MATRICES

ƒ A matrix is a set of real or complex

numbers (or elements) arranged in rows
and columns to form a rectangular array.
ƒ Let us consider the system of
simultaneous equations,

x +3 y + 4 z +5t =0
4 x+9 y +7 z +6t =0
3 x + 6 y + 11 z + 2 t = 0
ƒ Now we arrange the coefficients of x, y, z
and t of the above equations and enclose
them within brackets and we get

⎡1 3 4 5 ⎤
⎢
A = ⎢4 9 7 6⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣3 6 11 2⎥⎦
ƒ The above system of numbers arranged in
a rectangular array in rows and columns
and bounded by the brackets is called a
matrix.
ƒ A matrix having m rows and n columns is
called as m × n (i.e. ‘m by n’) matrix and is
referred to as having order m × n.
ƒ For example,
⎡1 3 4 5 ⎤
⎢4 9 7 6⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣3 6 11 2⎥⎦

ƒ is a 3 × 4 matrix, i.e. ‘3 by 4’ matrix.

ƒ It has got 3 rows and 4 columns and in all
3 × 4 = 12 elements.
ƒ Now, we have come to know that a matrix
is simply an array (rectangular) of
numbers.

ƒ A set of mn elements arranged in the form

of an ordered set of m rows, each row
consisting of an ordered set of n elements
is called an m × n matrix.

ƒ We write it Ai j .
ƒ Thus,
⎡ a11 a12 a13 .... .... a1 j ⎤
⎢a a22 a23 .... .... a2 j ⎥⎥
⎢ 21
⎢ a31 a32 a33 .... .... a3 j ⎥
Ai j =⎢ ⎥
⎢ .... .... .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ .... .... .... .... .... .... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ai 1 ai 2 ai 3 .... .... ai j ⎥⎦

ƒ The numbers ai j are called the elements or

entries of the matrix.
ƒ We also express the matrix A by its general
element ( ai j ). Thus A = [ai j ] . For the element,
first suffix, i stands for the ith row and the
second suffix j denotes the jth column.
› Q 1.
Fill in the blanks
⎡6 2 ⎤
⎢0 12⎥
ƒ The matrix ⎢ ⎥ is of order 3 × 2.
⎢⎣7 6 ⎥⎦
⎡2 6 9 12⎤
ƒ The matrix ⎢ ⎥ is of order 2×4.
⎣6 12 5 2 ⎦
DIFFERENT TYPES OF
MATRICES
• Row Matrix

ƒ A matrix having one row and any number

of column is called row matrix. This is the
type 1 × n matrix.

ƒ For example,
ƒ [6 9], [1 2 3], [a b c d x]
ƒ are all row matrices.
• Column Matrix
ƒ A column matrix consists of 1 column only.
ƒ For example

⎡6 ⎤
⎢ 2⎥
,
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣9⎥⎦

ƒ is a column matrix of order 3 × 1.

• Null Matrix
ƒ Any matrix in which all the elements are
zero is called a zero matrix or null matrix.
ƒ For example,

⎡0 0⎤
[ 0] , [ 0 0] , ⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
ƒ are all null matrices.
• Square Matrix
ƒ A matrix in which number of column
equals number of rows is called a square
matrix.
ƒ For example,
⎡1 3 5⎤
⎢6 7 9 ⎥ , ⎡ 2 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢9 2 ⎥
⎢⎣2 5 2⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦

ƒ are all square matrix of order (3 × 3) and

(2 × 2), respectively.
• Diagonal Matrix
ƒ A square matrix is called a diagonal matrix
if all its non-diagonal elements are zero.
ƒ For example,
⎡2 0 0⎤
⎢0 9 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 7⎥⎦

ƒ is a diagonal matrix.
• Unit or Identity Matrix
ƒ A square matrix with 1’s on the main
diagonal and 0’s elsewhere is called a unit
or identity matrix.
ƒ For example,
⎡1 0 0⎤
⎡1 0⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 1⎥ , ⎢0 1 0⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢0 0 1⎥
⎣ ⎦
ƒ (denoted by I2 and I3 respectively).
ƒ are unit matrices of order (2 × 2) and (3 ×
3), respectively.
• Symmetric Matrix
ƒ A square matrix [ai j ] is symmetric:
ƒ If ai j = a j i . ( for all i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n).
ƒ For example,
⎡1 2 9⎤
⎢ 2 7 6⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣9 6 5⎥⎦
ƒ Note that it is symmetrical about the
leading diagonal.
• Skew Symmetric Matrix
ƒ A square matrix [ai j ] is skew-symmetric
matrix,
ƒ If ai j = − a j i . (for all i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n).
ƒ For example,
⎡0 2 9⎤
⎢ − 2 0 6⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣− 9 − 6 0⎥⎦
ƒ is an example of a skew-symmetric matrix.
• Triangular Matrix
ƒ A square matrix all of whose elements
below the leading diagonal are zero, is
called an upper triangular matrix.

⎡1 6 2⎤
⎢0 9 5⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 2⎥⎦
ƒ is an example of upper triangular matrix,
whereas
ƒ A square matrix, all of whose elements
above the leading diagonal are zero, is
called a lower triangular matrix.

⎡1 0 0⎤
⎢ 6 2 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣2 9 6⎥⎦
ƒ is an example of lower triangular matrix.
• Equal Matrices
ƒ If A = [a i j ]m× n and B = [bi j ]m× n ,
then A = B

ƒ Iff. a i j = bi j , for every i = 1, 2, . . . , m

ƒ and j = 1, 2, . . . , n .
ƒ Two matrices are said to be equal if
corresponding elements throughout are
equal. Therefore, the matrices must also
be of the same order.
ƒ So if, ⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤ ⎡ 4 5 6⎤
⎢a ⎥ ⎢
a23 ⎥ = ⎢7 8 9⎥⎥
⎢ 21 a22
⎢⎣a31 a32 a33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 0 2⎥⎦

ƒ then, a11 = 4, a12 = 5, a13 = 6, a21 = 7,

ƒ a22 = 8, a23 = 9, a31 = 1, a32 = 0, and a33 = 2

ƒ Therefore, if [ai j ] = [xi j ] ,

ƒ Then ai j = xi j
ƒ for all values of i and j.
 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
• If the rows and columns of a matrix are
interchanged, i.e. the first row becomes the
first column, the second row becomes the
second column, the third row becomes the
third column etc., then the new matrix so
formed is known as the transpose of the
original matrix.

• If A is the original matrix, its transpose is

denoted by A′ or AT.
 ⎡2 3⎤
⎢ ⎥
ƒ If A = ⎢4 6⎥ ,
⎢⎣9 2⎥⎦

⎡2 4 9⎤
ƒ Then A = ⎢
T
⎥
⎣ 3 6 2 ⎦

ƒ Note that
ƒ for a symmetric matrix A = AT, whereas
ƒ for a skew-symmetric matrix A = − AT,
ƒ A being a square matrix.
 ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

ƒ A square matrix A is called an orthogonal

matrix if the product of the matrix A and

its transpose AT is an identity matrix.

ƒ So, for orthogonal matrix

AA = I
T
 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

• If A and B be two matrices of the same order,

then their sum A + B and A – B is defined as the
matrix, each element of which is the sum and the
difference of the corresponding elements in A
and B respectively.

• To be added or subtracted, two matrices must be

of the same order. Also order of the matrix
obtained on addition of two matrices is the same
as the order of matrices being added.
ƒ For example,

⎡4 9 6⎤ ⎡3 5 6⎤ ⎡ 7 14 12⎤
⎢6 2 5⎥ + ⎢4 4 3⎥ = ⎢10 6 8 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

ƒ and

⎡ 4 9 6 ⎤ ⎡ 3 5 6 ⎤ ⎡1 4 0 ⎤
⎢ 6 2 5 ⎥ − ⎢ 4 4 3⎥ = ⎢ 2 − 2 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR

ƒ To multiply a matrix by a single number ( i.e.

scalar), each individual element of the matrix is
multiplied by that scalar,

ƒ For example, if ⎡3 2 6⎤
⎢
A = ⎢1 2 5⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣9 3 0⎥⎦
ƒ then
⎡15 10 30⎤
5 A = ⎢⎢ 5 10 25⎥⎥
⎢⎣45 15 0 ⎥⎦
MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES
• Two matrices A and B can be multiplied only if
the number of columns of matrix A is equal to
the number of rows in matrix B.

• The (i, j)th element of product matrix AB is the

sum of products of the elements of ith row of A
multiplied by the corresponding elements in
the jth column of B.
• If order of matrix A is m × n and the order of
matrix B is n × p, then the order of product
matrix AB is m × p.

• Let us consider two matrices A and B, where

⎡ a11 a12 ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 b13 ⎤
A=⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥
⎣a21 a22 ⎦ ⎣b21 b22 b23 ⎦
• Then the product of A and B is denoted by AB
and is given by
⎡ a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22 a11 b13 + a12 b23 ⎤
AB = ⎢
⎣a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22 a21 b13 + a22 b23 ⎥⎦
• The entries in the product AB are determined in
the following way :
• Each element of the top row of A is multiplied
by the corresponding element in the first
column of B. The sum of these products is the
first entry of the product matrix.
• We multiply the elements of the second row of
A with the corresponding elements of second
column of B and the sum of these products is
the required entry for (2, 2)th element of product
matrix, and so on.
• Two matrices can be multiplied together only
when the number of column in the first is equal
to the number of rows in the second.
 ⎡2 7⎤
• Thus, if
⎢
A = ⎢1 2 ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣3 1 ⎥⎦

⎡ 2 3 6⎤
• and B=⎢ ⎥
⎣9 2 5 ⎦

⎡2 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2 3 6⎤
• then A B = ⎢1 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣3 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 9 2 5⎦
 • Now ⎡2 7 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 2 3 6⎤
A B = ⎢1 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣3 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 9 2 5⎦

⎡2 × 2 + 7 × 9 2 × 3 + 7 × 2 2 × 6 + 7 × 5⎤
⎢
= ⎢1 × 2 + 2 × 9 1 × 3 + 2 × 2 1 × 6 + 2 × 5 ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 × 2 + 1 × 9 3 × 3 + 1 × 2 3 × 6 + 1 × 5 ⎥⎦

⎡67 20 47 ⎤
⎢
= ⎢20 7 16 ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣15 11 23⎥⎦
• In general AB ≠ BA.

• For example,
⎡3 2 ⎤ ⎡1 2 ⎤
• A=
⎢ 1 0 ⎥ and B = ⎢ 3 1 ⎥ ,
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡9 8 ⎤ ⎡ 5 2⎤
• AB = ⎢ ⎥ and BA = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 1 2 ⎦ ⎣ 10 6 ⎦
⎡1 0 ⎤
• Also AI = IA = A where I =⎢ ⎥ .
⎣0 1 ⎦
• Example:

⎡0 1 2⎤ ః Obtain the
⎢
• If, A = ⎢1 2 3 ⎥
⎥
product AB and
⎢⎣ 2 3 4 ⎥⎦ explain why BA is
not defined. Also
show that:
⎡ 1 - 2⎤ (AB)T = BT AT.
⎢ ⎥
• and B = ⎢-1 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 -1 ⎥⎦
• Solution:

• The number of columns of A is 3, and the

number of rows in B is also 3, therefore the
product AB is defined.

⎡0 1 2⎤ ⎡ 1 - 2⎤
A B = ⎢⎢ 1 2 3 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ -1 0 ⎥⎥
•
⎢⎣ 2 3 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 -1 ⎥⎦

⎡ 0 × 1 + 1 × (- 1) + 2 × 2 0 × (- 2) + 1 × 0 + 2 × (- 1) ⎤
= ⎢⎢1 × 1 + 2 × (- 1) + 3 × 2 1 × (- 2) + 2 × 0 + 3 × (- 1) ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 2 × 1 + 3 × (- 1) + 4 × 2 2 × (- 2) + 3 × 0 + 4 × (- 1) ⎥⎦
• Since the number of columns of B is 2, and the
number of rows of A is 3, therefore, BA is not
defined.
⎡0 1 2⎤
⎡ 1 −1 2 ⎤
A T = ⎢⎢1 2 3 ⎥⎥ and B =⎢
T
Now ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 3 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ −2 0 −1⎦
then

T ⎡1×0+(-1)×1+2×2
T 1×1+(-1)×2+2×3 1×2 +(-1) ×3+ 2×4⎤
B A =⎢ ⎥
⎣(-2)×0+0×1+(-1)×2 (-2)×1+0×2+(-1)×3 (-2)×2+0×3+(-1)×4 ⎦

⎡ 3 5 7⎤
and T ⎡3 5 7⎤
=⎢ ⎥ (AB) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣-2 -5 -8 ⎦ ⎣ -2 -5 -8 ⎦

. Hence (AB)T = BT AT.

• Example:

• Evaluate A 2 - 3 A + 9 I ,

• if I is the unit matrix of order 3 and

⎡ 1 -2 3 ⎤
A = ⎢⎢ 2 3 -1⎥⎥
⎢⎣-3 1 2 ⎥⎦
• Solution:
⎡ 1 -2 3 ⎤ ⎡ 1 -2 3 ⎤
2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
A = ⎢ 2 3 -1⎥ ⎢ 2 3 -1⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣-3 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ -3 1 2 ⎥⎦
 ⎡ 1 − 4 − 9 −2 − 6 + 3 3 + 2 + 6 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ 2 + 6 + 3 − 4 + 9 − 1 6 − 3 − 2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣− 3 + 2 − 6 6 + 3 + 2 − 9 − 1 + 4⎥⎦

⎡ 3 −6 9 ⎤
⎢
=⎢ 6 9 − 3⎥⎥
⎢⎣− 9 3 6 ⎥⎦

⎡ 1 −2 3 ⎤ ⎡− 12 − 5 11 ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥⎥
3 A = 3 ⎢⎢ 2 3 −1⎥⎥ = ⎢ 11 4
⎢⎣− 3 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 7 11 − 6⎥⎦
 ⎡1 0 0⎤ ⎡9 0 0 ⎤
9 I = 9 ⎢⎢0 1 0⎥⎥ = ⎢0 9 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 9⎥⎦

• By adding, we get
⎡− 12 − 5 11 ⎤ ⎡ 3 − 6 9 ⎤ ⎡9 0 0⎤
A2 − 3 A + 9 I = ⎢⎢ 11 4 1 ⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢ 6 9 − 3⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢0 9 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 7 11 − 6⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 9 3 6 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 9⎥⎦
⎡− 12 − 3 + 9 − 5 + 6 + 0 11 − 9 + 0 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ 11 − 6 + 0 4−9+9 1 + 3 + 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 7 + 9 + 0 11 − 3 + 0 − 6 − 6 + 9⎥⎦

⎡− 6 1 2 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ 5 4 4 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 2 8 − 3⎥⎦
 DETERMINANTS
• The expression
a1 b1
a2 b2
• is called a determinants of the second order and
stands for ‘ a b − a b’.
1 2 2 1

• Similarly,
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b 3 c3
• is called a determinants of third order.
• Minors and Cofactors
• The minor of an element of a determinant is the
determinant obtained by deleting the row and
column which intersect in that element.

• For example, in
a11 a12 a13
∆ = a21 a22 a23 ,
a31 a32 a33

• minor of a = a11 a13 and minor of a = a11 a12 .

22 23
a31 a33 a31 a32
• The cofactor of any element in a determinant is its
minor with the proper sign. The sign of an element in
the ith row and jth column’s (− 1)i+j. The co-factor of
an element is usually denoted by the corresponding
capital letter.
3+ 2
• Thus the cofactor of a32 = (−1) × minor of a32.
a11 a13
• Thus, C32 =−
a21 a23
2+3
a
• Similarly, the cofactor of 23 = ( −1) × minor of a23.
a11 a12
• Thus, C23 =−
a31 a32
• Please note that
i+ j
Cij = (−1) × M ij

• Where Cij is the cofactor of aij,

• and

• Mij is the minor of aij.

• Laplace’s Expansion
ƒ A determinant can be expanded in term of any
row (or column) as follows.
ƒ Multiply each element of the row (or column) in
terms of which we intend expansion with the
determinant by its co-factor and then add up all
these terms.
ƒ Let us try to find out the determinant of

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
ƒ Expanding by R1 (i.e. 1st row)

b2 c2 a 2 c2 a2 b2
∆ = a1 C11 + b1 C12 + c1 C13 = a1 − b1 + c1
b3 c3 a 3 c3 a3 b3

(Here C11, C12 and C13 are the cofactors of a1, b1 and
c1 respectively.)
∆ = a1 (b 2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − b1 (a 2 c3 − a 3 c2 ) + c1 (a 2 b3 − a 3 b 2 ).

ƒ Similarly, expanding by C2 (i.e. 2nd column)

a 2 c2 a1 c1 a1 c1
∆ = b1 C12 + b2 C22 + b3 C32 = − b1 + b2 − b3
a 3 c3 a 3 c3 a 2 c2
(Here C12, C22 and C32 are the cofactors of b1, b2 and b3
respectively.)
∆ = − b1 (a 2 c3 − a 3 c2 ) + b2 (a1 c3 − a 3 c1 ) − b3 (a1 c2 − a 2 c1 )

• and expanding by R3 (i.e. 3rd row)

∆ = a3 C31 + b3 C32 + c3 C33
• (Here C31, C32 and C33 are the cofactors of a3, b3 and c3
respectively.)

• Thus ∆ is the sum of the products of the elements

of any row (or column) by the corresponding co-
factors.

• Such an expansion of a determinant is called

Laplace’s Expansion.
• Properties of Determinants
Expanding a determinant in which the elements are in
large number can be a very tedious task. It is
possible, however, by knowing some of the
properties of determinants, to simplify the working.
So here are some of the main properties.

(i) The value of a determinant remains unchanged if

rows are changed to column and column to rows.

a1 a2 a1 b1
=
b1 b2 a2 b2
(ii) If two rows (or two columns) are
interchanged, the sign of the determinant is
changed
a 2 b2 a1 b1
=−
a1 b1 a 2 b2
(iii) If two rows (or two columns) are identical,
the value of the determinant is zero.

a1 a1
=0
a2 a2
(iv) If the elements of any one row (or column) are all
multiplied by a common factor, the determinant is
multiplied by that factors
k a1 k b1 a1 b1
=k
a2 b2 a2 b2
(v) If the elements of any row (or column) are increased (or
decreased) by equal multiples of the corresponding
elements of any other row (or column), the value of the
determinant is unchanged.
a1 + k b1 b1 a1 b1
=
a2 + k b2 b2 a2 b2
Theorem: If A and B are n × n matrices, then det
(AB) = det (A) det (B).
 Adjoint of A Square Matrix
• If A is a square matrix, then the minor of entry aij is
denoted by Mij and is defined to be the determinant
Mij of the submatrix that remains after the ith row and
jth column are deleted from A. The number (– 1)i + j Mij
is denoted by Cij and is called the cofactor of entry
aij.
⎡a1 a2 a3 ⎤
A = ⎢⎢b1 b2 b3 ⎥⎥
• The determinant of the square matrix ⎢⎣ c1 c2 c3 ⎥⎦
a1 a2 a3
• is | A| = ∆ = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
• The matrix formed by the co-factors of the elements
in A is matrix of co-factors from A
⎡C11 C12 C13 ⎤
⎢C C C ⎥
⎢ 21 22 23 ⎥
⎢⎣C31 C32 C33 ⎥⎦
• where
b2 b3 b1 b3
C11 = = b2 c3 − b3 c2 , C12 = − = − b1 c3 + b3 c1
c2 c3 c1 c3

b1 b2 a2 a3
C13 = = b1 c2 − b2 c1 , C21 = − = − a2 c3 + a3 c2
c1 c2 c2 c3

a1 a3 a1 a2
C22 = = a1 c3 − a3 c1 , C23 = − = − a1 c2 + a2 c1
c1 c3 c1 c2
 a2 a3 a1 a3
C31 = = a2 b3 − a3 b2 , C32 = − = − a1 b3 + a3 b1
b2 b3 b1 b3

a1 a2
C33 = = a1 b2 − a2 b1
b1 b2

• Then the transpose of the matrix of co-factors

⎡C11 C21 C31 ⎤

⎢C C C ⎥
• Adjoint of A = ⎢ 12 22 32 ⎥
⎢⎣C13 C23 C33 ⎥⎦

• is called the adjoint of the matrix A and is written as

Adj A.
 Inverse of A Square Matrix
• The adjoint of a square matrix is important, since it
enables us to find the inverse of the matrix. If each
element of the adjoint of A is divided by the value of
the determinant of A, i.e. | A | (provided | A | ≠ 0, the
matrix A is said to be non-singular), the resulting
matrix is called the inverse of A and is denoted by
−1 1
A −1
, i.e. A = Adj A .
| A|
• Let us take the matrix
⎡ 3 − 3 4⎤
⎢
A = ⎢ 2 − 3 4⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 − 1 1⎥⎦
• Then A = 3 (− 3 + 4) + 3 (2 − 0) + 4 (− 2) (where | A | is the
= 3 + 6 − 8 =1 determinant of the
square matrix A)
• The co-factors of elements of various rows of | A |
are
(− 3 + 4) (− 2 − 0) (− 2 − 0) i.e. 1 −2 − 2

(3 − 4) (3 − 0) (3 − 0) i.e. −1 3 3
(− 12 + 12) (− 12 + 8) (− 9 + 6) i.e. 0 −4 −3

• Therefore, the matrix formed by the co-factors of

| A | is
⎡ 1 − 2 − 2⎤
⎢− 1 3 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 − 4 − 3⎥⎦
 ⎡ 1 −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
∴ Adj. A = ⎢ − 2 3 − 4⎥ A = −1 1
Adj. A = ⎢− 2 3 − 4⎥⎥
1⎢
A 1
⎢⎣ − 2 3 − 3⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 2 3 − 3⎥⎦
• So,
⎡ 1 −1 0 ⎤
A−1 = ⎢⎢− 2 3 − 4⎥⎥
⎢⎣− 2 3 − 3⎥⎦

• It can be shown that .

⎡1 0 0 ⎤
AA −1 −1
= A A = I3×3 ⎢ ⎥
= I3 = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥
⎢⎣0 0 1⎥⎦