1
d. [1 6 3]
2 3 0

11. Find the determinants of the following.

1 2 1
a. [ 3 1 −1]
−2 1 1
4 0 1
b. [0 −1 2]
2 1 3

2 10 0
c. [3 −1 2]
5 9 2

12. Solve the following using Cramer’s rule

a. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 1
 b. 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 2
−3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 11
c. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −4
4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 9
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5
d. 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 5
𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 11
3𝑝 + 𝑞 + 4𝑟 = 13
13. Solve the following using matrix inverse method
a. 3𝑥1 − 8𝑥2 = −3
2𝑥1 = −5𝑥2 − 3

b. 6𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 3

2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 5
3𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1

c. 3𝑥1 + 8𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = −5

2𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = −1

d. 5𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 = −1
𝑥2 = 2𝑥1 − 2