Environment Issues

MEVE 019
ENVIRONMENTAL

Indira Gandhi ISSUES
National Open University
School of Agriculture
Block
1
ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES
Unit 1
Air Pollution 7
Unit 2
Climate Change 23
Unit 3
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 40
Unit 4
Persistent Organic and Radioactive pollutants 55
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak, Director, Prof. R. Baskar, Department Prof. Jaswant Sokhi, SOS, Prof. Shubhangi Vaidya,
ICAR-National Rice Research of Environmental Science IGNOU, New Delhi. SOITS, IGNOU, New
Institute Cuttack, Odisha & Engineering, Guru Delhi.
Prof Neera Kapoor, SOS,
Jambheshwar University of
Prof. P.A. Azeez, Director, IGNOU, New Delhi. Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS,
Science & Technology, Hisar,
SACON, Coimbatore Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik,
Prof I.S. Thakur, School of SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi. Dr. Sadananda Sahoo,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar,
Environmental Sciences, JNU, School of Environment & SOITS, IGNOU, New
Prof. P.K. Biswas, STRIDE,
New Delhi Natural Resources, Doon Delhi.
IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof Uma Melkania, Dean, University, Dehradun Dr. Sushmitha Baskar,
Prof. S.K.Yadav, SOA,
College of Basic Sciences and Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya, SOITS, IGNOU, New
IGNOU, New Delhi.
Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Department of Civil and Delhi.
Environmental Engineering, Prof. Shachi Shah, Director
Prof. Nidhi Rai, University Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan,
Birla Institute of Technology, SOITS, IGNOU, New
College of Science, M.L. SOITS, IGNOU, New
Mesra, Ranchi Delhi.
Sukhadia University, Delhi.
Udaipur Dr. Pulak Das, School of Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor,
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS,
Human Ecology, Ambedkar SOITS, IGNOU, New
Prof. Jitendra Pandey, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Delhi.
Department of Botany, Faculty of University, Delhi
Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman, SOITS,
Science, BHU
IGNOU, New Delhi.
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. Deeksha Dave, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
BLOCK AND COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Unit Writer
BLOCK 1 ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES
Unit 1 Air Pollution Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU

Dr. Umesh Chandra Pandey, Director, RSD, IGNOU,
Unit 2 Climate Change
New Delhi.
Stratospheric Ozone
Unit 3 Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU
Depletion
Persistent Organic and Dr. Geetha Tiwari, Associate Professor, Department of
Unit 4
Radioactive pollutants Chemistry, Kumaun University, Nainital.
BLOCK 2 LAND AND SOIL ISSUES
Unit 5 Threats to Biodiversity Dr. Ragini Kumari, ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principal Scientist, CESCRA, IARI,

Unit 6 Biomass Burning
New Delhi.
Soil Pollution, Land
Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principal Scientist, CESCRA, IARI,
Unit 7 Degradation and
New Delhi.
Desertification
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of
Unit 8 (Adopted
Waste Management Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
from MEV 023)
New Delhi.
BLOCK 3 WATER-RELATED ISSUES
Dr. Vikas Singhal, ARD, IGNOU (RC Delhi-1).

Unit 9 Eutrophication
Dr. Nurul Hasan, ARD, IGNOU (RC Port Blair).
Dr. Vikas Singhal, ARD, IGNOU (RC Delhi-1).
Unit 10 Marine pollution
Dr. Nurul Hasan, ARD, IGNOU (RC Port Blair).
Unit 11 Inland Water Pollution Dr. Ragini Kumari, ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Arsenic and Fluoride
Unit 12 Dr. Bir Abhimanyu Kumar, SRD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Pollution
BLOCK 4 SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
Environmental Changes
Unit 13 Dr. Ragini Kumari,ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
and Nutritional Security
Dr. Puneeta Pandey, Assistant Professor, Centre for
Urbanization and Environmental Sciences and Technology, School of
Unit 14
Consumerism Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of
Punjab, Bathinda.
Dr. Puneeta Pandey, Assistant Professor, Centre for
Multidrug-resistant Environmental Sciences and Technology, School of
Unit 15
Organisms Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of
Punjab, Bathinda.
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of
Unit 16 (Adopted Sustainable Development
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
from MEV 025) Goals
New Delhi.
CONTENT EDITORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi.
FORMAT EDITORS AND LANGUAGE EDITORS

Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies,
IGNOU, New Delhi.
PRINT PRODUCTION
Section Officer (P)
MPDD, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New DelhiJanuary, 2021
Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2020
ISBN :
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
MEVE 019 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The course “Environmental Issues” deals with atmospheric issues, land and soil
issues, water-related issues and security and development issues.
Objectives
After studying this course, you should be able to:
•• explain various types of air pollutants and their sources;
•• explain the mechanism and causes of climate change;
•• explain the impacts of climate change;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts;
•• identify the sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive
waste;
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste;
•• discuss the causes of threats to biodiversity;
•• explain the likely impacts of biodiversity loss;
•• explain the causes and impacts of biomass burning;
•• discuss the sustainable alternatives to biomass burning;
•• explain the causes of soil pollution, land degradation and desertification;
•• explore the inter-linkages between waste generation and climate change;
•• describe the sources, causes, extent and intensity of eutrophication;
•• explain the ecological impacts of eutrophication;
•• describe the sources, causes, extent and intensity of marine pollution;
•• explain the ecological impacts of marine pollution;
•• explain the causes of inland water pollution;
•• explain the mechanism and impacts of inland water pollution;
•• explain the sources and impacts of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• explain the effects of agricultural intensification;
•• explain the challenges faced by the agriculture sector in the 21st century;
•• explain the causes of urbanization;
•• explain the causes, extent and impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms and
•• explain the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development
goals.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.
BLOCK 1 ATMOSPHERIC ISSUES
Block 1 “Atmospheric Issues” aims to give detailed information on air pollution,
climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs) and radioactive waste.
•• Unit 1 “Air Pollution” deals with types and sources of air pollutants;
tropospheric ozone formation and health impacts of tropospheric ozone;
sources, impacts and management of volatile organic compounds; and
atmospheric deposition of air pollutants.
Unit 2 “Climate Change” aims to give detailed information about the definition,
causes, mechanism, impacts, extent, intensity and policy on climate change.
Unit 3 “Stratospheric Ozone Depletion” deals with the formation and dissociation
of ozone, causes of ozone depletion, impacts of ozone layer depletion and
international conventions to control stratospheric ozone depletion.
Unit 4 “Persistent Organic and Radioactive Pollutants” highlights the sources,
mechanism of transport, impact and management of Persistent Organic
Pollutants and radioactive waste.
Objectives
After studying this block, you will be able to:
•• describe sources of volatile organic compounds and their impacts;
•• explain tropospheric ozone and describe its effects;
•• describe air pollution management techniques and policies;
•• explain the extent and intensity of climate change through some case studies;
•• explain the impacts of climate change;
•• explain the implications of climate change on the policies;
•• describe the process of ozone formation;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts;
•• explain the important ozone management policies;
•• identify the sources of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive
waste;
•• explain the mechanism of transport of wastes in the environment;
•• describe the impact of POPs and radioactive waste and
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of
atmospheric issues.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!
UNIT 1 AIR POLLUTION
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition of Air Pollution
1.4 Types of Air Pollutants and their Sources
1.4.1 Primary Air Pollutants
1.4.2 Secondary Air Pollutants
1.5 Tropospheric Ozone
1.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone Formation
1.5.2 Tropospheric Ozone Concentration
1.5.3 Health Impacts
1.6 Volatile Organic Compounds
1.6.1 Sources
1.6.2 Impacts
1.6.3 Management and Policy
1.7 Atmospheric Deposition of Air Pollutants
1.7.1 Photochemical Smog
1.7.2 Industrial Smog
1.7.3 Acid Precipitation
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Suggested Further Reading/References
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Our present climatic conditions are relatively different from the pre-industrial
period’s atmosphere concerning pollution. We cannot find clean air nowadays due
to atmospheric pollution. Although, developing nations like India especially with
an upcoming economy, face infinite challenges with its increase in population and
ubiquitous scarcity and deprivation, in meeting consequential loyalty connected
with Sustainable Development Goals such as “poverty and hunger eradication”. In
the last 30 years, India has been growing steadily towards industrialization which
leads to environmental pollution specifically air pollution. We can realize that air
pollution started only after anthropogenic activities such as the burning of fossil
fuels. Continuous addition of air pollutants to the atmosphere from diversified
sources are accumulated in the atmosphere and changes its natural composition and
show adverse effects on the environment. In the environment, the duration of stay
of these pollutants will depend on the quantity of pollutants that accumulate from
different sources and the ability of the cleaning mechanism of the atmosphere either
to absorb or to disintegrate into harmless substances and disperse them. If it is so
we need to understand some of the facts about pollution that damages the health of
our beautiful natural environment including us. This unit makes you understand the
basic concepts of air pollution-related facts.
Atmospheric
Issues 1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
•• define air pollution and describe its constituents;
•• describe sources of volatile organic compounds and their impacts;
•• explain tropospheric ozone and describe its effects and
•• describe air pollution management techniques and policies.
1.3 DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), air
pollution is defined as “the presence of contaminants or pollutant substances
in the air that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful
environmental effects”.
“Air pollution can also be defined as the presence of impurities in the air like toxic
gases, particulate matter of solid and liquid material at elevated concentrations,
aerosols that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful
environmental effects by changing the chemical composition of the natural
environment. In other words, a substance which is potentially harmful to the
natural environment and humans as well is known as air pollutant”. Now we
have to understand exactly what do you mean by harmful? Harmful means
any negative effect that can damage and destroy all living things and the
natural environment. Let us first discuss the air pollutants and their sources.
Air pollutants are the substances such as any gaseous substance or aerosols or
complex chemical mixtures in the atmosphere which have negative effects on
living things and the environment. Air pollution is considered an alphabetical
soup of gaseous and particulate pollutants mixed with the normal unpolluted
constituents of air. The level of air pollution is depending on the following.
i. Quantity of pollutants released into the atmosphere
ii. Dispersion area of pollutants
iii. Removal mechanism of air pollutants.
1.4 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR

SOURCES
Pollutants are categorized into two groups. They are primary and secondary
pollutants.
1.4.1 PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS
Primary air Pollutants: Primary pollutants are the pollutants that are the direct
products of combustion and evaporation of fossil fuels. Most of the combustion
processes are incomplete and involve complex compounds. The evaporation
of volatile organic compounds combined with dust and smoke enters the
atmosphere.
Particulate matter (PM) / Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): They exist
in liquid and gaseous form and their size is measured in terms of aerodynamic
8 diameter (Table1.1).
Table 1.1 Size of air pollutants and their description Air Pollution
Particle size Description
‘Inhalable’ particles, enter the nose & mouth
Less than 100 microns
easily
‘Fine’ particles known as 'thoracic' enter the
Less than 10 microns (PM10)
respiratory system easily
‘Respirable’ particles enter the blood

Less than 4 microns
through the respiratory system
Less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) ‘Fine’ particles
Less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1) ‘Ultrafine’

The particulate matter is in the form of smoke, soot, metal powder, and dust
released by wind and by atmospheric reactions. This suspended particulate
matter is generated from the condensation of gases and the pattern of the wind.
These particles scatter in space and absorb visible light and diminish visibility.
Fine particles are composed of precursor gas such as sulphuric acid that is
generated in the atmosphere by Sulphur dioxide oxidation. SO2 is released by
the combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions and various other sources.
Because of the low vapour pressure of H2SO4, they condense into aqueous
sulphate particles under any atmospheric conditions. It is produced by the various
combustion process. These sulphate particles further react with gases that have
low vapour pressure such as ammonia, nitric acid and organic compounds. The
other key component in the SPM is organic carbon, which is a major fraction
formed by the condensation of hydrocarbons released from anthropogenic and
biogenic sources. Earth’s surface releases soil dust, sea salt and detritus of
vegetation by the mechanical action of wind. These SPM consists of particles
with 1-10 micrometre diameter. Another type of SPM which is produced by
gaseous condensation during the combustion process is soot mainly consists
of elemental carbon and accumulated black carbon. In the atmosphere, these
particles scatter the radiation beam in its path without absorption. The scattering
of light radiation takes place by the process of reflection, refraction or diffraction
of the beam of radiation. These particles affect the lungs, trigger cardiovascular
disease, and impair the growth of lungs in children with increased mortality.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide
(CO2), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX), Oxides of Sulphur (SOX) and Radon (Rn) are
examples of primary pollutants.
Source: Combustion of fossil fuels, and waste liberates soot or smoke which
contains carbon particles. Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels releases Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOC). In the presence of air and at high temperatures
combustion of fuels generates nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). Sulphur present in the coal oxidized during combustion
releases SO2. These oxides of sulfur are the reason to cause Sulphur Smog’ due
to the light absorption witnessed in the year 1952, as the London Smog episode.
Chemical toxins like benzene are produced from the combustion of fuels used in
transportation. Lead was added to gasoline as an anti-knocking agent and other
heavy metals were also primary pollutants released from automobile exhaust.
Some primary pollutants, their sources and their effects are discussed here.
9
Atmospheric Carbon monoxide: It is formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. It
Issues binds to haemoglobin in the blood and blocks the oxygen delivery to the tissues
which leads to dizziness, headache, unconsciousness and finally, death occurs.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC): They are produced from incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels, emissions from various industries, and evaporation
of gasoline and solvents. VOCs are carcinogenic. VOCs are described in detail
in the latter part of this unit.
Oxides of Sulfur (SOx): Burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels such as coal,
volcanic emissions, sea spray and microbial processes release oxides of sulphur.
It reacts with nitric acid droplets to form acid rain and impairs breathing.
Exposure for a longer duration to SO2 can cause bronchitis.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx): Oxides of nitrogen are generated and released
into the atmosphere by burning nitrogen-containing fuels, biomass at high
temperatures, lightening and microbial processes. It reacts with sulphuric acid
droplets in the atmosphere to contribute to acid rain. Chronic exposure may
impair lung function and affect the immune system.
Radon (Rn): Radon breakdown of radium and uranium-containing rocks.
Exposure to radon for a longer duration causes lung cancer.
Lead (Pb): Previously lead was used to prevent engine knockout by adding it
to gasoline. It is also emitted by the burning of lead-containing fuels and solid
waste and remained airborne. Lead shows toxic effects at low concentrations
also. Once it is accumulated in the body that can lead to death by damaging the
brain.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): CFCs are released into the atmosphere from
leakages from refrigerants and aerosols. CFCs are one main cause of
depleting the ozone layer and cause skin cancer.
According to Clean Air Act (1970) established National Ambient Air Quality
Standards, Particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide and lead are considered ‘criteria air pollutants’ because US-EPA
controlled them by primary and secondary pollution criteria standards. Primary
standards protect public health and secondary standards prevent environmental
damage.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define air pollution.
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1.4.2 SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Secondary air Pollutants: Primary pollutants undergo some chemical reactions
and produce additional unwanted compounds known as secondary pollutants.
Ex: Ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN), H2SO4 and HNO3.
10 Sources: In the presence of sunlight VOC and NOX both undergo reactions in the
atmosphere to form ozone and these are collectively known as photochemical Air Pollution
oxidants. NO2 splits into atomic oxygen and NO in the presence of UV radiation
and forms ozone by further oxidation. In the presence of VOCs, nitric oxide
form highly reactive peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN), Aldehydes and ketones by the
process of oxidation. These repeated reactions increase the ozone concentrations
in rural and urban areas. Sulfuric acid and Nitric acid produced from SOX and
NOX are the main components of acid rain.
Ozone O3: Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant and is emitted into
the atmosphere by photochemical reactions of VOCs & NOx. The ozone
concentrations are likely to increase by afternoon and damage the rubber
material by oxidation, damage the lungs and show adverse effects on animals
and plants.
1.5 TROPOSPHERIC OZONE

Tropospheric ozone is considered a Secondary Pollutant because it is generated
by a series of reactions in the Troposphere mainly by the reaction between
primary pollutants such as NO2 and oxygen-containing organic compounds. It
can be easily identified even at the 0.02 ppm concentrations. Tropospheric ozone
is also known as ground-level ozone, which cannot be emitted directly into
the environment but is generated in the atmosphere by the chemical reactions
between NOx and VOC. Since it is formed in the lower atmosphere and present
in the ambient air and exposed daily to humans and the ecosystem.
These chemical reactions occur when these pollutants emitted from point
sources and non-point sources react with each other in the presence of UV
radiation. This reaction is also known as the photodissociation reaction of NOx.
The concentration of ozone increases in the summer season in urban areas but in
some countries, it can reach even higher levels in the winter season. Ozone will
travel for longer distances by wind, hence rural areas can also experience the
effects of ozone. In contrast to stratospheric ozone, tropospheric ozone present
in the air we breathe is a harmful secondary air pollutant that has adverse health
effects on the environment hence it is known as bad ozone.
The tropospheric ozone is a secondary air pollutant and not easily controlled
because it is continuously created with the continuous emissions from
automobile exhaust and the presence of sunlight. Ozone is continuously formed
by the reaction of VOCs, NOx and atmospheric oxygen at low levels. In the
winter season due to low temperatures, low intensity of light and high wind
speeds the ozone concentrations are low. Whereas in the summer season at high
temperatures, high intensity of light and stagnation of wind the concentrations
of ozone are high relatively.
1.5.1 Tropospheric Ozone Formation
The tropospheric ozone formation is dependent on many precursors. Dear
learner here we would like to give a simple way to understand the formation of
tropospheric ozone.
1. Some portion of the ozone is transported from stratosphere to troposphere
through tropopause which is a precursor for tropospheric hydroxyl ion
(OH). The transportation rate of ozone is in the range of 1-2 X 1013 moles/
year. Each ozone molecule that enters the troposphere can produce two
hydroxy molecules. A portion of the transferred ozone is consumed by some 11
Atmospheric reactions in the troposphere and the remaining portion is deposited on the
Issues surface of the earth. Apart from this, in the troposphere, the ozone is formed
by the following reactions.
2. The tropospheric ozone is formed by the reaction between oxides of nitrogen,
carbon monoxide and VOC in the presence of sunlight, hence these are also
called ozone precursors. The major source of these ozone precursors are
emissions from vehicles, industries and solvents. The reactions involved in
the formation of ozone are as follows.
Oxidation of CO by hydroxyl ion generates peroxyl radical (R1), which
undergoes self-reaction that gives rise to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (R2). Some
of the hydrogen peroxides undergo photolysis to produce hydroxyl radicals and
because of their high soluble nature in water, they can be removed from the
atmosphere by rain (R3). Hydrogen peroxide reacts with additional hydroxyl
radical to produce peroxyl radical again (R4). The peroxyl radical in the
presence of nitric oxide regenerates hydroxyl radical and nitrogen dioxide (R5)
that immediately photolyze to produce ozone (R6). Hence, the net reaction is
the generation of ozone (R7) in a chain reaction initiated by peroxyl radical and
terminated by the loss of peroxyl radical in reaction (R2) through propagation
reactions in the presence of abundant NOx. The coupling reaction between
ozone, oxides of nitrogen and peroxyl radical is shown in Figure 1.1.
O2
CO+ OH CO2+HO2 (R1)
HO2+HO2 H2O2+O2 (R2)
H 2O 2 hυ 2OH (R3)
H2O2+OH HO2+H20 (R4)
HO2+NO NO2+OH (R5)
NO2+O2 hυ NO+O3 (R6)
CO+2O2 CO2+O3 (R7)
12 Fig. 1.1 Mechanism of O3 generation in a chain reaction cycle

1.5.2 Tropospheric Ozone Concentration Air Pollution
The concentrations of tropospheric ozone depend on the influence of various

concomitant processes such as precursors gas-phase surface emission,
transportation, meteorological parameters like temperature and wind, hydrologic
cycle, solar radiation and exchanges between stratosphere-troposphere (STEs).
Monitoring of ozone can be done both horizontally and vertically in space. If
we will consider the vertical dimension, the space is divided into lower, middle
troposphere and stratosphere. The lower troposphere is termed the boundary
layer where ambient air is present. In the horizontal dimension, often the space
is divided into socio-economic zones like urban, rural and remote regions. The
tropospheric ozone concentrations at the ground level are due to the following
reasons.
• Local photochemical reactions between NOx and VOCs are emitted from
both natural and anthropogenic sources. Once ozone is formed it travels for
long distances. This dispersion is also known as the Urban O3 plume.
• Mixing of O3 rich air at the lower tropospheric boundary layer with ambient
air results in an increase in the O3 concentrations during the morning and
this increase in ozone levels is independent of local region production of
photochemical reactions.
• Due to the mesoscale transport of ozone from long distances and present in
an area where the production of ozone is nil.
• Invasion of stratospheric ozone into the troposphere due to the tropopause
folding events that occurred on the backside of a frontal system that results
in a hole in the tropopause, through which the stratospheric ozone enters into
the troposphere. And this exchange is minimum from July-October in a year.
• Mid tropospheric ozone formed from photochemical reactions transported
to the lower troposphere.
• Removal of tropospheric ozone by chemical scavenging by most potential
chemical scavengers such as nitric oxide.
• Removal of tropospheric ozone is also done by physical scavengings
such as rain washout and chemical decomposition mechanisms which are
temperature-dependent.
Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant and a greenhouse gas. The source
of earth’s heat is solar energy, which is transferred from the Sun to the Earth
by radiation energy and is transformed to heat energy on the surface of Earth.
The earth has to balance this input of absorbed solar radiation with an output
of terrestrial radiation. Some of the reflected solar radiation from the earth is
captured by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and radiated back to the Earth,
resulting in the surface warming known as the greenhouse effect. Dear learner
as you have learnt, in the previous courses trapping terrestrial radiation by
natural greenhouse gases is one of the key factors for maintaining the Earth’s
surface temperature above the freezing point. The ozone concentrations in the
troposphere are influenced by other greenhouse gases in different regions.
For example, the NOx and CO concentrations are high at midlatitudes of the
northern region in the lower troposphere showing that there is more fossil fuel
combustion. In the upper troposphere, the concentration of NOx is more due to 13
Atmospheric lightning. The NOx concentrations will be balanced in the range of 10-50 parts per
Issues trillion by volume in the entire troposphere. The concentrations of tropospheric
ozone increase with altitude due to the absence of upper troposphere chemical
loss. In the northern hemisphere, the concentrations of ozone are higher than
southern hemisphere because of abundant NOx.
In the tropics, the concentrations of OH are highest, where the concentrations of
water vapour and UV radiation are high, and maximum in the mid-troposphere
due to the opposite vertical trends of water vapour that will decrease with altitude
and UV radiation that will increase with altitude. Concentrations of hydroxyl
radical tend to be higher in the northern than in the southern hemisphere due to
the higher O3 and NOx concentrations and will be compensated for the swift
loss of OH in the northern hemisphere due to elevated concentrations of carbon
monoxide. Increasing the concentrations of NOx and O3 will increase OH,
whereas the increase in CO and hydrocarbons deplete the concentration of OH
since CO and CH4 have longer lifetimes than NOx and O3, their anthropogenic
accumulations are evenly spread in the troposphere.

Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent and can irritate the muscle in the passage of
air and trap the air in the alveoli in humans leading to the breathing problems such
as wheezing, breath shortness, cough, sore throat, inflammation of the airways.
In higher concentrations, it worsens the lung ailments like asthma, bronchitis
and emphysema. It weakens lung functioning there by humans experience
recurrent asthma attacks, susceptible to infection and finally cause Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Long term exposure aggravates
asthma, permanent lung damage and finally leads to death and irregular lung
development in children.
Impact on Ecosystem
The adverse effects of ozone extend to plant ecosystems in sensitive species
of vegetation in forests, and parks and destroy them, particularly during the
growing season. If the ozone concentrations are high in the atmosphere, it
reduces the process of photosynthesis thereby reducing the plant’s growth. In
sensitive plants like tulip poplar, white pine etc., it increases the risk of disease,
copes up with harsh weather, and insects and shows certainly visible evidence
on the plants. In some species, it has adverse effects individually and negative
effects on the whole species diversity, behaviour towards other plant species in
the forest and alters the water and nutrient cycle.
1. Describe the formation of tropospheric ozone.
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14
2. Which factors influence the concentrations of tropospheric ozone? Air Pollution
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1.6 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

•• Volatile organic compounds are one of the significant categories of air
pollutants present at the ground level in urban regions and industrial areas.
There are many organic compounds listed under VOC with different
definitions. If we see by term volatile organic compounds suggests that these
compounds exist as liquids and solids at normal temperature and pressure
but in the atmosphere, they exist as gases. As per definition any organic
compound whose vapour pressure is less than 760torr and more than 1, at
200C, and the boiling points range from 500-1000C to 2400-2600C.
•• According to 40 CFR Part 51.100. “Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
are any compounds of carbon, excluding carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
carbonic acid, metallic carbides or carbonates, and ammonium carbonate,
which participates in atmospheric photochemical reactions”. VOCs have
various levels of reactivity and have varying levels of formation of ozone.
Some VOCs undergo reactions slowly and some produce less ozone. Hence,
local regions experience different levels of adverse effects on exposure to
ozone.
•• 1.6.1 Sources: VOCs are released into the atmosphere as a consequence of
anthropogenic activities, such as evaporation of petrol from vehicles, storage
& distribution of petrol, numerous industrial processes (oil refining, chemical
manufacture, oil and gas production etc.), photocopying, cosmetics, tobacco
smoke, solvents, landfills, food processing units and agricultural activities.
Natural biogenic processes like discharges from plants, animals, forest fires
and anaerobic processes in wetlands are also responsible for VOC emissions.
•• Biogenic Sources: Volatile Organic Compounds are ozone precursors and
most of them are released from the terrestrial ecosystem. Biogenic Volatile
Organic Compounds (BVOCs) are released from a functional group of plants
and are strictly regulated by meteorological actions. Isoprene (C5H8) and
monoterpene (C10H16) are the some of the most abundant biogenic species in
terrestrial vegetation. These emissions are temperature-dependent because
of the rate of photosynthesis. BVOCs are one of the important constituents
of the atmosphere and influence tropospheric chemical reactions.
•• According to EPA standard method TO 15/17, the list of 62 VOCs is
presented in Table 1.1
Table1.1 List of 62 VOCs as per EPA Standard TO 15/17
Ethyl dibromide
Acetone Ethanol
(1,1-Dibromoethane)
Benzene 4-Ethyltoluene Ethyl acetate 15
Atmospheric
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon
Issues Benzyl chloride Ethyl benzene
11)
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Bromoform 1,4-Dioxane
(Freon 12)
Bromomethane 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-
Propylene
trifluoroethane (Freon 113)
Bromodichloromethane 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
Styrene
(Freon 114)
1,3-Butadiene Hexachloro-1,3-butadiene Carbon disulfide
Carbon
2-Butanone (MEK) 2-Hexanone (MBK)
tetrachloride
Dibromochloromethane 4-Methyl-2-pentanone (MIBK) Chlorobenzene
1,2-Dichlorobenzene Methylene chloride Chlorethane
1,3-Dichlorobenzene Methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE) Chloroform
1,4-Dichlorobenzene 2-Propanol Cyclohexane

1,1-Dichloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane Chloromethane
1,2-Dichloroethane Tetrachloroethene Heptane
1,1-Dichloroethene Tetrahydrofuran Toluene

cis-1,2-Dichloroethene 1,1,1-Trichloroethane o-Xylene
trans-1,2-
1,1,2-Trichloroethane m-Xylene
Dichloroethene
1,2-Dichloropropane Trichloroethene p-Xylene
cis-1,3-
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene Vinyl acetate
Dichloropropene
trans-1,3-
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Vinyl chloride
Dichloropropene
Hexane 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene
1.6.2 Impacts
•• Ozone depletion in the stratosphere
•• Ozone formation at ground level
•• Chronic health effects
Most of these impacts are already discussed in the previous sections. The known
chemicals in general use under VOCs are Benzene, Toluene and Xylene (BTX).
The BTX compounds are toxic in nature and harmful pollutants.
Health Effects
Acute Effects: On exposure to these chemicals’ humans experience dizziness,
Headache, Nausea/Vomiting, Eye irritation/watering, Nose irritation, Throat
16
irritation, Asthma exacerbation. Air Pollution
Chronic Effects – Cancer, damage of Central Nervous System, Liver & Kidney
damage.
Ground-level ozone formation
Ozone is an important photochemical oxidant. Ozone in the troposphere
is formed by the reaction of VOC and oxides of nitrogen in the presence of
UV radiation. Ozone is formed in the stratosphere in the same way as in the
troposphere but the source of oxygen atoms is different. In the stratosphere,
the oxygen atom is available from the photodissociation reaction of the oxygen
molecule in the presence of UV radiation at < 240nm whereas in the troposphere
oxygen atom is from the photodissociation reaction of nitrogen oxides under
UV radiation at > 290nm.
The overall reaction is as follows
NO + VOC NO2
NO2 >hν NO(g)+ O(g)

>290nm
O(g)+ O2 (g) O3(g)
1.6.3 Management and Policy

a. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 in India is
an Act of the Parliament of India to control and prevent air pollution and
was amended in 1987. This is the first act of India established to prevent,
control and abate air pollution.
b. The Ozone-Depleting Substance (Regulation and Control) Rules,
2000, states that under Article 5, 1st paragraph of the Montreal Protocol
Regulation production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances.
This act also deals with monitoring and reporting requirements. In India,
MoEFCC has established an Ozone Cell that carries out the tasks of the
phaseout of the ozone-depleting substance.
c. National level strategy for pan India implementation to handle the
problem of increasing air pollution across the country in a comprehensive
manner in the form of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was
launched under the Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
“The main objective of the NCAP is comprehensive mitigation actions for
prevention, control and abatement of air pollution besides augmenting the
air quality monitoring network across the country and strengthening the
awareness and capacity building activities.” The NCAP function with an
aim of collaborative, multi-scale and cross-sectoral coordination between
the relevant central ministries, state governments and local bodies.
There is no specific legislation of VOC specifically in India besides National
Ambient Air Quality Standard for Benzene by the Central Pollution Control
Board of India. Worldwide, the United States Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) and World Health Organization (WHO)
have suggested a few regulations and guidance for VOCs and made them
not compulsory for individual governments to follow. 17
Atmospheric International Conventions
Issues The 1991 Geneva Protocol
The ‘Geneva Protocol on the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes’ was signed in Geneva (Switzerland)
on 18 November 1991. The main objective of this protocol is the reduction
of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which is a key air pollutant that is
responsible for the formation of ground-level ozone. The options are given by
this Protocol for the reduction in emission targets that have to be chosen upon
signature or upon ratification. The first option is by the year 1999 a thirty per
cent reduction in emissions of volatile organic compounds. The second option
is a 30% reduction within a Tropospheric Ozone Management Area (TOMA)
mentioned in annexe I to the Protocol and by ensuring the total 1999 national
emissions should not exceed the levels of 1988. Thirdly, if the 1988 emissions
did not exceed specified levels then Parties may choose for stabilization at that
emission level of 1999.
The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol
Gothenburg protocol is to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone and signed on 30th November 1999 in Gothenburg, Sweden. The main
objectives of this protocol are to control and reduce emissions, establish national
emission ceilings for 2010-2020 for four pollutants (SO2, NOx, NH3) including
VOC and provide negotiation facilities based on “Scientific Assessments of
Pollution Effects and Abatement Options”. The protocol also emphasizes
stringent limit values for emission sources such as combustion, electricity
production, dry cleaning, paints and aerosols have to be controlled. The protocol
was amended in 2012, to include national emission reduction commitments to
be achieved by 2020 and beyond.
1.7 ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION OF AIR

POLLUTANTS
The adverse effects of these pollutants may be additive, synergistic or antagonistic
but more often synergistic. One of the important effects of air pollution is the
smog that reduces visibility and is comprised of tropospheric ozone (O3). In this
unit, we will discuss different types of smog.
1.7.1 Photochemical Smog

The primary pollutants trapped in the lower atmosphere on exposure to UV
radiation from the sun form a thick blanket of smog known as photochemical
smog. The pollutants like ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), organic
peroxides (ROOR’), organic hydroperoxides (ROOH), and peroxyacetyl
nitrates (RCO3NO2) PAN are the main pollutants of photochemical smog. The
latter is formed by the irradiation of mixtures of alkanals, ozone and nitrogen
dioxide. The oxides of nitrogen emitted from the combustion process are
released into the atmosphere and initiate the process of ozone formation and
photochemical smog. The reactions involved in the formation of photochemical
smog are explained here. Small amounts of atmospheric oxides of nitrogen are
sufficient to initiate atmospheric chemical reactions for ozone formation and
photochemical smog formation.
18
Air Pollution
hν
NO2 NO+O (R8)
M
O+O O3 (R9)
O3+NO NO2 (R10)
O3 O + O2 (R11)
hν
O+ H2O 2OH (R12)
HCHO H.+ HCO. (R13)
HCHO+OH. HCO.+H2O (R14)
M
H.+O2 HO2. (R15)
HCO.+O2 HO2.+ CO (R16)
HO2.+NO NO2.+ OH. (R17)
OH.+NO2 HNO3 (R18)
Note: The M in R9 is any 3rd molecule that is inert that is required to stabilize
the intermediate by absorbing vibrational energy in its excited state.
The reaction initiates with the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide (R8), to produce
nitric oxide and an oxygen atom. This dissociated oxygen atom quickly reacts
with an oxygen molecule in (R9) to produce ozone. Once ozone is formed it
reacts with nitric oxide (R10) to reproduce nitrogen dioxide. The steady-state
ozone concentration is predicted and measured based on initial concentrations
of nitrogen dioxide. At λ, 315 nm, ozone dissociates into an oxygen atom in
the excited state and oxygen molecule (R11). Sometimes excited oxygen atom
strikes water molecules and generates hydroxyl radicals (R12). The hydroxyl
radical unlike other radicals formed from organic molecules does not react with
abundant oxygen, but it reacts with other compounds such as CO, R-CHO,
hydrocarbons etc. The next reaction in the series starts from formaldehyde,
which undergoes photolysis and reacts with hydroxyl radicals resulting in
hydrogen radical and formyl radical (R13 & R14). The hydrogen radical reacts
with oxygen molecule swiftly to form hydroperoxyl radical ( R15) and the
formyl radical reacts with oxygen molecule resulting in both hydroperoxyl
radicals and carbon monoxide (R16). These hydroperoxyl radicals react further
with nitric oxide to reproduce nitrogen dioxide and hydroxyl radicals (R17). In
the end, hydroxyl radical reacts with nitrogen dioxide to form nitric acid (R18).
Next in the reaction series that contributes to the photochemical smog, we will
see the next higher aldehyde that is acetaldehyde, which undergoes a series
of reactions in two pathways like formaldehyde, photolysis and reaction
with hydroxyl radical to produce peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), which is a key
component in the photochemical smog. The reactions involved in the formation
of PAN are as follows.
CH3CHO CH3+HCO (R19)
CH3CHO+OH CH3CO+H20 (R20)
CH3+O2 CH3O2(R21)
CH3CO+O2 CH3COO2 (R22)
CH3O2+NO NO2+CH3O (R23)
CH3O+O2 HCHO+HO2 (R 24) 19
Atmospheric CH3COO2+NO NO2+CH3COO (R25)
Issues CH3COO+O2 CH3O2+C02 (R26)
CH3COO2+NO2 CH3COO2NO2 (PAN) (R27)
The photolysis reaction (R19) of acetaldehyde results in methyl radical and
formyl radical. In the reaction with hydroxyl radical, it produces acetyl radical
with the liberation of H2O (R20). The methyl radical generates methyl peroxy
radical in reaction with O2(R21), while acetyl radical reacts with oxygen and
produces acetyl peroxy radical (R22). The methyl peroxy radical rapidly reacts
with nitric oxide to yield nitrogen dioxide and methoxy radical (R23). Likewise,
in reactions (R24 - R27) resulting in peroxyacetyl nitrate. The general reactions
representing the photochemical smog are as follows.
The general reactions of Photochemical Smog are given below:
1) NO + VOC → NO (nitrogen dioxide)
2) NO2 + UV → NO +2 O (nitric oxide and molecular O)
3) O + O2→ O3 (ozone)
4) NO2+ VOC → PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate)
Overall reaction:
NO + VOC + O2+ UV → O3 + PAN + other particulates
1.7.2 Industrial Smog
Industrial smog is well known as grey or black smog that is formed in cold
and humid temperatures, particularly in urban areas where industrial pollution
is more with the emission of sulfur. The sulphur reacts with water vapour in
the atmosphere to produce sulphur dioxide. SO2 is oxidized to form sulphuric
acid and sulphate particles as soon as it was produced. On catalytic oxidation
of industrial dust particles in the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere
makes the droplets more acidic. All these particulates form a thick layer of haze
known as acid smog or industrial smog. The general reactions to industrial
smog are given below.
1) C + O2→ CO (Carbon dioxide)
2
2) S + O2 → SO (Sulfur dioxide)
2
3) SO + O2→ SO + O (Sulfur trioxide)
4) SO2 + H2 O → H 3
2
SO (Sulfuric acid)
5) H2 SO4 + NH → (NH 4) SO4 (Solid ammonium sulfate)
3
3 4 2
1.7.3 Acid Precipitation
Acid precipitation is the type of deposition such as rain, fog, mist or snow
that is relatively acidic than normal. The pH of rainwater without pollutants
is approximately 5.6. Acid deposition is the deposition of rain and dry acidic
particle with a pH of less than 5.5. It consists of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and
nitric acid (HNO3) mixture. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released into the
troposphere either by the burning of fossil fuels or by natural sources. They are
oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to sulfuric acid and nitric acids which dissolve in
rainwater and reach the ground as acid deposition. Wet acid deposition is known
as acid rain. Dry deposition is called acid fog.
20 Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. Air Pollution
1. What impact does VOCs pollution have on human health?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
1.8 LET US SUM UP

Several forms of air pollutants exist in the form of gases, fumes, clouds,
smoke, mist, fog, smog, haze, dust, aerosols, etc. They are classified as natural/
anthropogenic, primary/secondary, particulates/gases, ambient air/indoor air/
global, stationary/mobile etc. Air pollutant concentrations are measured in the
form of their threshold values which are different for different pollutants. In
this unit, the emphasis has been made on the chemistry of tropospheric ozone
formation and volatile organic compounds. Atmospheric depositions of air
pollution such as industrial, photochemical and acid rain have been discussed.
Above these values, the pollutants show adverse effects on human beings. The
common problem is respiratory tract infection, bronchitis and other diseases
that can occur due to inhalation of toxic pollutants. Pollutants such as arsenic,
lead, fluoride, insecticides and pesticides affect human beings adversely. The
unit is concluded with some international protocols on VOC.
1.9 KEY WORDS

Acid Deposition: Any form of acid precipitation and also the fallout of dry acid
particles.
Acid Precipitation: Includes acid rain, acid fog, acid snow, and any other form
of precipitation that is more acidic than normal (i.e., less than pH 5.6). Excess
acidity is derived from certain air pollutants; namely, sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen.
Aerosols: Microscopic liquid and solid particles originating from land and
water surfaces carried up into the atmosphere.
Convection: The vertical movement of air due to atmospheric heating and
cooling.
Ecosystem: A group of plants, animals and other organisms interacting with each
other and with their environment in such a way as to perpetuate the grouping
more or less indefinitely.
Greenhouse Effect: An increase in the atmospheric temperature caused by
increasing amounts of carbon dioxide and certain other gases that absorb and
trap heat, which normally radiates away from Earth.
Photochemical Smog: The brownish haze that frequently forms on otherwise
clear, sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Photochemical smog results largely from sunlight-driven chemical reactions
among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, both of which come primarily from
auto exhausts. 21
Atmospheric Primary Pollutants: Pollutants are released directly into the atmosphere mainly
Issues as a result of burning fuels and wastes, as opposed to secondary pollutants.
Secondary Air Pollutants: Air pollutants resulting from reactions of primary
air pollutants resident in the atmosphere. Secondary air pollutants include
ozone, other reactive organic compounds, and sulphuric and nitric acids.
Volatile Organic Compounds: A category of major air pollutants presents in
the air in the vapour state. The category includes fragments of hydrocarbon fuels
from incomplete combustion and evaporated organic compounds such as paints,
gasoline, and cleaning solutions. VOCs are major factors in the formation of
photochemical smog.
1.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

REFERENCES
1. http://cpcbenvis.nic.in/air_pollution_main.html#
2. Manahan, Stanley E. “Frontmatter” Fundamentals of Environmental
Chemistry Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001
3. Sources and Control of Volatile Organic Air Pollutants-United States
Air Pollution Training Institute (APTI) November 2002 Environmental
Protection Environmental Research Center, MD 17 (Revision 2) Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
4. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry by A.K. De
5. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
6. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.
7. https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net › acp-15-8889-2015
1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Please refer to section 1.3
1. Please refer to section 1.5.1
22
UNIT 2 CLIMATE CHANGE
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Definition of Climate Change
2.4 Causes of Climate Change
2.5 Drivers of Climate Change
2.6 Extent of Climate Change
2.7 Impact of Climate Change
2.7.1 Impacts of climate change on Atmosphere
2.7.2 Heat Waves and Extreme Temperatures
2.7.3 Socioeconomic Impacts
2.7.4 Climate Change Impacts on Health
2.8 Which Country has Contributed the Most?
2.9 Policy Implications of Climate Change
2.10 Implications for Post-2015 Development Agenda
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Key Words
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Climate change is not new for the planet earth. It has been happening across
history. We have reasons to believe that during the past 650,000 years there have
been seven cycles of glacial advances and retreat. The last ice age ended abruptly
about 11,700 years ago and marked the beginning of the modern climate era
and human civilization (NASA, 2020). Most of such climatic changes can be
attributed to small variations in the earth’s orbit that change the incoming solar
energy to our planet.
As per the report from the scientific working group in the IPCC TAR (IPCC,
2001) the Earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and
regional scales since the pre-industrial era. This phase of climate change carries
a special significance because it is extremely likely (with 95-100 % probability)
due to human activities (IPCC, 2014, p4). There is compelling evidence based
on observations, theories and modelling that much of the climate change which
we are seeing at the moment is due to human activities. Such anthropogenic
activities have been progressing at an unprecedented rate since the onset of
industrial societies. This period which is quite often referred to as a period of
great acceleration coincides with the accelerated rate of emission of Green
House Gases (Steffen et al., 2015). There is enough scientific evidence to
prove a positive correlation between GHGs and temperature (Petit et al, 1999,
p429). According to the analysis of 11,944 scientific papers, written by 29,083
authors and published in 1980 journals, there is over a 97% consensus on
anthropogenic global warming (Cook et al. 2013; Lehtonen, Salonen and
Atmospheric Cantell, 2019). However, there is still major uncertainty about the magnitude
Issues of the rise in Global Mean Surface Temperature (GMST) in response to a given
amount of greenhouse forcing.
In the past century alone, the temperature has increased by 0.7 degrees Celsius,
which is roughly ten times faster than the average rate of ice age recovery
warming (NASA, 2020). The technological advances, particularly in the field
of palaeoclimatology have now significantly enhanced human capacities to
monitor changing climatic conditions on earth, analyze the data and reveal the
signals of changing climate.
Current global temperatures are 0.8°C higher than pre-industrial levels and
research shows that 1.5°C of warming is already locked into the Earth (World
Bank Group, 2014a). The business-as-usual approach will lead the world to
warming of 2°C by the middle of the century and 4°C or more by the time
today’s teenagers reach their 80s (World Bank Group, 2014a). Climate change
is not merely confined to GHGs and a rise in temperatures but has widespread
implications for human existence. This unit aims to give detailed information
about definition, causes, mechanism, impacts, extent, intensity and policy.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
•• define climate change;
•• explain the extent and intensity of climate change through some case studies;
•• explain the impacts of climate change and
•• explain the implications of climate change on the policies.
2.3 DEFINITION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

As per the UNFCCC, climate change is referred to as “any change in climate which
is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition
of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods” (UNFCCC 1992). However, according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international
entity of United Nations (UN), climate change refers to “a change in the state of
the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in
the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer” (IPCC 2015, p. 120). So, climate change
is “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a
result of human activity” (IPCC 2014). There is a difference between the usage
of the term climate change in the UNFCCC and IPCC. Though the definition
given by UNFCCC talks about only human-induced climate change, we find
that the IPCC has adopted a broader definition that includes both natural and
human-induced climate change.
24
Climate Change
2.4 CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Now, there is categorical research evidence to prove that climate change is real
and that human interventions are the major contributing factors to such changes
(IPCC, 2014, p4). Though there have been natural climate variability due to
natural internal processes within the climate system, there is an overriding
impact of alterations in the atmosphere due to human or anthropocentric
activities. In a report published in 2015, IPCC had emphasized the impact of
human influence saying that “Human influence on the climate system is clear,
and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in
history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and
natural systems” (IPCC 2015, p. 2). Another recently published IPCC report
highlights that “human influence has become a principal agent of change on
the planet, shifting the world out of the relatively stable Holocene period into a
new geological era, often termed the Anthropocene” (Allen et al. 2018, p. 53)
Response to climate change has changed both in definition and scope. Though
initially, the focus was on reducing and stabilizing human-induced GHG
emissions in the atmosphere, it has subsequently become broad-based (UNFCCC
1992). In addition, the scope of climate actors has also started involving non-state
actors like the private sector, cities, civil society, and multilateral development
institutions among others (UNFCCC 2018).
2.5 DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Fig. 2.1 Energy Budget of Earth and its atmosphere: A Schematic

representation Source: UKOU website
The schematic diagram as shown in Fig. 2.1 displays the energy budget of the
earth and atmosphere. The figures are global annual averages expressed as a
percentage of the rate per unit area at which solar radiation is intercepted by the
Earth; i.e., 100 units are equivalent to 342 W m−2. Fig. 2.1 demonstrates that the
entire Earth-atmosphere system is in a dynamic equilibrium. However, as we
can see from this figure that energy circulates within the system at a higher rate
compared to the rate of input or output at the top of the atmosphere. Therefore,
we find the earth’s surface to be warmer than it otherwise would be. We also 25
Atmospheric observe from this figure that there is no net accumulation of thermal energy
Issues in any specific part of the earth-atmosphere system. Therefore, Global Mean
Surface Temperature (GMST) cannot change in this scenario. It is however
interesting to find out what might cause Earth’s GMCT to change? If we look
at the energy budget as depicted in Fig. 2.1, we can easily understand that any
disturbance in the radiation balance at the top of the atmosphere has the potential
to force the global climate to change. Such a disturbance can either warm-up
or cool down till a balance is reached. This kind of energy perturbation in the
energy balance of the entire earth-atmosphere system (expressed in W m−2) is
called radiative forcing. Starting from its first major report published in 1990,
IPCC has used the concept of “radiative forcing” as the potential mechanism for
climate change. There could be several ways in which the energy balance can
get disturbed.
1. Change in Solar Constant
For instance, we can work out the effect of change in the solar constant.
Let us assume that planetary albedo remains unchanged (at 31%). Under
these circumstances, an increase in the solar constant will lead to a positive
radiative forcing. It means that the earth-atmosphere system will absorb
solar radiation at a higher rate than the rate at which it emits. It will have
a warming effect. Similarly, a reduction in solar constant will create a
negative radiative forcing thereby leading to a cooling effect.
2. Volcanic Eruptions
The energy balance can also be disturbed by volcano eruptions which
generally discharge a huge quantity of gases and volcano ash into the
atmosphere. Sometimes these eruptions are so powerful that they inject
materials up to the stratosphere. At such high altitudes, these materials
gradually spread around the world and bring about a widespread cooling
effect for a long time. The sulphur dioxide emitted during the eruption has
a far-reaching impact as chemical reactions convert this gas into droplets of
sulphuric acid. These sulphate aerosols persist in the stratosphere for several
years and enhance the backscattering of solar radiation. However gradually
these aerosols comedown to the troposphere and get washed away by rain.

BOX-2.1: Case Study: Impact of Volcano Eruption on Climate
Change
The eruption of Mount Tambora, a large volcano event in Indonesia
in April 1815 and its impact on climate change is well documented. It
resulted in a period of abnormally cold weather during the spring and
summer of 1816 and its impact was severely felt in many parts of the
Northern Hemisphere, especially in the northeastern United States.
Average temperatures in New England were observed up to 3.5 °C
below normal in June besides unseasonal frosts and snowfalls. Similarly,
Europe also suffered from crop failures and famine in England, France
and Germany. The below-average temperatures lasted for about two
years. Even in the summer of 1816, there were also widespread reports
of a dim Sun or persistent haze that was not dispersed by surface wind or
rain (since it was actually up in the stratosphere).
26
3. Accumulation of Greenhouse Gases in the atmosphere Climate Change
The increasing burden of greenhouse gases can also create imbalances in
the radiation budget of the earth-atmosphere system and thus give rise to
radiative forcing. This fact can be well understood through an illustrative
example. Let us assume that the atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide is doubled instantaneously but other parameters, for instance, the
solar input, planetary albedo, concentrations of other greenhouse gases, etc.
remains the same. The obvious impact will be higher absorption of outgoing
long waves and consequent reduction in net emission to space (from 236
W m−2 to 232 W m−2) for a CO2-doubling. It gives a very reliable reason to
believe that increasing anthropogenic concentrations of greenhouse gases
have created warming of the earth’s atmosphere (which may also be referred
to as greenhouse forcing).
Observed warming in the earth’s atmosphere cannot be explained keeping
in view the natural factors alone and thus can largely be attributed to
anthropogenic influence. IPCC (2007) states that during the last 50 years
“the sum of solar and volcanic forcings would likely have produced cooling,
not warming”.
1. List out three possible factors which could disturb the radiation balance at
the top of the atmosphere?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….……………………………………………
…………………………………………….……………………………
.……………………………………………………………………………
2.6 EXTENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

We have sound reasons to believe that the concentration of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases is increasing in the atmosphere. Furthermore, monitoring
programs established during the 1980s reveal an upward trend in the levels of
two other natural greenhouse gases namely methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide
(N2O). There are very convincing reasons to believe that buildup of all three
greenhouse gases is non-linear and can be attributed to human intervention
including a very unlikely source - the vast ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica.
It is now well-realized and understood that fossil-fuel-based material
consumption and changing lifestyles are the major culprits for climatic change.
These factors have increased the emission of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) for
example carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides (Allen et al. 2018, p. 53).
The impact of such emissions results in rising temperature across the globe
which has manifestations like increased floods and droughts, sea-level rise,
biodiversity loss, loss of agricultural productivity, and risks to human health.
Such impacts thwart initiatives for sustainable development, particularly in
those countries which are most vulnerable to its impacts. The extent of climate 27
Atmospheric change as manifested in different indicators is summarized in Table 2.1.
Issues
Table 2.1: The Extent of Climate Change as manifested in different
indicators
Indicator The extent of climate change
The data collected from Mauna Loa shows a consistent rise
in CO2 concentration. These measurements began in 1958
when the level was 315 ppm. However, levels had reached
more than 378 ppm in 2004. It appears to be accelerating.
Levels of CO2 For instance, it took around 200 years (1750 to 1975) for
observed at carbon dioxide levels to build up from 280 to 330 ppm but
Mauna Loa it took just 30 years for it to increase by a further 50 ppm.
It has also been seen that the three natural greenhouse gases
are fairly uniformly mixed up in the troposphere. Hence
their concentration in the atmosphere does not vary much
from place to place.
Rising Global mean warming is now approximately 0.8 degrees
global mean Celsius above preindustrial levels (World Bank,2012, ch2,
temperature p6)
Approximately 93 per cent of the additional heat absorbed
by the earth, resulting from increasing greenhouse gas
Increasing
concentration since 1955 is stored in the ocean. Between
ocean heat
1955 and 2010 the world's oceans to the depth of 2000 m
storage
have warmed on average by 0.09 degrees Celsius (World
Bank,2012, ch2,p7).
Sea level rise has been indicated to be 20 cm from the pre-
industrial times to 2009. The rate of sea-level rise was close
Rising Sea
to 1.7mm/year during the 20th century. This accelerated to
Levels
3.2 mm/year on average since the beginning of the 1990s
(World Bank,2012 ch2, p8).
Increasing loss Both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been
of ice from losing mass since at least the early 1990s and losses of ice
Greenland and are shared roughly equally between them (World Bank,2012
Antarctica ch2, p8).
The linear trend of September ice extent since the beginning
Loss of Arctic
of the satellite record indicates a loss of 13 per cent per
Sea Ice
decade (World Bank,2012 ch2, p12).
From 1750 to 1994, a decrease in surface pH of 0.1 has

been calculated, corresponding to a 30 per cent increase in
Ocean
H+ ions. An increase in ocean acidity is more pronounced
Acidification
in higher latitudes than in tropics or subtropics (World
Bank,2012 ch2, p11).
Heatwaves Heatwaves with temperatures typically more than 3 Standard
and extreme Deviation warmer, which were highly unusual earlier, started
temperature getting more frequent. The five hottest summers in Europe
since 1500, all occurred after 2002(World Bank,2012 ch2,
p13).
28 Source: Compiled from World Bank (2012, ch 2)
BOX 2.2: The CO2 Measurement Observatory at Mauna Loa Climate Change
The hypothesis proposed by John Tyndall (Tyndall 1861) that the concentration
of atmospheric CO2 influences the climate of the earth, were systematically
investigated by Charles D. Keeling. He started systematically measuring
atmospheric CO2 in 1958 at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii (Keeling et
al. 1976; Pales & Keeling 1965). Mauna Loa was especially identified as a
suitable place for this purpose primarily because it was remote from external
sources and sinks of carbon dioxide. Mauna Loa Observatory is located on
the north flank of Mauna Loa Volcano, on the Big Island of Hawaii, at an
elevation of 3397 meters above sea level. The Observatory has been collecting
and monitoring data related to atmospheric change since the 1950s. Mauna
Loa is strategically identified for measuring CO2. Firstly, it's isolated and far
from sources of pollution and secondly, its lava coated flanks are free from
plants and trees thereby making it free from their processes of photosynthesis.
Despite its location on the active volcanic island, volcanic emissions, from
the summit do not reach the observatory where atmospheric carbon dioxide is
measured. However, any rare instance of elevated level can be easily removed
from the final data set using simple mathematical filters (Earth Observatory,
2006). The measurements of Keeling show an increase from 316 ppm (parts
per million) in March 1958 to 391 ppm in September 2012. However, the
seasonal variations were superimposed on this generally increasing trend.
Such small variations can be attributed to the growth of plants in the Northern
Hemisphere leading to greater uptake of carbon from the atmosphere (Pales
and Keeling 1965).
Source: NASA
Fig. 2.2 Changing concentration of Greenhouse Gases

BOX 2.3: HOW DO WE MEASURE TEMPERATURES PREVAILING
IN PAST CLIMATES
It is a challenge to find out the temperatures prevailing in past climates. There
are several proxy ways to reconstruct past climates. These methods give us
indicative figures of the temperatures.
29
Atmospheric a. Archaeological Inscriptions and Historical Documents
Issues
For a long time in human history, people have recorded the vicissitudes of
climate and their impact on human affairs. Such archaeological inscriptions
and historical documents (diaries, ship logs, etc.) are a valuable source of
information about prevailing climatic conditions.
b. Palynology
Plants produce pollen in large quantities which are extremely resistant to
decay. Such pollens can be found in sediment layers, the density of which
gives indications about prevailing climatic conditions(palynology). The
abundance of the pollens of a given vegetation period or year depends
partly on the weather conditions of the previous months.
c. Study of ancient ice cores (Paleoclimatology)
Several proxy climate indicators like oxygen isotopes, methane
concentrations, dust content as well as many other parameters are used in
palaeoclimatology to examine ice core data. For instance, the ratio
between the 16O and 18O water molecule isotopologues in an ice core gives
indicative figures of past temperatures. The heavier isotope condenses
more readily as temperature decreases whereas the lighter isotope needs
colder conditions to precipitate. Hence analysis of isotope ratios in ancient
ice provides information about climatic conditions in the past. Similarly,
air bubbles in the ice, which contain trapped GHGs for example carbon
dioxide and methane also give indications about past climatic changes.
The European Greenland Core Drilling Project drilled in central Greenland
from 1989 to 1992. The ices were found to be 3840 years old at a depth
of 770 m, 40000 years at 2521m and 200000 years old or more at 3029 m
bedrock. Similarly, the ice cores in Antarctica can reveal climate records
for the past 650000 years.
Fig. 2.3: Temperature changes over the past 400 000 years reconstructed from
the Vostok ice core, the longest continuous ice-core record to date.
e. Determining past climate from annual tree rings (Dendroclimatology)
Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climate from annual
tree rings. The trees in many parts of the world experience an annual
growth cycle. The tree rings are wider when conditions favour growth
and narrower during difficult times. The thickness and/or density of a ring
depends on the local temperature and moisture conditions thereby giving
a unique opportunity to find the temperatures of the respective climate
period. There are other properties like maximum latewood density (MXD)
which are better proxies than simple ring width. This data can then be
matched with overlapping records from other trees to produce longer time
30 series.
Using tree rings scientists have estimated many local climates for Climate Change
hundreds to thousands of years. In a few cases, the preservation of
fossil trees has allowed continuous records from 11 000 years ago to
the present to be constructed.
Fig. 2.4: The growth pattern from year to year appears as a series of
rings that give valuable information about the respective climate period.
This science is called dendroclimatology
f. Ocean Coral Skeletal Rings or bands
Palaeoclimatological information can also be derived from Ocean Coral
Skeletal Rings or bands. Cyclical responses lead to annual banding in
corals, which can provide information about sea-surface temperatures,
sea level and other ocean conditions - typically back to some 400 years
ago.
Source: UKOU
2.7 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change has widespread impacts extending well beyond an increase in
temperature. It has an implication for almost everything which we depend
upon, for example, water, energy, transportation, wildlife, agriculture,
ecosystems, and human health. Anthropogenic activities have already caused
major climatic changes and have set in motion, still more changes. Moreover,
carbon dioxide, the predominant Greenhouse Gas (GHG), continues to linger
in the atmosphere for hundreds of years and it takes a while for the planet to
respond (for example oceans). As a result of this, the impact persists for at least
several more decades, even if we stop emitting. In the absence of major action
to reduce emissions, global temperature is on track to rise by an average of 6 °C
(10.8 °F), according to the latest estimates (NASA Global Climate Change).
The temperature of the earth’s surface does not react instantaneously to the
rising carbon dioxide levels. It happens because a sizeable amount of excess
energy is stored in the ocean (large heat capacity). Even if all emissions were
to stop today, some further warming will be unavoidable before temperatures
stopped rising. Therefore, we cannot afford to wait to control GHG emissions
till it becomes intolerable.
31
Atmospheric The warning signs of climate change have started impinging upon the lives of
Issues people (Please see Box 2.4). The battle against climate change will have to be
fought on two major fronts 1) “mitigation” – reducing the flow of greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere; and 2) “adaptation” – learning to live with, and adapt
to, the climate change that has already been set in motion. It will require both
a globally-coordinated response (such as international policies and agreements
between countries, a push for cleaner forms of energy) and local efforts on
the city- and regional level (for example, public transport upgrades, energy
efficiency improvements, sustainable city planning, etc. (NASA Global Climate
Change).
2.7.1 Impacts of climate change on Atmosphere
All these anthropogenic changes have the potential to modify the chemical
composition of the atmosphere. Changes in atmospheric temperature also
affect the rates at which chemical reactions take place (World Meteorological
Organization, 2009). Climate warming is expected to enhance the release of
biogenic hydrocarbons into the atmosphere which in turn contributes to the
worsening of regional air quality (World Meteorological Organization, 2009).
Emissions of nitric acid by bacteria in soils are sensitive to temperature and
soil moisture and are affected by climate change (World Meteorological
Organization, 2009). An increasing number of wildfires and droughts will lead
to larger emissions of combustion products like carbon monoxide, nitric oxide,
soot and other compounds, affecting the regional and global air quality. Changes
in ocean temperature affect the ocean-atmosphere exchanges of compounds
such as dimethyl sulphide, which are a source of sulphate aerosols. Just like
greenhouse gases, aerosols can have profound impacts on the earth’s radiative
and energy balance. By controlling the amount of energy that reaches the
earth from the sun, aerosols can create a cooling effect by reflecting the sun’s
energy into space. However, there is one aerosol soot (also known as black
carbon), that can create a warming effect and thus contribute to global warming.
Climate models have predicted that aerosols have masked about 50 per cent
of the warming that would otherwise have been caused by greenhouse gases
(NASA, 2009). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has concluded that
industrial aerosols have acted as a significant brake on the increase in global
temperatures over the last 30 years or so. Although aerosols have limited the
warming, they also have detrimental effects on human health such as lung
damage. Aerosols also affect rainfall patterns, some areas like India and China
can experience reduced rainfall. They can also alter the pattern of wind and
atmospheric circulation. Aerosol as air pollutants cause tens of thousands of
premature deaths every year in the UK alone (the University of Leeds, nd).
2.7.2 Heat Waves and Extreme Temperatures

Climate change also leads to more extreme weather events for example more
intense hurricanes, more droughts, and more floods, with all the devastation to
life, livelihood and property that accompanies them. The past two decades have
witnessed a greater occurrence of extreme heatwaves leading to heat-related
deaths, forest fires, and harvest losses. Such events include the European heatwave
of 2003, the Greek heatwave of 2007, the Australian heatwave of 2009, the
Russian heatwave of 2010, the Texas heatwave of 2011, and the U.S. heat wave
32
of 2012. Quite often referred to as 3-sigma events, these events involve monthly Climate Change
and seasonal temperatures typically more than 3 standard deviations (sigma)
warmer than the local mean temperature. Normally frequency of such events
is only once in several hundreds of years. If we count the five hottest summers
in Europe since 1500, we surprisingly find that all of them took place after
2002. The European heatwave of 2003 and the Russian heatwave of 2010 took
the exceptional death toll of 70,000 and 55000 respectively. Extreme summer
temperatures are gradually affecting an increasing proportion of the land area.
They can be attributed to growing climatic warming since the 1960s. In the
1960s, three-sigma events were practically absent and affected less than 1 per
cent of the Earth’s surface. However, the area affected by such extreme events
has grown to 4–5 per cent by 2006–08, and 6–13 per cent of the land surface by
2009–11. The studies have now predicted that such events typically cover about
10 per cent of the land area now. It certainly could not have happened in the
absence of global warming.
2.7.3 Socioeconomic Impacts

Climate change can have far-reaching socio-economic impacts. Societies that
are most at risk are close to physical and biological thresholds. Ocean warming
for example can reduce fishing catch, affecting 650 million to 800 million people
relying on fishing for their livelihoods. In Ho Chi Minh City, direct infrastructure
damage from a 100-year-old flood could increase from $200 million to $300
million today to $500 million to $1 billion by 2050. The average share of annual
outdoor working hours lost due to extreme heat and humidity could increase
from 10 per cent today to 15 to 20 per cent in 2050. Socioeconomic impacts of
climate change can have non-linear impacts as system thresholds are breached
and knock-on effects.
Poorer regions often have climates that are closer to physical thresholds therefore,
they rely more on outdoor work and natural capital and have fewer financial
means to adapt quickly. Therefore, these regions are most at risk. However, the
impact of climate change has been devastating even for developed countries
like the USA which lost some 1.5 per cent of GDP to such weather-related
events in 2017 alone. But some regions are likely to gain from climate change
for example Canada where crop yields are expected to increase. Also, the rising
temperature can boost tourism in northern Europe.
2.7.4 Climate Change Impacts on Health

Climate change affects many of the social and environmental determinants
of health such as clean air, safe drinking water, sufficient food and secure
shelter. Extreme heat can contribute directly to deaths from cardiovascular and
respiratory disease, particularly among elderly people. High temperature raises
the levels of ozone and other pollutants in the air that worsen cardiovascular and
respiratory disease. Increased levels of pollen and other aeroallergens in high
temperatures can trigger asthma affecting around 300 million people. Rising sea
levels and extreme weather conditions can destroy homes and other essential
medical facilities. Also, variable rainfall patterns can affect the availability
of freshwater thus compromising hygiene and increasing the risk of diarrheal
disease, which kills over 500 000 children aged under 5 years, every year.
33
Atmospheric BOX 2.4: Some Emerging Warning Signs of the Climate Change
Issues
1. Glaciers are contracting at an average rate of 15m per year in the central
and eastern Himalayas. If this trend continues, these glaciers are expected
to vanish by 2035. This can have serious impingements on the population
depending on the glaciers for drinking water supplies etc. Kumbu
Glacier, on the popular climbing route to the summit of Mount Everest,
has retracted by 5km. The swelling of glacial lakes in Bhutan and the
increasing risk of catastrophic flooding is another example of such a
phenomenon (ICIMOD, 2019).
2. The thawing of Permafrost in the Arctic region poses a serious threat to
the critical infrastructure of the region. This can also pose threat to the
utilization of natural resources and sustainable development of the region.
Around 70 per cent of the infrastructure located in permafrost is at high
risk of being thawed. One-third of Pan-Arctic infrastructure and 45 per
cent of hydrocarbon extraction in the Russian Arctic are located in high
hazard regions (Hjort et al., 2018).
3. Sundarbans are the natural walls for some coastal areas of India and
Bangladesh against climate change. But with rising waters and illicit
logging, these mangrove trees are nearing their extinction. Therefore,
many local people and local species are losing their habitat. Coastal areas
are losing their natural defence against extreme climate change phenomena
such as floods and cyclones. In 1998 a large flood occurs in Bangladesh,
which covered about 70 per cent of the country (Schwartzstein, 2019).
4. Advancement in flowering time for around 385 British plants species by
4.5 days has been observed. This reflects the serious effects of temperature
change on the ecosystem, as flowering is a phenomenon that is sensitive
to temperature (Fitter & Fitter, 2002).
5. In Monteverde, Costa Rica, twenty out of fifty species of Anurans
disappeared during a population crash in 1987. These crashes are expected
to be the result of demographic changes that affected communities of
birds, amphibians etc. These changes are associated with dry mist
frequency, which is negatively correlated with sea surface temperature
(Pounds, Fogden, & Campbell, 1999).
6. Antarctic peninsula Adélie penguin populations have shrunk by 33%, in
the past 25 years population has declined by 33 per cent owing to their
declining winter sea ice habitat. Adélies depend on sea ice as a resting
and feeding platform. They are being replaced by gentoo penguins (a
sub-Antarctic species that has begun to migrate towards the pole) which
thrive in open water.
Source: Compiled from different Sources
2.8 WHICH COUNTRY HAS CONTRIBUTED THE

MOST?
Any country’s total carbon emission does not give us a full picture of the country’s
contribution to global warming. For example, China is the biggest emitter of
CO2 among all the countries (since it overtook the USA in 2007), however, the
per capita contribution is just 6.98 tonnes per capita as against 16.24 tonnes per
34 capita of the USA. Sharp variations in CO2 emission per capita have triggered
a debate to fix the responsibility among developed and developing countries. Climate Change
The reasons for such variations are primarily due to the availability of energy
resources and the energy policies followed by them. For example, Australia
emits around 20.6 tonnes per person which is partly due to its reliance on CO2
intensive coal. However, consumption recorded in the UK is 9.7 tonnes/person
which is partly due to relatively CO2-light gas power stations. On the other
hand, African countries like Kenya have a footprint as low as 0.3 tonnes, which
is likely to drop even further with the country’s surge in wind power.
BOX 2.5: Global Warming: The Key Contributors

The global average temperature has increased by more than 1℃ since its
pre-industrial levels. The emission of carbon dioxide has been consistently
increasing (~36 billion tonnes of CO2 per year) and its concentration has reached
well over 400 ppm-the highest ever level in over 800,000 years. However,
there are marked differences in the contribution of different countries to this
massive emission. There are more than 100-fold differences in per capita
CO2 emissions between the countries. Interestingly the countries in the high-
income group emit more whereas those in the low-income group emit less
than their population share. As far as the contributions of different countries
are concerned, China is the world’s largest CO2 emitter (accounting for more
than one-quarter of emissions) which is followed by the USA (15%); EU-28
(10%); India (7%); and Russia (5%). So far USA has cumulatively contributed
the most of global emissions (25% of cumulative emissions) followed by the
EU-28 (22%); China (13%); Russia (6%) and Japan (4%). There are large
inequalities in the emission patterns across the countries which makes climate
change a matter of serious international diplomacy. The worlds poorest have
contributed less than 1% of emissions but are worst affected by the overall
impact of emissions. However, a large amount of CO2 is embedded in traded
goods. Therefore, if we look at emissions based on consumption rather than
production, figures might change. However, the IPCC guidelines on national
emission accounting and reporting are written based on production-based
emissions. These are the standards adopted internationally for emission
reporting and taken into account for climate reporting. Moreover, such figures
are available to the entire world since the mid-eighteenth century. The world
is not on track to limit global warming to 2℃ above the pre-industrial level,
as targeted in Paris Agreement. It is expected that the continuance of existing
policies will enhance global warming up to the range 3.1-3.7℃
Source: Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser (2020): Our World in Data
2.9 POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE

CHANGE
Complex and policy sensitive issues like climate change can evoke conflicting
responses from interest groups and policymakers who tend to adopt a “pick
n mix” approach to the available scientific evidence, promoting research that
reinforces their existing arguments and beliefs, and neglecting or criticizing
more uncomfortable findings. Even today, quite often we come across people
who deny the climate crisis. It has seriously affected the global fight against 35
Atmospheric climate change. Quite often the facts of climate change come in conflict with
Issues people’s values, ideologies and political allegiances.
Cooling or warming is not necessarily bad for some areas. For example, Siberia
might get warmer in a few decades and this could be profitable for the local
population. On the other hand, the impact of climate change may force others to
leave their homes because of changing environmental conditions. For instance,
in the Sahel region of Africa, for example, declining agricultural productivity
has driven people out of their homes for the past 30 years; this is expected to
continue as a result of climate change, putting the lives of 60 million people
who live in the Sahel region at risk (Goosse, 2005). Further, the opinions of
individual scientists are often influenced by decision-makers or the media than
the reliability of their knowledge. It has created a scenario where the disputes
within the scientific community are often extensively reported by the media and
become a matter of public debate.
The politicization of climate change-related issues which have seriously
undermined the scientific pieces of evidence has often been observed. For
instance, 2001shortly after he assumes office, President George W. Bush
withdrew the US from the Kyoto Protocol specifying that it would harm the US
economy. It was seen across the world as the influence of business-backed lobby
groups in government. The allegations were reported in the media that officials
of the white house had tried to interfere with a report from US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to downplay the seriousness of climate change.
Similarly, in 2019 President, Donald Trump who had mocked climate science
as a hoax, decided to withdraw from Paris Climate Change Declaration. Though
a clearer picture of American participation in the agreement will emerge after
the 2020 election, it has created a worldwide concern for the future of global
efforts to prevent climate change.
2.10 IMPLICATIONS FOR POST-2015 DEVELOP-

MENT AGENDA
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) unequivocally highlights the rise in global mean temperature
and warming of the climate system. Global warming has a widespread cross-
cutting impact on almost all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). The
task of achieving SDGs will be very challenging in a 2°C world, but in a
4°C world there is serious doubt whether this can be achieved at all (World
Bank,2014b). It makes climate change the biggest developmental challenge of
our times. The repercussions have already started being felt across the world,
particularly in the most vulnerable communities. The situation is serious, as the
countries worst affected by climate change are the ones that contribute least to
it. As the global temperatures are progressing, problems are likely to further
exacerbate, adversely affecting people in every aspect of their lives for instance
food availability, water availability, diseases, frequent occurrence of floods,
droughts, rising sea levels, oceanic acidification, rising inequalities, etc. It is
well realized that strong and early actions based on clean, low carbon pathways
are the only answer to slow down the unsustainable growth strategies which will
36
Climate Change
far outweigh the costs. Many of the worst projected climate impacts could still
be avoided by holding warming to below 2°C (World Bank, 2014b).
2.11 LET US SUM UP

Climate change presents a complex, borderless and intergenerational
phenomenon. It has diverse and far-reaching setbacks to the process of
development. As Mike Toman, Research Manager, Research Department,
World Bank says “Climate change is an issue that presents great scientific and
economic complexities, some very deep uncertainties, profound ethical issues,
and even lack of agreement on what the problem is”. It is now believed to be a
classic example of a super wicked problem The super wicked problem has been
described in the research literature as comprising of four key features: “time is
running out; those who cause the problem also seek to provide a solution; the
central authority needed to address it is weak or nonexistent; and, partly as a
result, policy responses discount the future irrationally (Levin et al,2012).
Human civilization is witnessing an unprecedented phase of human history
where the availability of natural capital and social capital are the limiting factors
for future economic growth (Hawken 1997). Furthermore, the prosperity of one
nation cannot be seen in isolation from the prosperity of all other nations. It
is well realized that solutions for global problems have to be collective and
should be explored simultaneously on social, economic and environmental
fronts. Thus, first time in history, human beings can determine the habitability
of the planet. The capacities of the people at various levels need to be built to
sustain the environment. It is due to this reason that systems of capacity building
have come to the forefront of the development agenda. A collective global effort
through ‘out of box’ initiatives is the only answer to address this problem.
2.12 KEY WORDS

Climate System: The climate system is a highly complex system consisting
of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere,
the lithosphere and the biosphere, and the interactions between them. The
climate system evolves in time under the influence of its internal dynamics and
because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and
anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and
land-use change.

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39
UNIT 3 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
DEPLETION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Formation and Dissociation of Ozone
3.4 UV Radiation and its Significance
3.5 Causes of Ozone Depletion
3.6 The Ozone Hole
3.7 Impacts of Ozone Layer Depletion
3.7.2 Environmental Impacts
3.8 Management and Policy
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere of the earth comprises several distinct layers. The first layer
extending up to a 15 km altitude region where the weather exists is known as
the troposphere. Next to the troposphere, the region extended upwards to an
altitude of 50km is known as the stratosphere. The stratosphere’s density is very
less where the terrestrial life will not sustain, but it is a home for the ozone layer.
In general, at the equator ozone concentrations are high and gradually reduce as
latitude increases, but the equilibrium of stratospheric ozone can be disturbed in
the presence of hazardous chemicals and progress towards undesirable reactions.
This unit emphasizes the formation and dissociation of ozone, causes of ozone
depletion, impacts of ozone layer depletion and international conventions to
control stratospheric ozone depletion.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
•• describe the process of ozone formation;
•• describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impacts and
•• explain the important ozone management policies.
3.3 FORMATION AND DISSOCIATION OF OZONE

Ozone was discovered by C. F. Schonbein in 1839, its nomenclature comes
from the Greek word meaning “smell”, and ozone is a distinctively pungent
odour when in large concentrations. In 1880, experiments showed that ozone
strongly absorbed radiation in the ultraviolet part of the sunlight spectrum. This Stratospheric Ozone
led by 1913, to conclusive proof that most of the atmosphere’s ozone was located Depletion
in the stratosphere. It was later shown that its maximum concentration occurs
between 19 and 23 km. The thickness of the ozone is measured by the dobson
unit. One Dobson Unit (DU) is to be 0.01 mm physical thickness at STP. The
Dobson unit is named after Gordon Dobson, a researcher at the University
of Oxford who in the 1920s built the first instrument to measure total ozone
from the ground, making use of a double prism monochromator to measure the
differential absorption of different bands of solar ultraviolet radiation by the
ozone layer. This instrument, called the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer, has
formed the backbone of the global network for monitoring atmospheric ozone
and was the source of the discovery in 1984 of the Antarctic ozone hole.
Before learning about the causes of ozone depletion, dear learner first we will
understand how ozone will be formed. Ozone is essential to life and acts as
a protective shield from harmful UV radiation. If the ozone concentration
decreases, we will experience immediate adverse health effects including skin
cancer and cataracts. Long term adverse effects include a diminishing rate of
photosynthesis in plants, a decrease in immune response in humans and an
effect on plankton growth which is the mainstay of the food chain in the ocean.
Ozone is present both in the troposphere and stratosphere.
In the uppermost atmosphere, ozone will be formed by the reaction of molecular
oxygen with atomic oxygen. Ozone is also decomposed in the presence of
sunlight back to the same two species of reactants. These reactions will convert
high energy UV radiation into heat energy. The formation and decomposition of
ozone in the upper atmosphere are as follows.
hʋ
O2 2O (i)
O2 + O O3+ heat (ii)
hʋ
O3 O2 + O (iii)
In the first and second reactions, molecular oxygen atoms dissociate into oxygen
atoms in the presence of high energy solar radiation. Ozone is bluish gas with a
characteristic pungent odour. In urban areas, nitrogen dioxide is formed by the
oxidation of nitric oxide. In the presence of sunlight nitrogen dioxide dissociate
into oxygen atoms. These oxygen atoms, in the lower atmosphere, interact with
oxygen molecules and produce O3.
In the upper atmosphere, ozone absorbs 200-300nm wavelength range of UV
radiation and dissociates into molecular and atomic oxygen as shown in the third
reaction. Ozone in the stratosphere region acts as a natural shield or blanket or
natural atmospheric filter to avert the UV light from reaching the earth’s surface,
thereby protecting life on earth from destruction.
3.4 UV RADIATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

Sunlight emits electromagnetic waves with different energies with different
wavelengths. Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that could
be detected by the photoreceptor eyes. There are three parts to the UV spectrum
known as UVA, UVB and UVC. Based on their wavelength these three types 41
Atmospheric of radiation differ in their biological activity and skin penetration. The UVB
Issues and UVC regions got absorbed by ozone, oxygen, water vapour and CO2 when
sunlight passes through the atmosphere. The UVA radiation will not be filtered
significantly by the atmosphere.
Radiation Range of wavelength(nm)
UVA 320-400
UVB 280-320
UVC 200-280
The shorter wavelength UVC is the most destructive type of radiation. However,
UVC radiation is completely filtered by the atmosphere and cannot reach the
earth. UVA radiation has the relatively longest wavelength and approximately
95% reaches the earth’s surface. It is capable to penetrate the skin causing
immediate tanning. The medium wavelength UVB radiation cannot penetrate
beyond the upper layer of the skin but is responsible for delayed tanning,
burning and skin cancer. On passing through the atmosphere and being absorbed
by living tissues on earth, UV light causes damage to the DNA molecule and
protein present on the surface. However, about 99% of UV radiation is absorbed
by stratospheric ozone and hence stratospheric ozone is known as good ozone
or ozone shield.
1. What is the Ozone layer?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………….………………………………………………
2. Why is the ozone layer important?
……………………………………………………………………………
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3.5 CAUSES OF OZONE DEPLETION

The chemical emissions from the industries and some natural processes destroy
stratospheric ozone. Other than volcanic emissions and waste from aircraft, these
chemical emissions are travelled up and reach the stratosphere by high upward
air currents in the tropical regions. Some chemical compounds like Methane
(CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide (N2O) and water vapour
are introduced into the stratosphere and are dissociated by the stratospheric
ultraviolet radiation resulting in byproducts known as “radicals” like nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) and chlorine monoxide (ClO) which contribute an active role in
the depletion of ozone. Aerosols and clouds can also contribute to ozone loss by
42 providing a surface for the dissociation reactions.
Present research studies suggested that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are Stratospheric Ozone
responsible for upper atmospheric ozone destruction. CFCs are a group of Depletion
halogenated organic compounds, which are manufactured and marketed as the
freon trade name. They are unreactive, non-flammable, odourless and nontoxic
and all chlorine and fluorine atoms are substituted by hydrogen atoms.
CFCs are used in the following applications.
i. Used as heat transfer fluid in refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps.
ii. Plastic foam production.
iii. Purification of computer parts in the electronic industries
iv. Used in aerosol cans as the pressurizing agent.
It is important to note that CFCs are highly stable in the troposphere but they
are subjected to high-intensity UV radiation in the stratospheric region, which
would split them apart by releasing free chlorine atoms as free radicals.
A halogen radical chain mechanism leading to ozone depletion
Step 1 Chain initiation
Bond cleavage in a CFC molecule forms two radicals
hʋ
CFCl3 CFCl2 + Cl (iv)
The reaction begins with homolysis of C-Cl bond in CFCl3. The resulting Cl
radical formed in th
is step initiates the radical process. Finally, all the chlorine atoms of CFCl3
molecule would be liberated by further photochemical reactions.
Step 2 Chain Propagation
One radical reacts with O3 giving rise to chlorine monoxide which then reacts
with oxygen atoms to form O2 and Cl.
Cl + O3 ClO + O2 (v)
ClO + ClO 2Cl + O2 (vi)

The (v) and (vi) reactions are known as the chlorine catalysis cycle because
by these reactions’ chlorine is repeatedly regenerated as it proceeds with O3.
Hence, chlorine acts as a catalyst, a chemical that assists a chemical reaction
without being used up itself in the reaction. It is interesting to note that each
chlorine atom can last from 40 to 100 years in the stratosphere and has the
potential to destroy 1,00,000 ozone molecules. Hence, CFCs are determined
as damaging compounds of ozone because they behave as transport agents
which can transport chlorine atoms continuously in the stratosphere. The ozone
depletion can persist because of the slow removal process of chlorine atoms
from the stratosphere.
Research results show that the stratosphere contains gaseous halogens and
reactive gaseous halogens which are potent enough to cause depletion of ozone.
In the stratosphere, the highly reactive chlorine monoxide (ClO) gas undergoes
different catalytic ozone dissociation reaction cycles. This mechanism is
depicted in Fig. 3.1, where the influence of polar stratospheric clouds on the
depletion of ozone is shown. 43
Atmospheric
Issues
Fig.3.1 Role of PSC on Ozone Depletion
In the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) the gases like hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) from gaseous reservoirs undergo redox
reactions with each other on the surface of the PSC and give rise to chlorine
(Cl2). This elementary chlorine in the presence of solar radiation undergoes
photolysis giving rise to chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms further react with
ozone to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) which is an active form of chlorine
and oxygen. The ClO dimerizes to dichlorine dioxide which is also known as
chlorine peroxide (Cl2O2) and further dissociates again into atomic chlorine by
photolysis. This catalytic cycle repeatedly generates chlorine atoms and one
chlorine atom is potential enough to damage about one lakh ozone molecules till
its reaction is quenched by the reaction with other species like oxides of nitrogen
and methane. In another mechanism, PSC grows large enough to precipitate by
removing nitric acid (HNO3) from the stratosphere which is known as acid rain.
Depletion of ozone can also be occurred by reactions with bromine, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen gases involving catalytic processes. In general, a catalytic
reaction cycle is a group of chemical reactions that result in the depletion of
many ozone molecules in the repeated process. A pictorial representation of
sources of gaseous halogens and their conversion into reactive halogens and
depletion of ozone molecules is depicted in Fig. 3.2.
44 Fig 3.2 Conversion of halogen gases to reactive halogen gases

When ultraviolet light radiation (UV) hit CFCs in the upper atmospheric region, Stratospheric Ozone
a carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing atomic chlorine. The chlorine atoms Depletion
then react with an ozone (O3) molecule dissociate apart and destroy the ozone
by liberating oxygen molecule (O2) and chlorine monoxide (ClO). The pictorial
depiction of the ozone depletion process is presented in Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4
shows how ozone is damaged by CFCs.
Fig. 3.3 Ozone Depletion Process
Fig. 3.4 Destruction of Ozone by CFCs
3.6 THE OZONE HOLE

In 1974, chemists Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina found thinning of the
stratospheric ozone layer which is known as the ozone hole over the south pole.
Later on, it was linked to CFCs which could damage the ozone layer. Ozone in
the Antarctic region develops in the winter season a vortex of winds spreads
throughout the pole and separates the polar stratosphere. When temperatures
fall below -78°C, thin clouds appear comprises of ice crystals, nitric acid, and 45
Atmospheric sulphuric acid mixtures. Once the chemical reactions start on the cloud surface
Issues
and release active forms of CFCs again ozone depletion starts, and the ozone
“hole” occurs.
In the Antarctic, during the winter season in June in the stratosphere a vortex
which is like a whirlpool created within a ring of air circulating the Antarctic
consists of stratospheric gases. South polar stratospheric clouds will form from
the low moisture and chemicals present in the extreme cold temperatures of the
Antarctic winter. These clouds provide a wider surface for atmospheric chemical
reactions during winter seasons thereby releasing molecular chlorine from the
reservoirs of chlorine. During spring sunlight split apart chlorine molecules by
releasing free chlorine which initiates the chlorine cycle that destroys ozone.
Depletion of ozone in the spring season of Antarctica is as follows
HCl + ClONO2 HNO3 + Cl2 (vii)

hʋ
Cl2 Cl + Cl (viii)
2Cl + O3 2ClO + 2O2 (ix)
2ClO +2O 2Cl + 2O2 (x)
Net 2O3 3O2
Fig. 3.5 Ozone Destruction Cycles

The ozone depletion process can be explained by the following three cycles
(Fig. 3.5). Cycle 1 of ozone destruction is more significant at tropical and middle
latitudes because of intense UV radiation in the stratosphere that involved two
types of reactions. The net reaction is that atomic oxygen reacts with ozone,
giving rise to two oxygen molecules. The cycle is initiated with either Cl or
ClO. ClO reacts with atomic oxygen to form Cl. The resultant Cl then started
46 depleting ozone by reacting with ozone and converting back again to ClO. The
ozone destruction reaction is catalyzed by chlorine. In this cycle, atomic oxygen Stratospheric Ozone
(O) is also formed when ozone reacts with oxygen molecules in the presence of Depletion
UV radiation.
Ozone destruction is maximum in polar regions owing to the high concentrations

of ClO. At this point, cycle 2 is initiated by the reaction of ClO with another
ClO or BrO in cycle 3 which potentially destroys ozone. The overall reaction in
both the 2nd and 3rd cycles is three oxygen molecules are formed from two ozone
molecules and are catalytic reactions because the reaction between ClO & BrO
releases gaseous chlorine and bromine. Solar radiation is required to complete
these reaction cycles. It is also interesting to note that ozone is highly unstable
because of this reason even though it is considered a potential filter for UV
radiation but it makes it comfortably depleted. The flow chart in Fig. 3.6 shows
key steps involved in the depletion of ozone.
Fig. 3.6 Key steps in the ozone depletion process

1. What is ozone depletion and how does it occur?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
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Atmospheric …………………………….………………………………………………
Issues ………………………………………….………........................................
2. Define the ozone hole and explain the polar vortex.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….………........................................
3.7 IMPACTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Dear learners, so far you have learnt about the ozone shield that protects us from
harmful UV rays of solar radiation. Now we have to learn about the adverse
effects of harmful UV radiation due to the occurrence of the ozone hole. The
ozone layer depletion is connected with anthropogenic activities. Halocarbons
are emitted from industries that produce refrigerators, air conditioners, chillers,
propellants, blowing agents, firefighting agents and solvents used in dry cleaning
and degreasing.
3.7.1 HEALTH IMPACTS

Impact on genetic material: On exposure to harmful UV radiation DNA in our
body absorbs energy from the radiation and dissociates. A large part of damaged
DNA is restored by proteins present in the nucleus of cells and the unrepaired
part of DNA causes skin cancer. In this unit, we would have few health impacts
due to ozone depletion.
1. Skin Cancer
Research studies reveal that every year, several new skin cancer cases are
reported in the U.S. than other types of cancers. Unprotected UV radiation
exposure is the root cause of developing skin cancer. One in five Americans
in their lifetime will develop skin cancer. Melanoma is the most common type
of skin cancer observed in people aged between 15-and 29 and causes 75%
of skin cancer deaths. Other than melanoma cancer there are two other types
of skin cancers-basal cell carcinoma and Squamous cell carcinoma which are
less fatal than melanoma skin cancers but can spread causing disfigurement and
becoming fatal.
Basal cell cancer: It is a regular type of skin cancer associated with tumours.
They developed as small, fleshy lumps or tumours on the skin and the head and
neck are more significant. Basal cell cancer developed slowly and rarely spreads
to other areas of the body. However, it penetrates the bone and causes damage
followed by deformation to the structure of the bone.
Squamous cell cancer: Unlike basal cell cancer it spreads to other body
parts. It is developed as tumours, red scaly patches and huge masses.
48
2. Premature Aging Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion
Other impacts of ozone layer depletion include skin diseases like actinic
keratoses and premature ageing. The symptoms like skin growths and lesions
observed on sun-exposed body parts like the face, hands and neck. Severe and
long duration sun exposure also causes premature ageing and changes the skin
texture to become crimpy, thick and leathery. This can be avoided with proper
skin protection from UV radiation.
3. Eye Damage
The eye damage due to the UV radiation exposure is dependent on the radiation
criteria like ground reflection, level of brightness to activate the squint reflex, the
quantity of atmospheric reflection and the wavelength of the incident radiation.
The harmful UV radiation will damage the eye, especially the cornea because
the human cornea is a good absorber of UV light. Exposure to longer duration
with high-intensity UV radiation can cause snow blindness which is a condition
of having temporary clouding of the cornea. Exposure to a chronic dose of
radiation resulted in the formation of cataracts. The acute effects of harmful UV
radiation include photokeratitis and photo conjunctivitis whereas chronic effects
contain pterygium and squamous cell cancer of the conjunctiva and cataracts.
3.7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

1. Effects on Plants
The plant ecosystem is very vulnerable to UVB radiation that on exposure alters
and disturbs natural physiological and developmental processes despite inherited
immune mechanisms to reduce or repair the effects. Secondary adverse effects
include plant deformation, abnormal nutrient distribution within the plant,
developmental phases and overall secondary metabolism. These alterations can
have adverse impacts on plant competitive balance, phytophagous, diseases of
plants, and biogeochemical cycles.
A wide range of positive and negative responses are observed due to UV-B
radiation. Plants unlike animals cannot change their place on their own to protect
themselves from UV radiation but they develop some protective shielding
mechanism in the presence of UV-B radiation.
UV-B radiation also affects vital biomolecules such as DNA, proteins, and
lipids, which are vulnerable to UV-B radiation but a small part of the UV-B
radiation falling on a leaf surface penetrates the inner tissues. The research
studies on plant species tested show that leaves synthesize compounds in the
presence of UV-B radiation which acts as sunscreens and averts UV-B radiation
from penetrating leaves’ sensitive biological inner tissue. Some plants adapt
biological mechanisms to increase in thickness of leaves and changes in the
protective waxy layer, due to this UV-B radiation cannot penetrate deeper layers
of leaf to damage the inner tissue. Some protective molecules generated due to
the exposure to UV-B radiation will enhance the amount of colour, antioxidant
49
activity and fibre content that are included in our daily food.
Atmospheric In some cases, UV-B radiation-induced chemical reaction changes in plant
Issues biochemistry affect the interactions between crop plants and herbivory insects
by changing in biochemical composition of the plant to make the leaves less
attractive as food for herbivores thereby delaying the process of leaf litter
degradation in the soil.
2. Effects on Marine Life
The UV-B radiation can penetrate ocean waters about two meters from the
surface and can cause great concern for the health of densely populated marine
plankton in that region. Marine plankton possesses an inherent protective
response in their chlorophyll cells by producing radiation-absorbing pigments
but this protective response is inhibited by UV-B radiation. It also reduces the
process of photosynthesis thereby reducing food and oxygen produced by them.
An increase in UV-B radiation will enhance the ozone concentration and plants
are very sensitive to photochemical smog. UVB radiation also causes damage in
the development stages of the growth of marine animals like amphibians, fish,
shrimp and crabs.
3. Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

Increases in UVB radiation influence the biogeochemical cycles as well by
changing both sources and sinks of gaseous compounds such as carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, and carbonyl sulfide. These gases in the atmosphere
interact with the physical climate system and develop some alterations to
climate and feedback in the biogeochemical system globally. The carbon
dioxide present in the atmosphere performs a crucial role in the atmospheric
heat distribution, physical climate system like wind, precipitation and the heat
and energy exchange is taking place between the air and the oceans. Similarly,
some complex interactions observed between terrestrial biogeochemical and the
integrated climate system have a significant association with life on Earth.
4. Effect on Carbon Cycle

Variations in primary production influence the movement of CO2 across the
biosphere, but not on carbon storage. On the other hand, any alterations in the
distribution of plant species are determined by the increase in UV-B radiation
that seriously affects the quantity of carbon stored in phytomass. For instance,
any change from evergreens to deciduous dwarf shrubs that are UV-B sensitive
will reduce carbon storage during the winter season and reduction the growth
of the plant in general and would increase the atmospheric CO2 movement. In
some regions, the outer layer of soil is sensitive to UV-B radiation, and plant
species like mosses, potentially change their carbon storage and can increase the
soil temperature, that they insulate, consequently stimulating microbial activity
and releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. Plant ecosystem may also face stresses
due to the rise in UV-B radiation and climatic change combinedly affect the
composition of plant species and herbivores and increase their susceptibility to
50 fire, insects and disease.
5. Effects on Materials Stratospheric Ozone
The increase in UV-B radiation concentration has a detrimental effect on Depletion
materials used outdoors. Useful lifetimes of plastic and wood products are
determined to a large extent by degradation due to the action of solar UV
radiation. The consequence of depletion of the ozone layer in the stratospheric
region is enhanced terrestrial UV-B flux, damaging most of the organic
compounds used in construction materials. The materials made up of plastic
in the presence of UV-B radiation in the atmosphere undergo oxidation and
breakdown showing visual evidence like discolouration, cracking on the surface
and finally brittleness by the loss of strength in the product, which limits its
lifetime. This can be minimized partially by adding light stabilizers as additives
in plastic material used outdoors. In the case of wood products, similar types
of degradation and breakdown were observed in addition to the biodegradation
significantly. In this case, UV-B radiation exposure on the wooden surface
make it hydrophilic, thereby water from various sources is easily absorbed by
the wooden surface, generating the chance to grow the wood rot fungi which
biodegrade the wood. Compounds made of wood flour and plastic are known
as wood-plastic or plastic lumber will produce fungal biodegradation by the
process of photodamage when exposed to UV-B radiation.
3.8 MANAGEMENT AND POLICY

The substantial growth of ozone layer depletion has stimulated a response across
the globe. Despite skepticism in most countries and United Nations, particularly
scientists around the world designed treaties to prevent this UV disaster. Dear
learner, we have discussed some important aspects, policies and practices about
ozone depletion and strategic plans to avert this disaster in this unit.
Vienna Convention
The ozone layer present in the stratosphere protects the earth living organisms
from the detrimental effects of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. In 1985, the world
witnessed developments in the scientific perception of ozone depletion and its
health impacts on the environment. In response to this understanding, the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was established. The Vienna
Convention is an agreed framework that set up principles agreed upon by many
parties. The Vienna Convention was the first convention of this kind signed by
the countries involved, came into effect in 1988 and gained global ratification
in 2009 by 197 states as well as the European Union. The convention appraises
the enormity of ozone destruction at the time and the preparedness of countries
around the world to work together to solve the problem. The Convention aims to
promote cooperation among participating countries by interchange information
on the effects of anthropogenic activities on the ozone layer. To date, the countries
of the convention meet once every three years to discuss and make decisions
on issues such as Research and Systematic observations and financial and
administrative matters as well. CFCs are the main chemical agents responsible
for ozone depletion. This convention does not involve legally binding reduction 51
Atmospheric principles in respect of the use of CFCs and was considered later in the form of
Issues the Montreal Protocol.
Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol (an extension protocol to the Vienna Convention to
protect the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty for the protection of the
ozone layer. The main objective of this protocol is phasing out the generation
of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The agreement was signed on 16
September 1987 and entered into force on 1 January 1989, holding its first
meeting on May 1989 in Helsinki. This protocol aims to curtail the production
of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and the emission of the CFCs. The parties of the
protocol have to reduce their usage and production of CFC to the 20th-century
level, keeping the year1986 to be the base year. Considering developed and
developing nations, an amendment to the protocol was made in June 1990.
Initially, the amendment is needed from the participating nations to phase out
the ODS by 2000 in developed countries and completely phased out by 2010
in developing countries. The complete elimination time that is fixed for the
developing countries for Hydro Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) is 2040.
Amendments to the Montreal Protocol

The London Amendment (1990): Change in the schedule of ODS emission
by the complete phaseout of CFCs, halons, and carbon tetrachloride by 2000 in
developed countries, and by 2010 in developing countries. Methyl chloroform
was newly added to the list of controlled ODSs, with phaseout in developed
countries and developing countries targeted in 2005, and 2015 respectively.
The CopenhagenAmendment (1992): This amendment states about significantly
accelerated phaseout of ODSs and incorporated a hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFC) phaseout for developed countries, started in 2004. The ODS such as
CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform were targeted for
complete phaseout by 1996 in developed countries by capping methyl bromide
consumption at 1991 levels.
The Montreal Amendment (1997): This amendment states the phaseout
of HCFCs in developing countries, and the phaseout of methyl bromide in
developed and developing countries in 2005 and 2015, respectively.
The Beijing Amendment (1999): This amendment incorporated stringent
controls on the production and trade of HCFCs along with the addition of
Bromochloromethane to the list of controlled ODS with phaseout targeted for
2004.
The Kigali Amendment (2016): This amendment has extended controls on the
production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) to phase down due to
the industrial adoption in moving away from ozone-depleting substances which
are potent greenhouse gases damaging climate. Under this amendment, countries
are devoted to phasing out the production and consumption of HFCs by 80%
over the next 30 years. This phaseout schedule will prevent > 80 billion metric
tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions by 2050, which avoids up to
0.5° Celsius global warming by the end of the century by protecting the ozone
layer. Under the amendment, at the beginning of 2019, all developed countries
will reduce HFC consumption and most of the developing countries will hold
52 consumption in 2024, and the rest of the developing countries under unique
conditions hold consumption in 2028 and finance some countries for transition Stratospheric Ozone
to climate-friendly alternatives. The important points in this amendment are Depletion
•• Innovative and flexible structure;
•• Ambitious phasedown schedule;
•• An incentive for early action;
•• Broad participation;
•• Enforcement and accountability; and
•• Multiple opportunities to increase ambition.
Assessment Panels
The Parties of the Montreal Protocol have advisory bodies known as Assessment
Panels. The Assessment Panels are in charge of publishing regular reports on the
progress of implementing the phaseout of ozone-depleting substances, including
assessments of alternatives and emissions reduction.
TEAP: The Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) provides
technical information in respect of the alternative technologies that have been
investigated and employed to make it viable to virtually remove the use of ODS.
SAP - The Scientific Assessment Panel (SAP) assesses the status of the
destruction of the ozone layer and related atmospheric matters.
EEAP - The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP) assesses the
several effects of ozone layer depletion
OzonAction
UNEP’s Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics Ozon Action
Programme provides to the developing countries in various sectors like industry,
government, and other stakeholders with information exchange services,
training, and networking. In addition to these core clearinghouse services, the
Programme also assists with Country regional Programmes and Institutional
Strengthening projects.
1. What are the impacts of ozone depletion on the environment?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
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2. Explain Montreal protocol.
……………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………….………………………………………………
53
Atmospheric
Issues
3.9 LET US SUM UP
This unit dealt with stratospheric ozone formation and different reactions
involved in the atmosphere. Every substance or chemical or material produced
by humans or nature can pollute the environment in one way and CFCs are the
main cause of the depletion of ozone. While the stratospheric ozone is useful for
life on earth by protecting them from UV radiation, the tropospheric ozone is
harmful to humans and other living beings. This unit also described elaborately
the significance of UV radiation, various steps involved in ozone depletion,
and the impacts of ozone depletion on health and the environment. The unit
concluded by describing various management policies, international treaties
and their amendments to protect the stratospheric ozone.
3.10 KEY WORDS

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): Synthetic organic molecules that contain one or
more of both chlorine and fluorine atoms).
Convection: The vertical movement of air due to atmospheric heating and
cooling.
Polar Vortex: A polar vortex is an upper-level low-pressure area lying near
one of the Earth’s poles. There are two polar vortices in the Earth’s atmosphere,
overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar vortex is a persistent, large-
scale, low-pressure zone less than 1,000 kilometres (620 miles) in diameter, that
rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole and clockwise at the South Pole, i.e.,
both polar vortices rotate eastward around the poles.

REFERENCES
•• Manahan, Stanley E. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry Boca
Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001
•• https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/ozone/UNEP/chap5.html
•• https://www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/health-and-environmental-
effects-ozone-layer-depletion
3.12 ANSWERS TO THE CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

54 2. Please refer to section 3.8
UNIT 4 PERSISTENT ORGANIC AND
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Definition
4.4 Sources of POPs and Radioactive Waste
4.5 Classification of POPs and Radioactive Waste
4.5.1 Classification of POPs
4.5.2 Classification of Radioactive Waste
4.6 Mechanism
4.7 Biomagnification
4.7.1 Biomagnification of POPs
4.7.2 Biomagnification of Radioactive Waste
4.8 Impacts on Human Health
4.8.1 Impacts of POPs
4.8.2 Impacts of Radioactive Waste
4.9 Management
4.9.1 Management of POPs
4.9.2 Management of Radioactive Waste
4.10 Policy
4.10.1 Policy for POPs
4.10.2 Policy for Radioactive Waste
4.11 Let Us Sum Up
4.12 Key Words
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that have a resistance
toward chemical, photolytic and biological degradation to a varying degree.
Therefore, POPs tend to bio-accumulate and biomagnify through the food
chain. Some of these pollutants such as PCBs may persist in the environment
for periods of years and may bioconcentrate by factors of up to 70,000-fold.
POPs are generally halogenated compounds with low water solubility and high
lipid solubility, leading to their bioaccumulation in fatty tissues. They are semi-
volatile and thus, move long distances in the atmosphere before deposition.
These properties are responsible for the presence of compounds such as PCBs
all over the world, even in regions where they have never been used. POPs may
exist, both as natural and anthropogenic. Many of the POPs are first-generation
organochlorine insecticides such as DDT, toxaphene, dieldrin, and chlordane.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins) and dibenzo-p-
furans (furans) are also example of POPs. These are chemical byproducts of
Atmospheric various industries and have been reported in air, in all areas of the world, at
Issues
concentrations up to 15ng/m3 while the concentrations may be several times
greater in industrialized areas. These pollutants have also been reported in rain
and snow. There are two main subgroups of POPs:
•• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
•• Halogenated hydrocarbons (most persistent compounds and more
halogenated compounds tend to accumulate to a greater extent as compared
to the less chlorinated compounds)
Humans are mainly exposed to POPs through contaminated foods, occupational
accidents and the environment. Exposure to POPs can cause adverse health
effects such as illness, endocrine disruption, reproductive and immune
dysfunction, neuro disorders, cancer, and developmental abnormalities and also
reduces immunity in infants.
Radioactive waste is a waste that contains radioactive material (inorganic
elements with high molar mass) and is usually a by-product of nuclear power
generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology
(research and medicine). Radioactive wastes naturally decay over time and
hence, this waste has to be isolated and an appropriate disposal procedure has to
be applied. The storage and disposal of radioactive waste depend on the type of
waste and radioactive isotopes. Radioactive waste is hazardous to most life forms
and the environment. Therefore, the disposal of radioactive waste is regulated
by government agencies to protect human health and the environment. This unit
emphasizes the sources, mechanism of transport, impact and management of
POPs and radioactive waste.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define persistent organic pollutants;
•• define radioactive waste;
•• identify the sources of POPs and radioactive waste;
•• explain the mechanism of transport of wastes in the environment;
•• describe the impact of POPs and radioactive waste and
•• describe management and policy for POPs and radioactive waste.
4.3 DEFINITION
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are defined as the poisonous organic
substances that break down slowly and thus, bioaccumulate and biomagnify
through the food chains.
Radioactive waste is the waste that contains radioactive materials which emit
nuclear radiation (ionizing radiation). These radiations can cause some changes
in our cells by breaking the electron bonds that hold molecules together.
Radiations can damage our genetic material (DNA).
56
Persistent Organic
4.4 SOURCES OF POPs AND RADIOACTIVE and Radioactive
WASTE pollutants
Most of the POPs were widely used after World War II when thousands of
synthetic chemicals were launched for commercial use. These chemicals
proved beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and industry.
However, later on, these chemicals were shown to have unexpected detrimental
effects on human health and the environment. The 12 main POPs are altogether
known as the “Dirty Dozen” including aldrin, chlordane, dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane (DDT), dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex,
and toxaphene (widely used as insecticides) along with polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(commonly-released as industrial byproducts).
Nature is a large producer of radioactive material as the surface of the Earth is
the reservoir of primordial radioactivity. Small amounts of radioactive materials
are contained in mineral springs, sand mounds and volcanic eruptions. The
other major sources of radioactive waste are nuclear power reactors and nuclear
power plants. Some radionuclides polluted sites are Chernobyl, Fukushima
and Chelyabinsk Oblast. About fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the
Chernobyl disaster out of which around 60% of all nuclear- accidents have
occurred in the USA. Some of the nuclear power plant accidents include
the Kyshtym disaster, Mayak, Russia (29 September 1957), Windscale fire, Great
Britain (10 October 1957), SL-1 accident, USA (3 January 1961), radiation
accident in Mexico City (March-August 1962), Three Mile Island accident,
Pennsylvania, United States (28 March 1979), radiation accident in Morocco
(27 July 1984), Chernobyl disaster, Ukraine (26 April 1986), Goiania accident
(13 September 1987), radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza, Spain (December 10–
20, 1990), radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica (13 October 1996), radiotherapy
unit accident in Thailand (January-February 2000), Mayapuri radiological
accident in India (26 February 2010) and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster,
Japan (11 March 2011).
This waste is very dangerous and toxic and can remain as such for a few months,
years or thousands of years and the level of radioactivity can vary. Many industries
like mining, scientific research, medicine, defence and nuclear power generation
stations produce various by-products that include radioactive waste. Various
radioactive wastes include alpha-emitting wastes such as uranium dioxide (U-
235 and U-238), U-234, neptunium-237 (Np-237), and plutonium-238 (Pu-238),
americium-241 (Am-241), neutron emitters such as californium-251 (Cf-251),
beta and gamma emitting wastes. Tritium-3 (3H), cesium-137 (137Cs), strontium-90
(90Sr) and plutonium-239 (239Pu) are present in ocean water due to anthropogenic
activities while technetium-99 (99Tc), carbon-14 (14C), strontium-90
(90Sr), cobalt-60 (60Co), iodine-129 (129I), iodine-131 (131I), americium-241
(241Am), neptunium-237 (237Np) and various isotopic forms of plutonium and
uranium are the most common radionuclides present in the soil. In short, 57
Atmospheric radioactive waste is a kind of waste in gas, liquid or solid form that contains
Issues radioactive nuclear substance.
4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF POPs AND

RADIOACTIVE WASTE
4.5.1 Classification of POPs
POPs can be classified into two groups (Fig. 4.1):
Persistent Organic
Pollutants
Intentionally Unintentionally
Produced POPs Produced POPs
(8POPs) (8POPs)
Intentionally PCDDs
Aldrin PCDFs
Chlordane PCBs
DDT Hexachlorobenzene
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Mirex
PCBs
Toxaphene
Fig. 4.1 Classification of POPs

Purposely produced chemicals for control of diseases, agricultural,
manufacturing and industrial processes. For example, DDT is still used to
control mosquitoes in some parts of the world. Other purposely produced POPs
are aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and
toxaphene (Fig. 4.2).
58 Aldrin Cis-chlordane Trans-chlordane

Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
pollutants
Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene Mirex Toxaphene
Fig. 4.2 Structural formula of purposely produced POPs

Unintentionally produced chemicals that are generated as a byproduct from
some industrial processes and combustion such as dioxins which are produced as
a byproduct of municipal and medical waste incineration and backyard burning
of trash. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are the common POPs released as an
industrial byproduct (Fig. 4.3).
Polychlorinated Polychlorinated Polychlorinated

biphenyls dibenzo-p-dioxins dibenzofurans
Fig. 4.3 Unintentionally produced POPs
4.5.2 Classification of Radioactive Waste
The radioactive wastes can be classified into five categories: high level, low
level, intermediate level, mining and milling and transuranic waste but it can
vary with a country (Fig. 4.4). Separate storage and clean-up procedures are
there for different types of nuclear wastes. The classification of radioactive
waste is based upon the amount of radioactivity contained in the radioactive
waste. If it is significantly less and comprised of isotopes having many short
half-lives, then it is low-level radioactive waste or intermediate-level waste or
transuranic waste. If the radioactivity of the radioactive waste is significantly
high and is comprised of isotopes having much longer half-lives, then it is high-
level radioactive waste.
High-level Radioactive Waste
High-level radioactive waste, produced by nuclear reactors is spent fuel that 59
Atmospheric is still present inside the nuclear reactors after its use. This radioactive waste
Issues is highly active and hot. Therefore, it has to cool off for several years and is
considered to be very dangerous. The cooling of this waste is done inside the
deep pools of water that are several hundred feet deep. Ninety-five per cent of
the radioactivity produced in the nuclear reactor is due to high-level waste. The
waste must consistently go through a process of cooling and the radioactive
material under control.
Intermediate-level Radioactive Waste
Intermediate-level radioactive waste contains a low amount of activity than
high-level radioactive waste and high amount of radioactivity than low-level
radioactive waste. Refurbishment waste, ion-exchange resins, metal fuel
cladding and chemical sludges are the main intermediate-level radioactive
wastes that typically require shielding during handling and storage. Four per
cent of total radioactivity is due to this kind of waste.
Low-level Radioactive Waste
Most of the radioactive wastes used in nuclear reactors, hospitals and dental
offices daily and are needed to provide the services positively are called low-
level radioactive wastes. About 90% of all nuclear waste is low level. This type
of waste is not dangerous and can be disposed of in a landfill. This does not
require any type of shielding during handling and transport.
Mining and Milling Wastes
Mining and milling of ores (uranium ore) generate tailings and waste rocks.
This kind of waste is produced during the grinding and chemical concentration
of the ore.
Transuranic Waste
Transuranic waste is produced during nuclear waste reprocessing procedures. It
contains more than 3700 Becquerel per gram of elements and is much heavier
than uranium. This waste is the least dangerous.
60 Fig. 4.4 Classification of Radioactive Waste

Persistent Organic
4.6 MECHANISM and Radioactive
The substances present in soil can leach from the surface through the unsaturated pollutants
zone into groundwater and this infiltration capacity of a soil depends on texture,
porosity, and humidity. Leaching of pesticides is higher in sandy texture soils
while clay soils have greater pesticide adsorption potential. Leaching can occur
irregularly and facilitates an easy path for water and pollutants at specific points
such as soil cracks, worm trails, rotten roots, termites, and other biological
activities. Surface water contamination with persistent organic pollutants can
also occur with runoff. Pollutant molecules present in surface and groundwater
thus, affect different living forms of the water as well as the fauna that use it
for drinking. Persistent organic pollutants present in water can also spread into
agricultural products through irrigation. Persistent organic pollutants can reach
the air from pesticide applications, oil combustion, industries, indoors at home
and on soil or plant surfaces. When pesticides are sprayed, the droplets aerially
dispersed and reach non-target areas. The dispersion of pesticides depends upon
the application pressure, size of the droplets, the distance of the nozzle of the
pulverizer to the target and wind velocity during application. These pesticide
molecules present in the air are transported and redistributed globally by air
currents, thus, polluting all kinds of ecosystems (Fig. 4.5). The two most
important factors which affect the immobility of these molecules are adsorption
capacity and molecular vapour pressure which is influenced by temperature (an
increase of 10°C temperature makes these molecules about four times more
volatile).
Fig. 4.5 Mechanism of transportation of POPs in the environment 61

Atmospheric Radionuclides contaminated media is consumed by living systems either
Issues
intentionally through potable water, meats, fruits and vegetables or unintentionally
through persons using infected soil or water. The different methods by which
radionuclides can transport to the environment and enter the food chain are as
follows (Fig. 4.6).
Radiation from the environment: Radiation from contaminated environmental
media (soil or sediments).
Inhalation: When radionuclides contaminated air is inhaled in the form of
gases, vapours or small particles and enters into the body through the lungs.
Submersion: Radiations can also be transmitted by swimming or bathing in
water contaminated with radionuclides.
During the decay process, the radionuclides spontaneously release excess energy
in the form of radiations such as alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha emission is
associated with heavy atoms, such as uranium-238 and thorium-234. During the
decay process of these radionuclides, excess energy is given off with the ejection
of two neutrons and two protons from the nucleus. Beta emission involves the
ejection of a beta particle from the nucleus of an excited atom (Strontium-90
is a beta emitter). After the emission of alpha or beta radiations, the nucleus of
radionuclides remains excited and still has excess energy. This energy is usually
lost as gamma radiation.
Everything on the Earth is exposed to radiation at all times; however, exposure

at levels greater than natural background radiation levels can be hazardous.
Exposure to certain high levels of radiation can cause cancer, birth defects,
other abnormalities, and death depending on the time of exposure, amount of
radiation, and the decay mechanism.
Fig. 4.6 Transportation of radiation in the environment
4.7 BIOMAGNIFICATION
62 Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of certain chemical
pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at higher trophic levels of food Persistent Organic
webs through smaller organisms that are food for larger organisms in the food and Radioactive
web. Organisms at lower trophic levels accumulate small amounts. Organisms pollutants
present at the next higher trophic level of the food web eat many of the lower-
level organisms which consumed the contaminated food and hence, accumulate
in larger amounts. The rate of bioaccumulation depends on the route of uptake,
the rate of uptake, nature of the substance, transformation processes that the
substance undergoes by metabolic processes, the lipid content of the organism,
environmental factors, and some other physical and biological factors.
Hydrophobic chemical substances bioaccumulate more in living organisms
and their bioaccumulation increase with the increase in hydrophobicity of the
substance. There are two main classes of toxic materials that are concerned with
biomagnification – toxic metals and persistent organic pollutants because both
are lipophilic and not easily degraded.
4.7.1 Biomagnification of POPs
Due to the resistance of POPs towards degradation and breakdown, these
compounds cannot easily excrete and tend to accumulate in organisms and
bioaccumulate through the food chain. Desorbed POPs become bio-available
and can move into the food chain and can also reach the ground/surface water or
the atmosphere through volatilization and are thus, be randomly distributed in
the biosphere. These POPs and their persistent metabolites have long half-lives
and tend to bioaccumulate and biomagnify in organisms once dispersed into the
environment. In this section, the movement of POPs in the biosphere toward
soil microorganisms, flora and fauna is discussed.
The lowermost level of the food chain is contaminated with POPs, which is soil.
The next level of the food chain is the plants, which might uptake POPs mainly in
leaves during application and also through roots to shoots, leaves and fruits from
contaminated soil. Thus, bioaccumulation occurs in the aerial parts of the plants
(leaves and fruits). These contaminated plants are then consumed by animals
which are in turn consumed by the predatory species. The concentration of
persistent organic pollutants increases with the uptake of higher concentrations
through the food chain and can be hazardous for humans and animals. A
strong increase in the concentration of POPs in successive trophic levels via
the food chain is called biomagnification. This happens when a toxic substance
accumulated in an organism cannot be metabolized or excreted and transferred
to the next higher trophic level. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) show
toxicological effects at very low concentrations as PBDEs are structurally
similar to thyroid hormones; act as endocrine disruptors via alterations in thyroid
hormone homeostasis and show neurodevelopmental effects. Pregnant women,
developing fetuses, and infants are the most sensitive populations to be infected
by PBDEs. These PDBEs are indoor pollutants and are additives mixed into
plastics and foams which can leach out of goods and products by volatilization.
These can bioaccumulate in the living organisms which can again be followed
by biomagnification in the food chain. Biomagnification is commonly known 63
Atmospheric for mercury and DDT. The worst situation of biomagnifications is seen in the
Issues aquatic food chain (Fig. 4.7).
Fig. 4.7 Biomagnification of pesticide (DDT) in the aquatic food chain

4.7.2 Biomagnification of Radioactive Waste
Heavy metals are chemically stable because they can neither be destroyed nor
converted into a non-toxic form except for some radioactive metals, which can
change into a different chemical element after radioactive decay. Organisms,
particularly those subject to naturally high levels of exposure to metals, have
mechanisms to sequester and excrete metals. Problems arise when organisms
are exposed to higher concentrations than usual, which they cannot excrete
rapidly enough to prevent damage. These metals are transferred in an organic
form.
64
Mercury which is present in small amounts in seawater is efficiently absorbed Persistent Organic
by algae, like methylmercury, but excreted very slowly by organisms. and Radioactive
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification result in the accumulation of the metal pollutants
in the adipose tissue of successive trophic levels: zooplankton, small fish, larger
fish and fish predators. Now, let’s discuss nuclear waste. Radioactive nuclides
such as hydrogen-3 (1H3), carbon-14 (6C14), iodine-131 (53I131) or strontium-90
(38Sr90) present in nuclear waste, can be taken up by exposed living organisms.
Tritium (1H3) which is almost always present in the environment in the form of
water can be absorbed by the organism, incorporated into tissues and exchanged
into, incorporated into some hydrogen-containing biomolecules and could
remain there for some time. The concentration of tritium within the body decay
exponentially as more stable hydrogen (1H1) is constantly being exchanged
through the body in large quantities. Hence, the overall quantity of hydrogen per
unit mass of a living organism remains constant. Similarly, the overall amount
of carbon-14 within the tissues of a living system also remains constant.
Most of the naturally occurring radionuclides are not concerned with
biomagnification but anthropogenic radionuclides present in high amounts in
any ecosystem can bioaccumulate through the food chain, especially in the
water ecosystem.
The Radioisotopes were released into the environment from the nuclear power
disasters and fell into the ocean. Marine plants such as phytoplanktons have
taken up the radioisotopes from seawater. These radionuclides then move up in
the food chain from tiny marine animals (zooplankton) to fish larvae, fish and
larger predators. As radioactive materials are long-lived, mobile and biologically
active, once taken up by marine creatures, biomagnification of radioactive
substances may occur. The radioisotope, Iodine-131 can be easily taken up by
fish in their thyroid tissue, and also easily absorbed by seaweed and kelp. The
bioaccumulation of iodine-131 is high, but biomagnifications up to the food
chain cannot occur as its half-life of 8 days. However, highly soluble and long-
lived (half-life: 30y) Caesium-137 can accumulate in organisms up the marine
food chain, and ultimately in humans who consume these marine creatures for
food. Therefore, the chances of biomagnification of Caesium-137 are higher.
This can also be easily taken up by cells throughout the body and hence, increases
cancer risk. Muscle tissue tends to accumulate the lowest concentration of
radionuclides, while the liver, kidney, and other organs involved in storage or
excretion processes have the highest concentrations of radionuclides.
After Fukushima nuclear disaster, a huge amount of iodine-131 and caesium-137
was delivered into the sea, and soon, radioactive isotopes bioaccumulate
through the marine food chain. After two weeks of the accident, Iodine-131
was detected 1850 times the statutory limit and Caesium-137 80 times the limit
in the seawater. After 2 months after the accident, 10 out of the 22 seaweed
samples collected near the nuclear plant showed iodine-131 content at 5 times
the Japanese standard for food.
65
Atmospheric
Issues 4.8 IMPACTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
4.8.1 Impacts of POPs
Persistent organic pollutants (often chlorinated compounds known as
organochlorine compounds) are highly resistant to degradation by any
means including biological, photolytic or chemical. The bond between
carbon and chlorine is very stable towards hydrolysis. As the number of
chlorine substitutions and/or functional groups increases, the resistance
towards biological and photolytic degradation also increases. Due to a
high degree of halogenation, POPs have very high lipid solubility and low
water solubility which leads them to pass through the phospholipid layer of
biological membranes and accumulate in fat deposits. The bioavailability of
POPs is controlled by a combination of chemical properties of the particular
compound, environment and the morphological, biochemical and physiological
characteristics of the organism itself. The various health impacts of POPs are
reproductive anomalies, immune dysfunction, neurological deficits, behavioural
abnormalities and carcinogenesis. Some organic pollutants such as DDT may
be converted to more persistent metabolites (DDE) than the parent compound;
aldrin to its extremely environmentally persistent metabolite dieldrin. Many
POPs are suspected to be endocrine active. These may interfere at several
control points of the hormone signalling pathways inside the body which either
inhibit or excessively enhance the activity of the particular hormone at the
wrong time, in the wrong tissue. The direct binding of POPs such as DDT and
its structural cognates, endosulfan and lindane with hormone receptors may
be due to similarity in their conformation with the receptor-binding portions
of nature. Other compounds can alter the hormonal pathway by inhibiting
enzyme activities responsible for the biosynthesis of the precursors of steroid
hormones. Short-term exposure to certain POPs at high concentrations causes
illness and death. In 1990, in the Philippines, endosulfan was the main cause
of acute poisoning among rice farmers and mango sprayers. Food poisoning
due to consumption of hexachlorobenzene contaminated food in southeast
Turkey resulted in the death of 90% of the affected people. Dioxin causes
immunotoxicity, reproductive disorders and neurotoxicity. Dietary intake of
PCBs, furans and dioxins was reported to affect the immune system. POPs
exposure is mainly unsafe for developing fetuses. A report from the northern
Quebec region of Canada has shown that children who had significant exposure
to PCBs, dioxins and furans through breast milk had a higher frequency of
middle ear infections as compared to the children who had been given bottle
feed. Organochlorine compounds such as dioxins and furans can act as strong
tumour promoters and have carcinogenic effects.
Two mass POPs poisoning incidents have occurred: one in Japan (Yusho
disease, 1960s) and one in China, Province of Taiwan (Yu-Cheng disorder
which means oil disease, 1970s). The main symptoms included eye irritation
and lacrimation, swelling of the eyelids, nausea and vomiting, liver enlargement
and liver disorders, hyperpigmentation of the nails and mucous membranes,
respiratory problems, and oedema of the arms and legs, central nervous system
disturbances, and changes in the immune status. The symptoms were caused
due to the exposure of people to polychlorinated biphenyls and various dioxins.
66
Children affected by Yusho and Yu-Cheng disease suffered from reduced Persistent Organic
growth, dark pigmentation of the skin and mucous membranes, dentition at and Radioactive
pollutants
birth, abnormal calcification of the skull, oedematous eyes and rocker bottom
heel. The major health effects due to different POPs are given in Fig. 4.8.
Fig. 4.8 Major health effects due to POPs

4.8.2 Impacts of Radioactive Waste
Radionuclides are carcinogenic and, can also cause rapid sickness and death
at high doses. The health hazards due to the exposure to the radiation depend
on many factors, such as the type of radiation, the amount of energy it emits,
the length of exposure, the organs or tissues with which the radiation interacts,
radiation dose and characteristics of the exposed person. The health effects
are due to the internal exposure to radiation rather than external. Hence,
radionuclides are known as internal emitters in the body and they can continue
to harm the cells for long periods. The radiations have to interact with the tissues
and cells of humans for any potential harm. A radiation dose can be described
by various units. The unit of absorbed radiation dose is rad (energy absorbed per
unit mass) and the SI unit of absorbed radiation dose is gray (Gy) (1 Gy = 100
rads). Besides, the radiation effects can also be measured based on the type and
energy of the radiation causing the dose. This can be determined by weighting
the absorbed dose with a factor related to the radiation quality. This factor is
known as the radiation weighting factor. This factor should be multiplied by the
absorbed dose (rad or gray) to obtain a quantity that can express the biological
damage (rem or sievert), on a common scale for all ionizing radiations. It is used 67
Atmospheric because some types of radiation are more biologically damaging to the living
Issues tissue than other types of radiation. The measurement of absorbed dose adjusted
with weighing factor is called the equivalent dose which is measured in rem.
The SI unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv) (1 Sv = 100 rem).
Ionizing radiations can directly affect macromolecules such as DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) in the cell and can also influence indirectly by ionizing
water molecules which generate reactive molecules such as free radicals that
can in turn attack cellular macromolecules as oxidizing agents. Both direct
and indirect mechanisms are responsible for damage to the cell organelles,
particularly DNA. The damage due to ionizing radiations cannot be fully repaired
or can be modified. Damage that kills several tissues and cells due to high
doses of radiation is called the deterministic effect. When humans are exposed
to relatively high doses of radiation (greater than 50 rad), deterministic effects
of radiation occur within hours, days, or weeks and are called acute radiation
syndrome which includes nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and a lowered white blood
cell count. The severity of the effect depends on the dose of radiation received.
Infection, dehydration, or low white blood cell count can cause death. Around
300 rad has been suggested as the median lethal dose to humans within 60 days.
Damage to cells that can be repairable due to low doses of radiation is called the
stochastic effect. Modifications in the DNA cell can cause uncontrolled growth
of the cell which can ultimately develop into cancer.
Iodine-131 tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid
cancer. However, iodine-131 is short-lived (two months after an accident).
Therefore, if the exposure to iodine-131 in the air comes after that time, it could
not pose a health risk. The chances of absorption of radioactive iodine are more
in children and they are most at risk for thyroid cancer because the size of their
thyroid glands is 10 times smaller than those of adults. In contrast, radioactive
caesium can stay in the environment for more than a century and does not tends
to concentrate on the body parts.
The persons generally exposed to high levels of radiation (about 200 rem)
could develop radiation sickness (radiation sickness shows symptoms like
bleeding and shedding of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract). About 140
people suffered from radiation sickness as a result of the Chernobyl accident.
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an equivalent
dose of a chest X-ray is about 0.02 rem (0.2 millisieverts). According to an
estimate by IAEA, people are exposed to about 0.24 rem (2.4 mSv) per year
from natural background radiation in the environment. A total dose of 400 to
600 rem can be lethal and can cause death.
4.9 MANAGEMENT
4.9.1 Management of POPs
To minimize the toxicity and adverse impact of POPs, we have to restrict the
improper use of pesticides and abolish them from the food chain and water.
Lipophilic pesticides retain in the soil organic matter when the soils are rich in
organic matter, and the uptake by the plants decreases while in low organic matter
sandy soils, uptake of lipophilic pesticides increases. Thus, pesticides pollute
water resources and bioaccumulate in living tissues. In India, the production of
68 DDT (5000 tons per year) and Lindane (γ-HCH; Hexachlorocyclohexane) (up
to 24th March 2013) for malaria and termite control respectively was exempted Persistent Organic
while lindane was banned for agricultural use in 2014. Polychlorinated and Radioactive
biphenyls were usually imported to be used in electrical components and have pollutants
never been produced in India. Import PCBs contaminated wastes or articles
were banned as per the Hazardous Waste Rules 1989 (Table 4.1). India has
adopted various international conventions such as Stockholm, Rotterdam, and
Basel conventions on chemical management, health safety, and environmental
protection since 1981. On 13th April 2006, the Stockholm Convention (SC)
officially came into force in India and the Ministry of Environment and Forest
(MoEF) has been fixed as the nodal agency for planning, promoting, and
implementing SC in our country. Assessment of status regarding production,
distribution, use, import and export, disposal, storage, and emission of POPs was
the initial task. Since 2005, India has adopted the Rotterdam Convention (RC)
which regulated only the trade of hazardous waste to minimize the generation
and movement of hazardous wastes not the reduction in their emission and use.
India sanctioned and approved the Basel Convention on 24th June 1992 and
formulated a Hazardous Substances Management Division (HSMD) within the
control of MoEF. Hazardous Waste Management and Handling Rules (HWMH
Rules, 1989) have been amended in 2000, 2003, 2008 and 2010 to regulate
stockpiling, dumping, and disposal of solid wastes within and outside the Indian
administration.
Table 4.1: Status of 12 POPs in India
S .
Pesticide Status of POPs Banned (year)
No.
Aldrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Chlordane Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Banned (restricted use for controlling
DDT 1989
vector-borne disease)
Dieldrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 2001
Endrin Banned for manufacture, use and import 1990
HCB Banned for manufacture, use and import 1997
HCH Not registered as a pesticide 1997
Heptachlor Banned for manufacture, use and import 1996
Mirex Not registered
PCBs Not manufactured 1990
PCDDs
Toxaphene Banned for manufacture, use and import 1989
4.9.2 Management of Radioactive Waste
India ranks fourth from the bottom in about 30 countries for electricity
generation through nuclear power. Out of total electricity generation, about
2.65% belongs to nuclear electricity generation in India in 2000 (IAEA report
2000). The reactors in India produce net 1.9 Gigawatts {one billion (109) watts}
energy and this, in turn, produces radioactive wastes (IAEA report 2000).
Management of radioactive waste is an integral part of the entire nuclear fuel
cycle in India. Low-level and intermediate-level radioactive wastes which arise
from nuclear reactors and fuel reprocessing facilities are retained as sludge after 69
Atmospheric
chemical treatment. Solid radioactive waste can be compacted or incinerated
Issues
which depends upon the nature of the waste. Solid wastes disposal is also done
in underground engineered trenches which are under continuous monitoring and
high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are used to absorb and minimize
air-borne radioactivity. The other waste management methods are reverse
osmosis, immobilization and solar evaporation using a cement matrix which
further depends on the physical state of the waste (Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10). At
Trombay, Tarapore, Rawatbhata, Kalpakkam, Narora, Kakrapara, Hyderabad
and Jaduguda, radioactive waste management facilities have been set up over
the past four decades. The measures for the management of radioactive waste in
India are as follows:
a. Department of Energy (DOE), Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and
Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards are involved in the management
practices to protect our environment from nuclear waste. The DOE studies
and searches for storage sites for long-term storage of radioactive waste while
NRC protects the people and the environment from any problem related
to nuclear energy. Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards (NMSS) office
develops and implements the policies, regulations, and safe management/
disposal of radioactive waste proposed by NRC.
b. The government also has a Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 which supports
the deep storage of radioactive waste. It developed the procedures for the
evaluation and selection of sites for the storage of radioactive waste and also
assigned the responsibility of sitting, building, and operating the facility to
DOE.
c. Local government can make laws against scavenging of radioactive waste
that will prevent people from looking for the waste.
d. We can also help in the management of radioactive wastes by simply using
less electricity; can start separating our radioactive wastes such as batteries,
electronics, etc. from our regular trash.
Low and
internediate level
redioactive waste
Liquid waste Solid waste Gaseous waste
Concentration of the Incineration and

waste, conditioning compaction
and immobilization Absorption and high
by cementation and effciency filtration
polymerization
70 Fig. 4.9 Management of low and intermediate level radioactive waste

Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
High Level Redioactive wWaste pollutants
Enginccrcd Interim
Strage of Vitrified
Waste With slow
Final slorage/disposal
Immobilization of cooling and
in deep geological
Liquid Waste snrvcillancc over
epository
a period of time,
qualifying it for final
disposal
Fig. 4.10 Management of high-level radioactive waste
4.10 POLICY
4.10.1 Policy for POPs
The government of India has been active in regulating the use, manufacturing,
and import of POPs by making some policies. There are different policies for
different stages of chemical management including registration, production
and import (Fig. 4.11). The Government of India has approved about 35
Regulations for protecting public health and environmental quality under
the accountability of various ministries and government agencies at the state
and national levels. Under the Environment Protection Act (EPA, 1986), the
Ministry of Environment and Forest deals with POPs at different stages i.e.,
registration, identification, classification, production, packaging, reservation,
permits, inspections, trade, import, export, transportation and uses to ensure
their safe circulation, use and disposal. Under the Insecticide Act (1968), the
Central Insecticide Board (CIB), Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
has banned 32 chemicals/pesticides for manufacture, import and use. According
to this act, the chemicals/pesticides can only be used after appropriate scrutiny
for their bio-efficiency and safety to human beings and the ecosystem. The
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has fixed the maximum residual limits
for hazardous chemicals under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFAA,
1954) to prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals through the food chain. The
Biomedical Waste (Management and Control) Rules (1998), the Municipal
Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules (2000) and the Hazardous
Wastes (Management, Handling, and Transboundary Movement) Rules (2008),
control the collection, transportation, disposal, sales, recycling and export of
any type of hazardous/municipal/bio-medical waste. The Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989), the Public Liability Insurance
Act (PLIA) (1991), the Chemical Accident (Emergency Planning, Preparedness
and Response) Rules (1996) and the National Disaster Management Act (2005)
regulate the emergency situation and policies for providing immediate relief
to chemical accident affected Zone. Central Insecticides Board & Registration
Committee (CIBRC), Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Govt. of India 71
Atmospheric and Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers decide whether a hazardous waste
Issues to be regulated or not. The Indian Ports Act (1908), the Manufacture, Storage
and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules (1989), The Merchant Shipping Act
(1958) and the Customs Act (1962) have controlled the illegal supply of banned
chemical substances.
Fig. 4.11 Key legal policies for POPs in India

4.10.2 Policy for Radioactive Waste
The main aim of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) is to make sure
that the use of ionizing radiation and nuclear energy will not cause any health
risk to the people and the environment in India. These include:
(a) The permissions are given only to the practices which are justified in
terms of their societal and/or individual benefits
(b) Protection measures against radiation should be optimized in all nuclear/
radiation facilities
(c) Radiation doses in the people near their vicinity should not exceed the
permissible limits.
(d) Accidental exposures from the facilities should be low.
Therefore, there are some regulations towards the activities related to nuclear
and radiation facilities which are as follows:
a) Decisions should be made based on review and assessment of facilities
by the Regulatory Body, shall have a validity period and judged after
comparison with the current safety standards and practices.
b) The monitoring of facilities should follow a graded approach.
c) All activities related to nuclear and radiation facilities should establish
the goals, strategies, plans and objectives as well as identify their
responsibilities towards safety.
d) All nuclear and radiation facilities should execute proper radiation
protection programmes to ensure the safety of occupational persons, the
72 public and the environment.
e) All the radioactive waste generated by nuclear and radiation facilities Persistent Organic
during operation, maintenance and decommissioning should be managed and Radioactive
safely to protect human health and the environment from the harmful pollutants
effects of ionizing radiation in the present and future.
f) All nuclear and radiation facilities/activities should be prepared for
emergencies to protect the occupational persons, the public and the
environment.
g) When a radiation generating equipment or radiation / nuclear facility ceases
to be in use, it should undergo safe decommissioning and the remediation
of a contaminated site should be done if the content of radionuclides
exceeds the reference levels specified by the Regulatory Body.
h) The Regulatory Body may recourse to enforcement actions of penal
provisions as provided under section 17 of the Atomic Energy Act
(1962) on the consentee for securing timely compliance to the regulatory
requirements.
i) Radiation exposures from naturally occurring radionuclides in the human
body, the content of radionuclides present in raw materials, cosmic
radiation at the earth’s surface, except the radioactive waste generated
from uranium and thorium mining and milling facilities, are excluded
from regulatory control. The regulatory body may exempt certain practices
or sources related to artificial radionuclides from regulatory control and
the decisions regarding exemption and clearance will be based on the
prescribed criteria.
j) The objectives given by National Policy on safety, health and environment
at the workplace which have been provided by the Ministry of Labour and
Employment, Government of India and the solutions given by the Atomic
Energy (Factories) Rules (1996) for safety, health and environment at
workplace concerning the factories owned by the Central Government
should prevail.
k) The Regulatory Body should take necessary actions to inform the public
about the safety issues related to ionizing radiations. It should also notify
the public about the extraordinary nuclear events, occurring in the nuclear
facilities in India (mandatory of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
Act, 2010). The Regulatory Body should be governed by the provisions
applicable to the public authority in the ‘Right to Information Act (2005).
Fill in the blanks
1. POPs are ………………………………….
2. ……………………………….is usually a by-product of nuclear power
generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology.
3. ……………………………………… are defined as the poisonous
organic substances that break down slowly and thus, bioaccumulate and
biomagnify through the food chains.
4. The 12 main POPs are altogether known as the ……………………………….
5. DDT is ………………………………………………. 73
Atmospheric 6. The full form of PCBs is ……………………………………………………
Issues
7. Chernobyl disaster occurred in ………………………………………….
8. The radioactive nuclide can produce ………………rays or ……………….
rays or …………………… rays.
9. ……………………………………………….. that are generated as
a byproduct from some industrial processes and combustion such as
dioxins which are produced as a byproduct of municipal and medical
waste incineration and backyard burning of trash.
10. …………………………………………. produced by nuclear reactors is
spent fuel that is still present inside of nuclear reactors after its use.
11. A strong increase in the concentration of POPs in successive trophic levels
via the food chain is called…………………………………………
12. After Fukushima nuclear disaster, a huge amount of ……………… and
caesium-137 was delivered into the sea.
13. Unit of absorbed radiation dose is ………
14. The measurement of absorbed dose adjusted with weighing factor is
called the …………………………………
15. DDT was banned in ………………
16. Nuclear waste policy act was formed in ……………

State True (T) or False (F)
1. POPs do not tend to bio-accumulate and biomagnify through the food
chain.
2. Radiations from radioactive waste can damage our genetic material
(DNA).
3. There are 13 main POPs.
4. Chlordane is an example of intentionally produced POP.
5. Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of certain
chemical pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at lower trophic
levels to the higher-level organisms of food webs.
6. PBDEs are polybrominated diphenyl ethers.
7. The main radionuclides in the Fukushima nuclear disaster were iodine-131
and caesium-137.
8. Organochlorine compounds such as dioxins and furans can act as strong
tumour promoters and have carcinogenic effects.
9. Caesium-137 tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause
thyroid cancer.
10. The full form of IAEA is Indian Atomic Energy Agency.
74 11. Stockholm Convention (SC) came into force in India on 13th April 2006.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
Write full forms of the following.
pollutants
1. DOE
2. NRC
3. NMSS
4. MoEFCC
5. CIB
6. PLIA
7. CIBRC
8. AERB
9. POPs
10. IAEA
11. PCBs
12. PCDFs
13. HCH
14. PFAA

1. Write a note on the classification of POPs.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
2. Classify radioactive waste with suitable examples.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
3. What is the mechanism of transport of POPs in the environment?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….…………
…………...........…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….……………………....
.......………………………………........................………………………..
75
Atmospheric 4. What do you understand by biomagnification? How biomagnification of
Issues POPs takes place?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………......................…………………...
5. What are the impacts of POPs on human health?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
6. Discuss in detail the management and policies for POPs.
…………………………………………………………………….……
……………………………………………………………………………
……….…………………………………………………………………
……………………….…………………………………………………
……………………………………….…………………………………...
7. How radioactive waste can be managed?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………………………………….............
8. What are the different policies for the management of radioactive waste
in India?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………………………………….............
4.11 LET US SUM UP

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and radioactive wastes are toxic compounds
that adversely affect human health and the environment. Persistent organic
pollutants affect humans and wildlife far away from where they are used because
they can be transported by wind and water. These pollutants can persist for a
long time in the environment and can accumulate and transfer from one trophic
level to the next level through the food chain. In Stockholm (Sweden), a United
Nations Treaty related to POPs related problems was signed by 90 countries
76 in May 2001 and this treaty is known as the Stockholm Convention. All the
countries agreed to eliminate or reduce the production, use, and/or release of 12 Persistent Organic
main POPs namely aldrin, chlordane, dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane, (DDT, and Radioactive
dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex, toxaphene, pollutants
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins)
and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans) under this treaty. These can be
classified as intentionally produced and unintentionally produced POPs. POPs
bioaccumulate in the body fat of living organisms due to their lipophobic
nature and become more concentrated when they move from one trophic level
to another through the food chain. This process is called biomagnification
which can produce a significant hazard to predators that feed at the top of
the food chain. In human beings, adverse health effects such as behavioural,
reproductive, developmental, endocrine, neurologic, and immunologic have
been shown by exposure to POPs contaminated food. In mammals, POPs can
be transferred to developing offspring through the placenta and breast milk. Any
industrial activity results in the generation of some waste material. Similarly,
radioactive materials also harm living beings and can continue to the subsequent
generation. Radioactive wastes are generated from the use of radionuclides in
industry, electricity generation, medicine and research. Radioactive wastes
may be solid, liquid or gas. Radioactive waste can be classified as low level,
intermediate level and high-level waste based on the level of radioactivity.
Effective management of radioactive waste can be done through segregation,
characterization, handling, treatment, conditioning and monitoring before final
storage/disposal. Integrated and scientifically proven regulations and policies
are introduced and recommended to manage and reduce the risk due to POPs
and radioactive wastes.
4.12 KEY WORDS

Biomagnification: Biomagnification is defined as the gradual accumulation of
certain chemical pollutants in the bodies of organisms present at higher trophic
levels of food webs through smaller organisms that are food for larger organisms
in the food web.
Persistent Organic Pollutants: Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are
defined as the poisonous organic substances that break down slowly and thus,
bioaccumulate and biomagnifies through the food chains.
Radioactive Waste: Radioactive Waste is the waste that contains radioactive
materials which emit nuclear radiation (ionizing radiation). These radiations
can cause some changes in our cells by breaking the electron bonds that hold
molecules together. Radiations can damage our genetic material (DNA).
4.13 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/REFER-

ENCES
•• Brij Mohan Sharma, Girija K. Bharat, Shresth Tayal, Luca Nizzetto and
Thorjørn Larssen. The legal framework to manage chemical pollution in
India and the lesson from the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). 2014. 77
Atmospheric Science of the Total Environment. 490, 733–747.
Issues
•• Francis O. Adeola. Boon or Bane? 2004. The Environmental and health
impacts of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Human Ecology Review.
11(1), 27-35.
•• Web Links
•• https://enochthered.wordpress.com/2008/03/17/bioconcentration-and-
biomagnification-of-radionuclides-of-biochemically-significant-elements/.
•• https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1995/9504/950405.PDF.
•• https://www.livescience.com/13250-radiation-health-effects-japan-nuclear-
reactor-cancer.html.
•• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_
incidents.
•• http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html.
•• http://www.popstoolkit.com/about/healthimplications.aspx.
•• https://franklinmslibrary.pbworks.com/w/page/107077152/Tyler%20
and%20Watson%20nuclear%20waste.
•• http://www.who.int/ceh/capacity/POPs.pdf.
•• http://www.aerb.gov.in/AERBPortal/pages/English/prsrel/policies.pdf.

1. Persistent Organic Pollutants
2. Radioactive waste
3. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
4. Dirty Dozen
5. dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane
6. polychlorinated biphenyls
7. Ukraine
8. Alpha, beta or gamma
9. Unintentionally produced chemicals
10. High-level radioactive waste,
11. Biomagnification
12. iodine-131 and caesium-137
13. rad
14. equivalent dose
15. 1989
78 16. 1982
Check Your Progress 2 Persistent Organic
and Radioactive
1. False 2. True 3. False pollutants
4. True 5. False 6. True

7. True 8. True 9. False
10. False 1. True

1. Department of Energy
2. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
3. Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards
4. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
5. Central Insecticide Board
6. Public Liability Insurance Act
7. Central Insecticides Board & Registration Committee
8. Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
9. Persistent Organic Pollutants
10. International Atomic Energy Agency
11. Polychlorinated biphenyls
12. Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
13. Hexachlorocyclohexane
14.Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
79
MEVE 019
ENVIRONMENTAL

Block
2
LAND AND SOIL ISSUES
Unit 5
Threats to Biodiversity 83
Unit 6
Biomass Burning 117
Unit 7
Soil Pollution, Land Degradation and Desertification 133
Unit 8
Waste Management 152
BLOCK 2 LAND AND SOIL ISSUES
Block 2 “Land and Soil Issues” discusses issues like threats to biodiversity, biomass
burning, soil pollution, land degradation and desertification and waste management.
Unit 5 “Threats to Biodiversity” provides an overview of the types and roles of
biodiversity, major drivers of biodiversity loss, impacts of biodiversity loss and
management and policy aspects of biodiversity restoration.
Unit 6 “Biomass Burning” discusses the causes, extent and intensity of biomass
burning; impacts of biomass burning and sustainable alternatives to biomass burning.
Unit 7 “Soil Pollution, Land Degradation and Desertification” deals with the causes,
extent and management of soil pollution, land degradation and desertification.
Unit 8 “Waste Management” deals with the inter-linkages between waste management
and climate change and discusses briefly various technologies for mitigation of
greenhouse gases from the waste sector.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
•• explain the types and role of biodiversity;
•• explain the extent and intensity of biodiversity loss;
•• discuss major drivers of biodiversity loss;
•• explain the likely impacts of biodiversity loss;
•• explain the management and policy aspects of biodiversity restoration;
•• explain the causes of biomass burning;
•• explain the extent and intensity of biomass burning;
•• explain the impacts of biomass burning;
•• discuss the sustainable alternatives to biomass burning;
•• explain the causes of soil pollution;
•• identify different types of soil pollutants;
•• define land degradation and desertification;
•• describe the causes of land degradation and desertification;
•• assess the status and trends in the waste sector and the associated problems;
•• assess waste management strategies for climate change mitigation;
•• discuss various technologies options for greenhouse gas mitigation and
•• explain the role of waste hierarchy in waste management.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of the land
and soil issues.
UNIT 5 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Biodiversity
5.3.1 Role of Biodiversity
5.4 Causes of Biodiversity Loss
5.5 Drivers of Biodiversity Loss
5.5.1 Land Use Change
5.5.2 Invasion of Exotic Species
5.5.3 Global Climate Change
5.5.4 Pollution, Synthetic Chemicals and Heavy metals
5.5.5 Overexploitation
5.5.6. Increasing Wildlife Trade
5.6 Extent of Biodiversity loss
5.6.1. Loss at Species and Population Level
5.6.2. Loss at Ecosystem Level
5.6.3. Economic Cost of Biodiversity Loss
5.7 Intensity of Biodiversity Loss
5.8 Impacts of Biodiversity Loss
5.8.1 On the Environment
5.8.1.1 Ecosystem Structure and Function
5.8.1.2 Ecosystem Services
5.8.2 On humans
5.8.2. 1 Food security
5.8.2.2 Vulnerability
5.8.2.3 Health
5.8.2.4 Energy Security
5.8.2.5 Provision of Clean Water
5.8.2.6 Social Relations
5.8.2.7 Freedom of Choice and Action
5.8.2.8 Basic Materials for a Good Life and Sustainable Livelihoods
5.9 Biodiversity Conservation
5.9.1. Global Biodiversity Hotspots in India
5.9.2. Ecosystem Diversity of India
5.9.3. Fundamentals of Biodiversity Conservation
5.9.3.1 Habitat and Landscape Management
5.9.3.2 Tools used in Biodiversity Management
5.9.4 Conservation Categories
5.9.5 Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity
5.10 Conventions and Laws on Biodiversity Conservation
5.10.1 International Conventions
5.10.2 India’s Policy Framework
Land And Soil Issues 5.10.2.1 Constitutional Provisions
5.10.2.2 National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP)-India
5.10.2.3 Sectoral Policies formulated in India
5.10.2.4 Ministry/Boards/Authorities/Institutions
5.11 Protected Areas of India
5.12 Types of Conservation
5.12.1 In-situ Conservation
5.12.2 On-farm conservation
5.12.3 Ex-situ Conservation
5.13 Let Us Sum Up
5.14 Key Words
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The biodiversity of Earth’s planet includes species visible through our eyes and
even those which we can’t even see from terrestrial to marine environment.
The world has already lost thousands of types of species in less than a decade.
The situation is grim in terms of both flora and faunal species. Human has
altered the land use pattern to an extent that the natural process of adaptation
for a species becomes difficult to cope with. Similarly, global climate change
act synergistically to make the situation even more vulnerable for a species to
survive. World’s population is ever-increasing and there is a need to feed the
mammoth population. Despite technological intervention conversion of forest
to agricultural land is on the continuum. Natural causes like forest fire, volcanic
eruption, invasive species etc. have their pressure upon indigenous species.
Fishes are being over-exploited to maintain the momentum of the supply
chain. Even many faunal populations have been exploited through international
trade routes to such an extent that many agencies at the international level,
national level and local level working towards conservation. Governments,
non-government organisations, indigenous people, and activists are connecting
the link to make laws, implement them, to make people aware of the situation.
On one hand, some indigenous people worship certain floral and faunal species
and on the other hand, people’s greed has forced many species to the level of
extinction as a result of poaching and international trade. The current situation
is worrisome in terms of both extent and intensity of biodiversity loss. People
depend upon biodiversity for several things including food security, energy,
medicines, potable water, social relation etc. Loss of biodiversity has visible and
quantifiable impacts on the supply chain as a result. International organisations
like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Wetlands International,
International Whaling Commission (IWC), United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) etc., are working with various
countries under different conventions to save species through different means
like in-situ and ex-situ conservation. There is a list of efforts made by the Indian
Government under the Ministry of Forest, Environment and Climate Change
84 (MoEF&CC) from having policies to their implementation. Various NGOs
in this regard have worked toward the restoration of habitats to rescue them Threats to
from wildlife trafficking. Strategies for both ex-situ and in-situ conservation Biodiversity
are in place and through these tools’ faunal species already on the Red List
of IUCN are getting priorities and better safeguard. Academia and researchers
have played their crucial role as well through research and educational tours
to ignite young minds to choose wildlife conservation as their career. This unit
emphasizes the types and role of biodiversity, major drivers of biodiversity loss,
impacts of biodiversity loss and management and policy aspects of biodiversity
restoration.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define biodiversity;
•• explain the types and role of biodiversity;
•• explain the extent and intensity of biodiversity loss;
•• discuss major drivers of biodiversity loss;
•• explain the likely impacts of biodiversity loss and
•• explain the management and policy aspects of biodiversity restoration.
5.3 BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living biota from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems” in the Convention on Biological Diversity
signed at Rio De Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 by 152 countries. In simpler terms,
it can be defined as the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome
or for the entire planet Earth. It includes all ecosystems which include both
natural and man-made. Some examples of the natural ecosystem are forests,
nature reserves, and national parks. Whereas examples of man-made ecosystems
can be croplands, plantations, farms, aquaculture sites, rangelands, zoos etc.
Given that cultivated systems alone now account for more than 24% of Earth’s
terrestrial surface, any decision concerning biodiversity or ecosystem services
must address the maintenance of biodiversity in these largely anthropogenic
systems. Biodiversity can be classified into three types, genetic diversity, species
diversity and ecosystem diversity. Genetic diversity takes into account diversity
within a species whereas species diversity takes into account diversity between
species and Ecosystem diversity in biodiversity between regions.
5.3.1 Role of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is critical for maintaining ecosystem health. Every species has a
certain role to play to keep its niche healthy. Biodiversity is not merely the sum
of the number of species but it’s the interaction they play along for the proper 85
Land And Soil Issues functioning of the ecosystem. Interactions can be competition, predator-prey
system and mutualisms (e.g., pollination, seed dispersal). A small creature,
the bee alone has the potential to pollinate more than 130,000 plants known
to mankind. Declining biodiversity not only changes the structure but also
lowers productivity and so lowers the quality of the ecosystem’s services.
Ecosystem services are defined as the benefits provided by ecosystems to
humans. Biodiversity provides some key ecosystem services such as nutrient
cycling, carbon sequestration, pollination, pest control, crop productivity etc.
Biodiversity loss impacts ecological resilience as the loss of certain species
makes the system deficit. Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem
to respond to a perturbation. Losing biodiversity beyond a critical point makes
the system irreversible and hence changes brought in structure and its function
becomes permanent and so leading to the collapse of the ecosystem. At times
what matters is the type of species and not their number. The relative abundance
of a particular species might be small but if that particular species shares a larger
proportion of function called keystone species. Losing keystone species ensure
a permanent change in the ecosystem and so degrades ecosystem functioning
permanently. Some species are endemic species that are restricted to a small
region. Losing endemic species marks a permanent loss of species as well. Some
area is declared as biodiversity hotspots i.e., areas with a high concentration
of endemic species, these areas are under threat of habitat loss at a faster rate.
There are two main parameters to be looked at to measure species diversity i.e.,
species richness and evenness which is also called relative abundance. Richness
is the number of species within a community whereas relative abundance is the
extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed.
Depletion of species or extinction reduces the species number.
5.4 CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity loss is typically associated with more permanent ecological changes
in ecosystems, landscapes, and the global biosphere. The causes of biodiversity
losses are both natural and man-made. Natural causes of biodiversity loss can be
ecological disturbances, such as volcanic eruptions wildfire, floods and asteroid
impacts etc. drastically alter ecosystems by removing (extinct) local populations
of some species and so transforming the entire biological communities. Volcanic
eruption and wildfire create huge biodiversity loss in such a small duration.
Similarly, environmental stress applied through heat or drought is a natural
factor responsible for climate change. Natural environmental disturbances,
invasion of species, diseases/pests etc. allow a new set of species to flourish
called succession.
Causes like habitat destruction, desertification, overpopulation, over-
exploitation of flora and fauna for various purposes, human-induced climate
change, invasion of exotic species, pollution etc. are a few important ones that
are threats to biodiversity loss.
86
5.5 DRIVERS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS Threats to
Biodiversity
The list of drivers can be so long but very important ones are land-use
change (habitat change), invasive species, climate change, overexploitation,
and pollution. Ecologists emphasized that habitat loss (typically from the
conversion of forests, wetlands, grasslands, and other natural areas to
urban and agricultural uses) and invasive species are the primary drivers
for biodiversity loss. But, other anthropogenic activities along with the
burning of fossil fuels have marked climate change as an important cause
of biodiversity loss in the 21st century. Species in the ecosystem function
optimum under certain environmental conditions. Species respond to the
changes in the environmental conditions up to a certain limit. Some species
cope well with changes whereas some fail to adapt. That who adapts flourish
and rest perishes (extinct).
The five main drivers of biodiversity losses can be listed as:
1. Land-use change,
2. Introduction of invasive species,
3. Global Climate Change,
4. Global Pollution, and
5. Overexploitation.
5.5.1 Land Use Change

Land-use change includes fragmentation, degradation or alteration and loss of
habitats. A fragmented ecosystem loses resilience to change and as a result,
becomes vulnerable to stress. Terrestrial biodiversity has the main threat from
fragmentation and loss of habitats. Habitat fragmentation refers to the reduction
of continuous tracts of habitat to smaller patches. Development plans like
the expansion of railway lines often create wild versus man conflict. Rajaji
National Park situated in Uttarakhand is dedicated to conserving wild elephants
but railway lines crossing their corridor often cause death. The transformation
of the natural areas determines not only the loss of the flora but also fauna
which depends on shelter and food associated with them. Transformation of
forest to agricultural land simplifies communities and so led to biodiversity
loss. Agricultural land shares 30% of land globally and not only food grains
but biofuels are adding pressure upon it as well. Between 1980 and 2011,
Indonesia and Malaysia cut down Borneo’s tropical forests thousands of
orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) along with thousand different types of species
lost their lives for palm oil production. Similarly, grazing not only modifies the
grassland structure but also the species composition. Deforestation (clearing
of forests) takes away vital resources like nutrients, constant supply of water
etc. Development projects like the establishment of hydroelectric dams turn
rivers into reservoirs upstream and the flow of water gets perturbed. The Koyna
hydroelectric project is the largest completed hydroelectric power project on the
87
Koyna River, Maharashtra in India having an installed capacity of 1960 MW.
Land And Soil Issues More than 200 windmills in Koyna Sanctuary got installed along with a dam
and 10-resorts and to have these infrastructures, flora and fauna of sanctuaries
must have paid a price. Ever-expanding process i.e., urbanization and suburban
sprawl constantly putting pressure upon natural resources. Land-use change
not only reduces the total area but also causes extinction. Habitat alteration
has occurred in every biome, particularly in tropical rainforests, savannas, and
tropical dry forests.
5.5.2 Invasion of Exotic Species
It is the second-largest threat to biodiversity loss. Invasive species are those
species that are not native to a particular area but generally get introduced,
form a population and spreads on their own. For example, Water Hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) is one of the world’s most invasive aquatic plants.
This plant is not native to India and it is believed that it was introduced at the
end of the 18th century by the British. Today, this plant alone has created a
nuisance in every aquatic system and especially in ponds in India. It has made
water quality un-potable as well as minimized the biodiversity of the aquatic
system. Similarly, Florida’s exotic Burmese pythons (Python bivitattus), and
anacondas are not native and have become one of the worst invasive reptiles
over there. Burmese pythons are native to Southeast Asia and these are among
the largest snakes on Earth where they have flourished like anything. Now, the
Government of Canada has made a stringent rule to ban exotic animals.
Introduction of Cheatgrass, (Bromus tectorum), has transformed over 5 million
hectares size of the Great Basin shrub-steppe ecosystem and as a result frequency
of forest fire has increased from once in 80 years to once in 4 years. Nature
works on the principle of diversity whereas invasion reverses it and makes the
system homogenized by the predominance of a particular species.
5.5.3 Global Climate Change
Global climate change impacts both flora (plants) and fauna (animals). A rise
in temperature, in general, pushes faunal migration polewards which includes
both fishes and birds. The rise in sea level and the temperature has even hard-
hit much diversified ecosystems like coral reefs by coral bleaching. Similarly,
amphibians are under tremendous pressure and A&M University, Texas has
estimated that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times the
background amphibian extinction rate. According to a report by BBC, global
climate change could extinct more than 20% of the world’s lizard species by
2080. Similarly, due to ocean de-oxygenation, acidification and warming could
be a threat to marine flora and fauna as well. Currently, about 25,000 species of
marine fauna got reported and more than 75,000 species are yet to be registered.
Extinction will lead to the wiping out of those faunas that mankind is yet to
know. Climate change and global warming have become a threat, especially
to those species like the arctic polar bear, already registered on the endangered
list and have been adapted to colder climatic conditions. The polar bear has lost
88
their habitat and scarce food, which are mainly micro-algae and seals. Threats to
Biodiversity
5.5.4 Pollution, Synthetic Chemicals and Heavy Metals
Britannica defined pollution, as the addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at
a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored
in some harmless form. It includes both air and water pollution. Pollution,
synthetic chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals (Lead, Mercury etc.) and even
chemicals from household products are now pervasive in the environment. These
toxics have altered the pristine global ecosystem and pose threat to wildlife
and us. Marine waste has already been identified as one of the nine categories
that needed to be dealt with under the Global Programme of Action (GPA) for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (UNEP,
2005). Another report claimed that 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic, weighing
269,000 tonnes, were getting distributed across the oceans (Howard, 2014).
The coastal population of India is generating about 2000 tonnes per day, an
average of 0.5 kg/person/day for a population of 4 million living along the 7500
km coastline (SACEP, 2007). Impacts of marine debris were reported for 663
species and over half of these were because of entanglement and ingestion of
debris. About 15 % of the species affected through entanglement and ingestion
are on the IUCN Red List i.e., endangered list. (CBD, 2012). Plastics not only
stay for so long in the environment but also release a range of potentially toxic
chemicals like bisphenol-A (BPA), phthalate plasticisers, flame retardants and
antimicrobials added while manufacturing. Pesticide exposure can be linked to
cancer, endocrine disruption, reproductive effects, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity
etc. in a wide range of species. It alters the organism’s behaviour, impacting its
ability to survive. Some pesticides that mimic hormones are called endocrine
disruptors. These chemicals cause reproductive abnormalities in mammals,
birds, reptiles, fish, and molluscs even at exposure levels considered “safe” by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey found in North
America. It was declared an endangered species in the U.S. in 1967 as a result
of habitat destruction and largely as a consequence of the use of DDT pesticides
but over years of sustained effort, it was taken off the endangered species list in
2007. Pesticides like endrin and parathion have caused crab-eating population in
rural Karnataka, especially from rice fields and pond “Handigodu Syndrome”,
victims were crippled; their limbs, lips and shoulders became deformed. These
pesticides get “biomagnified” and as result reach a lethal concentration in higher
trophic levels. The Ministry of Agriculture, India proposed a draft order on 14th
May 2020 to ban 27 pesticides that were already banned internationally.
5.5.5 Overexploitation
Overexploitation refers to activities connected with capturing and harvesting
(hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is
excessively intense ie., faster than the natural rate of harvest, the resource itself
89
may become exhausted. According to the United Nations’ Global Outlook report,
Land And Soil Issues
about 80% of the world’s marine fish stocks are fully exploited or overexploited.
The average fish sizes caught have declined by 22% and mass by 11% since
1977. Sharks being top predators in the oceanic system, around 100 million of
them gets killed per year (Marine Policy, 2013). Many die accidentally in nets
set for tuna and swordfish whereas some are caught deliberately for “Fin-soup”
to be served. Indian Seafood market gives employment to about 14.5 million
people directly and 40.5 million people both directly and indirectly which is
merely 4.1% of the global seafood market. India aims to make its share in the
global market 6.7% by 2030. Meanwhile, India’s government has prioritized
the fisheries sector in its 2020 annual budget, setting the target for fisheries
production at 20 million metric tons (MT) by 2022-2023, The U.S., the top
buyer of Indian shrimp has already banned exports of wild-caught shrimp from
India because they are caught without the use of turtle excluder devices, even
though endangered turtles are typically not found in areas where shrimp is
caught, along India’s west coast.
The absence of top predators disturbs the entire marine food web similarly
overexploitation for tuna, sardine etc. causes a decline in the richness of species
and genetic diversity as well. Thus, it can lead to the extinction of some species.
5.5.6. Increasing Wildlife Trade

According to WWF, the wildlife trade is the second largest direct threat
after habitat destruction for biodiversity loss. The world is dealing with an
unprecedented spike in the illegal wildlife trade, threatening to overturn decades
of conservation gains.
•• Bear bile is used in traditional Chinese medicine and it has big demand in the
Asian market as a result wild bears are under threat. Though bile from wild
bears is banned yet they continue to import bear bile from other countries.
•• For ivory, elephants are being killed in the wild. 23 metric tons of illegal
ivory were seized in Kenya in 2011.
•• South Africa is home to nearly 70% of the 29,500 rhinos left on Earth
where the number was several hundred thousand during the 18th century.
The horn of a rhinoceros is the world’s most valuable appendage and is
made of keratin, a protein it grows back just like our hair and nail and
is used in traditional medicine in Asia. Although selling rhino horns is
illegal in S. Africa but rhino farmers tranquillize their animals with darts,
cut horns from each rhino, and store them at secure locations, hoping for
a day when it’s permitted by the government (https://www.worldwildlife.
org/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade).
•• Saiga (Saiga tatarica) are critically endangered antelopes from Central
Asia with horns (often marketed as ling yang) used in traditional Chinese
medicine (TCM) and its usage is legal and is widely sold in Singapore. This
species has already paid price and in the 1990s itself, their number declined
by more than 95% need not say due to poaching for horn and meat.
90 •• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), estimated the total of sharks
and rays in the world in 2008 as 700,000 tons mainly from Indonesia, India, Threats to
Spain, Taiwan and Mexico. Among these countries, Indonesia has a bigger Biodiversity
fishing area and so has a high production rate as well. More than 500 species
of sharks are found around the world, from freshwater to the deep sea. The
West Indo Pacific region is the world’s centre of cartilaginous fish around
245 species of sharks and rays are found in the West Indo Pacific region, and
about 41% of it is shark species themselves. Until 2010, at least 221 species
of sharks and rays have been found in Indonesian waters, consisting of 117
shark species, 3 ghost shark species, and 101 ray species from 44 families
(Fahmi, 2010; 2011; Allen & Erdman, 2012). As a result of overfishing, its
number gets declined and so population of other species as well.
•• Even the situation of freshwater reptiles is grim and more than 30% of it is
close to extinct. The extinction rate of freshwater turtles alone is about50%
as a result of national and international trade. Over 1,000 tortoises and
freshwater turtles entered the illegal wildlife trade in India annually since
2009.
5.6 EXTENT OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The total estimated number of animal and plant species on Earth is 8 million
including 5.5 million insect species. Biodiversity faces a wide number of
threats. Agricultural expansion and intensification are likely to continue to be
the dominant pressure on terrestrial biodiversity to fulfil the demand for food
and bioenergy. Global terrestrial habitat lost or deteriorated by 30%. Climate
change itself is putting its footprints and impact on the flora and fauna of both
terrestrial and marine environments. Climate change already impacted adversely
47% of terrestrial mammals and 23% of threatened birds. The threat is posed
upon sensitive ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves etc. The situation of the
marine environment become grim as a result of acidification of the sea and global
warming. Climate change provides favourable conditions for exotic species to
flourish. Over-exploitation and internal trade of wildlife make the situation even
amplified in terms of biodiversity loss. Industrial fishing remains a major threat
to the marine environment. More than 30% of fish stocks are being exploited
(FAO, 2018). Exotic species, water hyacinth, sewage from households and
industries, plastics etc. have already clogged the waterways. About 8 million
tonnes of plastic are making their way to the ocean annually, impacting around
500 species of marine fauna.
5.6.1. Loss at Species and Population Level

More than 1 million species are threatened with extinction. The rate of species
extinction become tens to hundreds of times as compared average over the past
10-million years. Over 5.9 million terrestrial species have lost their habitat. This
led to irreparable ecosystem dynamics and hence productivity and resilience
as well. A remarkable increase (70%) recorded in invasive species since 1970
across 21 countries. The average abundance of native species in most major
land-based habitats has fallen by at least 20%, mostly since 1900. More than
40% of amphibian species, almost 33% of reef-forming corals and more than
a third of all marine mammals are threatened. Globally, freshwater species
show the largest decline, with a 90% loss in population size since 1970 and the
population of species such as sharks, swordfish, tuna and marlin are grim. 91
Land And Soil Issues 5.6.2. Loss at Ecosystem Level
Globally, human actions put pressure upon ecosystems like terrestrial, marine
and other freshwater ecosystems. Ecosystems on land (forest), oceanic including
rivers, ponds etc. have been fragmented and altered. Humans have altered
even the most pristine ecosystems and so-called lung of the Earth (Amazon
Forest) for desire and greed. Natural forest area declined by 10.6 million ha
annually from 1990 to 2000, and by 6.5 million hectares per year from 2010
to 2015 (FAO, 2016). Tropical rainforests, home to the biodiversity of large
significance, worldwide lost around 15 million hectares per year. A total of 290
million ha of native forest cover was lost from 1990 to 2015 because of clearing
and wood harvesting. Mining activities have negatively impacted biodiversity
at the ecosystem level as well. Natural wetland coverage has shrunk by about
35% from 1970 to 2015 and continues to shrink at a faster rate annually. Some
65% of the larger catchment in the area under Ramsar convention is degraded
forest due to overgrazing, while 35% is covered by grasslands.
Coral bleaching in the marine environment means loss of shelter, spawning
grounds, protection from predators for fishes etc. The collapse of reef ecosystems
will put marine life at risk and threat to extinct. The world has already lost more
than half of shallow-water corals in the last 30-years and about 31% of corals
are under bleaching (WWF, 2018).
Mangroves are amongst the most productive marine ecosystems on Earth and
provide unique habitat opportunities for many species. A total of 70 species
of true mangroves are recorded globally while India has a total of 125 species
including 39 species of true mangroves and 86 species of associates. The global
mangrove area is estimated to have declined by about 20% between 1980 and
2005 (FAO, 2007), and the coverage of seagrass is estimated to have declined
by 29% over the last century.
5.6.3. Economic Cost of Biodiversity Loss

The value of biodiversity can be estimated through the concept of Total Economic
Value (TEV), which is the sum of its direct use and non-use values. Imagine
the loss of a tree in the terrestrial ecosystem. The direct use-value of a tree can
be the cost of the actual timber whereas the non-use value can be prepared by
enlisting the ecosystem services offered by it like providing shelter to birds and
hence becomes a mode of re-creation for us through bird watching, watershed
management, nutrient cycling etc. Estimating the world’s biodiversity TEV is
tough and has a wide range of variability. A few examples to cite just to get a
better feeling of economic value are given below.
•• Economic value of the world’s ecosystem services
Constanza et al., 1996 estimated the world’s ecosystem services are provided
by nature by offering processes such as the pollination of plants, habitat
for migratory species, storage and retention of water, formation of soil,
protection from storm and flood control, etc. could be valued in a range
between $16 and $54 trillion per year, at an average of around $33 trillion
per year. Later, in 2014, Constanza gave a new estimate ranging between
$125 trillion and $145 trillion per year which is significantly higher than
the 1997 estimate range. They also found that ecosystem services contribute
92 “more than twice as much to human well-being as global GDP”. The paper
also estimates the loss of ecosystem services from 1997 to 2011 to be worth Threats to
around $20 trillion per year. At the time, this was considered a low estimate, Biodiversity
yet it was almost twice as much as the entire global economy’s gross national
product.
•• Importance of Pollinators
The importance of pollinators can be felt in an estimate given by an FAO
study, up to “$577 billion worth of annual global food production relies on
direct contributions by pollinators”, with wild bees alone contributing over
$3000 per hectare of crop production according to one study, there is no
doubt of the significance of this loss in economic terms.
5.7 INTENSITY OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity studies suggest that the number of organisms on the planet has
declined by more than a half in the last 45 years. The Living Planet Index (LPI)
is a measure of the state of the world’s biological diversity based on population
trends of vertebrate species from terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats.
•• It shows a combined decline of mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and amphibian
numbers of 58 % between 1970 and 2012.
•• The LPI data of 50% of vertebrate species have declined in about 40 years.
•• The LPI, which measures trends in thousands of populations of mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe shows a decline of 58%
between 1970 and 2012
•• If current trends of species loss continue, the decline could reach two-thirds
by 2020.
•• The LPI of terrestrial species declined by 38% between 1970 and 2012.
•• The majority of Earth’s land area is now perturbed by humans, which has an
irreversible impact on biodiversity loss. However, designated protected areas
to cover 15.4% of the Earth’s land surface, which is likely to have slowed the
decline in the terrestrial index compared to freshwater and marine indices.
•• The LPI for freshwater species shows the greatest decline, falling 81%
between 1970 and 2012.
•• The main threats are habitat loss and degradation for example through
direct impacts from dams and unsustainable water extractions, followed by
overexploitation.
•• Marine species populations declined 36 % between 1970 and 2012.
•• The majority of the decline in the marine LPI occurred between 1970 and
the late 1980s, after which the trend stabilizes (WWF, 2016)
5.8 IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity loss is the decline in the number of genes, individual organisms,
species, and ecosystems in a given area. The concept of biodiversity is commonly
associated with species richness, and thus biodiversity loss is often viewed as
species loss from an ecosystem or even the entire biome called extinction. 93
Land And Soil Issues However, associating biodiversity loss with species loss alone overlooks other
subtle phenomena that threaten long-term ecosystem health. Biodiversity is
even essential for ecosystem services and so for the welfare of human
beings. Biodiversity goes far more than mere provisioning for physical
welfare and livelihoods to include just a few it gives us security, resilience,
social relations, health, and freedoms of choice and actions to us. There is
always a divide between North and South and similarly, it prevails at the
societal level as well. Some people have taken financial gain by exploiting
natural resources from the conversion of pristine ecosystems to man-made
ecosystems. But the question arises here how long you can continue to
do so? Every system has its carrying capacity and beyond that point, the
system gets fixed and it becomes irreversible. Biodiversity loss not just
impacts its surrounding (environment) but also the ecosystem services.
5.8.1 On the Environment

5.8.1.1 Ecosystem Structure and Function
Biodiversity is the web of organisms each having a specific role to play.
Reductions in biodiversity mean the loss of a particular role player which
results in damage to the fragile web. Some species play an even wider role
in the ecosystem and without that species system collapses in totality called
“keystone species,” such as tiger, leopard and dhole are three of the main
keystone species in the landscape in Western Ghats, India and they are mainly
found in undisturbed habitat. When these keystone species disappear, the web
of life unwinds as complex interrelationships of predator-prey, parasite, or
mutualism benefit vanish. Impetuous population declines may dismay social
structures in some species. Removal of counterparts may become the reason
for further population declines as a result of the difficulty in finding mates.
Declines in species not only mean loss of genes but also gives avenues for
inbreeding i.e., mating between closely related individuals of a species, which
could erode the genetic diversity. Clearing trees from a forest ecosystem
removes the shading, temperature and moisture regulation, animal habitat,
and nutrient cycling they offer to the ecosystem. Very little are yet known to
mankind about how this network of relationships gets affected as a result of land-
use change, invasion of alien species, pollution driven global warming, climate
change etc. or other drivers that alter ecosystems. It is a careless venture to fail
to grasp, through passivity or materialism, something that we might sooner or
later realise was key.
5.8.1.2 Ecosystem Services
While we know a great deal about how many ecosystems function, they
involve unfathomable complexity and scale. For example, the breakdown and
decomposition of dead biota and wastes; the recycling of nutrients that offers
new life on land, in rivers, lakes, streams, and the oceans; and the regulation of
local-global climate.
The temperate forest is the second largest biome on the planet, covering 25% of
the world’s forest followed by the boreal forest (33%) sequesters atmospheric
CO2 by storing carbon in trees and soils thereby mitigating CO2 emitted as a
result of fossil fuel burning and so likely climate change. On average, this biome
94 receives 750 to 1,500 mm of rain per year as a result it optimises the water cycle
and hence stabilises the local climate, maintains absorption, evapotranspiration; Threats to
reduces soil erosion by maintaining soil humidity and leaf fall, and binding Biodiversity
soils; purify the air by filtering particulates and providing chemical reaction sites
on leaf surfaces; purify water by soils acting as massive filters that bind toxic
substances. According to some, up to 40% of the world’s oxygen is generated
by rainforests.
A square kilometre of mangrove forest area can store up to five times more
carbon than mature rainforest. But the fact remains that these coastal systems
are being destroyed at a rate three to four times faster than rainforests. So,
its impact on carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, water cycle etc. could be
speculated.
Lichens are the association of two organisms (algae and fungi) in a symbiotic
relationship functioning as a single, stable unit. It’s nature’s one of the best
examples of co-benefit i.e., mutualism. The fungal partner is heterotroph and
the algal one is autotroph. Since lichens are among the first plants to colonize
on bare rock or ground and so play an important role in primary succession
called xerarch- succession. There are about 17,000 species of lichen worldwide.
Bacteria break down organic material, thus helping in the process of soil formation
and enrichment. Wetlands do water filtration, shoreline protection, groundwater
recharge, flood protection and streamflow maintenance. Insects pollinate many
agricultural crop species and so enhance crop production worldwide.

If it were ever possible for humankind to artificially duplicate these services, the
cost would total trillions of dollars annually, and very likely surpass the value of
all the world’s economies combined.
5.8.2 On Humans
Biodiversity provides food security, reduces vulnerability, supplies food
and nutrient supplements, sources of biofuel and so gives energy security
to marginalised sections of the society. It provides clean water and provides
opportunities for social relations. It also gives freedom of choice and action and
is a source of basic materials for a good life and sustainable livelihood.
5.8.2.1 Food Security
Biological diversity can be seen as the coping mechanism which provides
feeding options and so becomes a coping mechanism for adverse situations.
The world’s 98% of food is being supplied grossly by merely 12 plants and 14
animal species and we have already lost many of their wild relatives even yet to
be known to mankind. Even the population who thought using diversified food
uses only 100 - 150 plant species but in contrast, the indigenous (tribal) people
of southern India are using 1,000 - 1,500 species of plants (Ravishankar, 2003)
and other states and other tribal pockets are no exception. The ancient Indian
agricultural system was based on a diversified cropping system. The green
revolution promoted mono-cropping and over years we lost so many indigenous
species and varieties of a particular crop species. This needs to be re-enforced
since those older varieties can cope much better with pest manifestation and 95
Land And Soil Issues many are drought resistant as well.
5.8.2.2 Vulnerability
The world is facing challenges and our bio diversified ecosystems like mangroves
and coral reefs are under threat as a result of human perturbation and climate
change. Mangrove forests and coral reefs act as natural buffers against natural
calamities like floods and storms. Losing these ecosystems has increased the
severity of flooding in coastal areas which means becoming more vulnerable.
Flood alone can affect more than 140 million people per year on average than
all other natural or technological disasters put together. These ecosystems are
very fertile and diversified and provide a variety of food and provide other
ecosystem services (eco-tourism) to the people around.
5.8.2.3 Health
The utility of more than 7,000 species of plants and several hundred species of
animals as food is known to mankind. Some indigenous communities can use
1,000 - 1,500 species of plants alone which provides them with a balanced diet
that is a composite of macro and micronutrients. Wild sources of food remain
particularly important for the poor and landless to provide a somewhat balanced
diet. Losing wild-forest and exploitation of marine fauna (fisheries) across the
globe has made life difficult, especially in the tropics and as a result population
in general and of women and children is becoming malnourished.
5.8.2.4 Energy Security
Developing nations are relying upon wood to gain 50% of the total energy
needed. Some African countries, like Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda, get 80%
of total energy from wood whereas developed nations like Sweden as well get
more than 10% of energy as wood energy. Rural communities harness the most
(95%) from firewood and charcoal. So, forests are yet providing energy security
to the most vulnerable group of societies, especially in developing nations.
5.8.2.5 Provision of Clean Water
Continuous loss of forest cover, shrunken wetlands, increased water pollution
etc. has made potable water scarce on the planet Earth. The availability of clean
drinking water is already of concern in most metropolitan cities and other urban
areas. Destruction of mangroves has made the coastal population even worse hit
as a result of encroachment of seawater in these areas.
5.8.2.6 Social Relations
Many cultures attach spiritual and religious values to ecosystems or their
components such as a tree, hill, river, or grove. Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), Indian
banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) etc. are worshipped and protected. Similarly, a
patch of forests of different sizes being protected by local communities is called
sacred groves.
The biggest deodar grove situated at Shipin, about 12 km from Shimla, is home
to trees that are hundreds of years old. Bishnoi’s have protected scrub forests in
the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, rain forests in the Western Ghats of Kerala etc.
are some of the examples of sacred groves in India. The history of the Bishnoi
community, as a conservationist is of more than two decades where blackbuck,
96 as well as plants, is conserved.
5.8.2.7 Freedom of Choice and Action Threats to
Being biodiversity-rich means having more freedom to choose from. It can be in Biodiversity
terms of farming, rearing animals etc. Lack of species gives restriction. Higher
diversity of genotypes tackles pests’ infestation better etc.
5.8.2.8 Basic Materials for a Good Life and Sustainable Livelihoods
Need not so say, the comfort provided to mankind as physical sources are drawn
mostly from some or other forms of life existing on this planet. Areas rich
in biodiversity often provide an opportunity to the native population to draw
livelihood from ecosystem services i.e., ecotourism etc. Ecotourism is one of
the fastest-growing parts of tourism globally. Biodiversity also contributes to a
range of other industries, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and horticulture.
5.9 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

In the mid-20th century globally, ecologists noticed biodiversity declines and the
concept of conservation biology emerged thereafter. The conservation is about
the management of natural resources to sustain biodiversity within species,
intra-species, and ecosystems, for the evolutionary process and the ecosystem
services offered to the society.
Biodiversity management can be described in four steps, defining the problem,
planning to engage public policy, monitoring biodiversity and evaluating
biodiversity. Important aspects of biodiversity management are wildlife, its
habitat and surrounding landscape management. One of the main causes of
biodiversity (species) loss in the terrestrial ecosystem is habitat destruction
by converting forest/grasslands to agricultural lands etc. as a result it poses
a negative impact upon ecosystem functioning. The other main cause of
population declines is habitat loss, over-exploitation by humans, invasive
species, pollution, and climate change. Local causes of species decline differ
but most involve the conversion of grasslands and forests to agricultural and
pasture lands and unsustainable forest harvesting. Fragmentation and the loss
of landscape connectivity can further degrade habitats for some large species.
Further, it is important to understand how species use natural resources across
landscapes is essential to design effective management strategies for biodiversity
conservation.
5.9.1. Global Biodiversity Hotspots in India

Four out of 35 global biodiversity hotspots of the world are represented in India
viz. (i) the Western Ghats as part of the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka global hotspot,
(ii) the Nicobar Islands as part of the Sundaland hotspot, (iii) parts of Assam
and Meghalaya in the North-eastern region as part of Indo-Burma hotspot, and
(iv) the Eastern Himalaya comprising North-eastern Himalayas of India, Bhutan
and Nepal. Initiatives have been taken by the government and non-government
sectors for maintaining the integrity of these ecosystems. The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity India Initiative have involved local communities
in the enumeration of ecosystem services in valuation studies in the Western 97
Land And Soil Issues Ghats. The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystems has
undertaken studies and initiatives for conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable
use of biodiversity in Himalayan hotspots. Local solutions for conservation and
sustainable use of biological resources based on traditional knowledge (TK) are
encouraged in hotspots areas.
5.9.2. Ecosystem Diversity of India

India’s unique topographical features endow it with a diversity of terrain and
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that harbour rich biodiversity. Based on a
study of the distinctive biogeographic characteristic features of the country
from north to south and east to west, 10 Biogeographic Zones (BZs) have been
identified. The study further identifies three subordinate levels in BZs namely, (i)
the Biotic Province- a secondary unit within a zone, of particular communities
separated by dispersal barriers or gradual change in environmental factors,
e.g., North-west and West Himalaya on either side of the Sutlej River, (ii) the
Land Region- a tertiary unit within a province, indicating different landforms,
e.g., Aravalli Mountains and Malwa Plateau in Gujarat-Rajwara Province, and
(iii) the Biome- an ecological unit such as swamp/wetland or temperate broad-
leaved forest in each zone.
5.9.3. Fundamentals of Biodiversity Conservation

The fundamental goal of conservation is the preservation of biodiversity. It rests
largely upon the conservation, preservation, and management of habitat and
landscape. What determines a species to be common or rare is the degree of
habitat specificity whereas the primary determinant of a species’ abundance is
habitat distribution (Rabinowitz et al. 1986).
5.9.3.1 Habitat and Landscape Management
Bolen and Robinson, 1995, defined habitat as the physical and biological
surroundings of an organism and Pearson (2002) wrote it as sites having
appropriate levels of the biotic and abiotic features required by a species for
survival and reproduction. That is, habitats are arrangements of resources that
meet the needs of individual species. Often habitats are named according to the
dominant vegetation present there, for example, “grassland habitat,” or “forest
habitat”. Habitat supplies food, structure, water and ability to reproduce to
a species so it’s important to manage habitat to restore a healthy population
of wildlife that contribute to important roles and ecological function of
ecosystems.
The second thing is a landscape and how will we define it? Danielson 1991,
defined landscapes as large areas (measured at spatial scales of km2 or higher)
at regional or geographic scales that comprise more than one type of habitat
distributed in numerous patches whereas, Bolen and Robinson 1995 defined
it as an aggregate of different but interacting elements, sometimes united by a
cultural attribute (e.g., an agricultural landscape of cultivated fields, pastures
98 etc.) to include the effect of human influence.
Habitat and landscape considerations are fundamental to all forms of geographic- Threats to
based approaches to biodiversity conservation. As opposed to population-based Biodiversity
approaches, a geographic-based approach focuses less on the individual dynamics
of a particular population and more on the qualities of habitat and landscape that
support it. The role of habitat and landscape is vital to population persistence,
especially because populations become more susceptible to extinction in the
face of environmental variation. For example, wetland-dependent species can
face extinction as a result of prolonged drought.
Environmental changes cannot be negated even in large reserves, but the
preservation of habitat, at the landscape, regional, or global scales, can certainly
act as a buffer and so reduce adverse effects of such variation. Habitat changes
(alteration) include the physical conversion of natural habitat to an altered
habitat including the breaking of large, contiguous blocks of habitat into smaller
patches or fragments (habitat fragmentation), the increasing separation of blocks
of habitat from one another (habitat isolation), and the changes in a habitat that
affect its composition, structure, or function (habitat degradation) (Noss et al.
1997).
5.9.3.2 Tools Used in Biodiversity Management
Some of the important tools used in the conservation and management of

wildlife are:
•• Relative abundance- existing data and field surveys

•• Risk assessment (causes and threats)-inventory and assessment of habitat
•• Environmental impact conservation strategies (Invasive plant management,
habitat restoration through the plantation of native species, involvement of
local people etc.)
•• Conservation agreements
5.9.4 Conservation Categories

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international
organisation that compiles data on endangered species and places them into
different threat categories. The IUCN Red List is for the threatened one not
only includes animals and plants but even species like fungi that can become
endangered are also included in the list. ‘Endangered’ is one of three categories
the IUCN uses for species that are threatened with extinction, and one of nine
that the IUCN uses to rate all species. In order of severity, these categories are:
1. Least Concern (LC): No immediate threat to species survival.
2. Near Threatened (NT): Maybe considered threatened soon.
3. Vulnerable (VU): Faces a high risk of endangerment in the medium term.
4. Endangered (EN): Faces a high risk of extinction soon.
5. Critically Endangered (CR): Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in
the immediate future.
99
Land And Soil Issues 6. Extinct in the Wild (EW): Captive individuals survive, but there is no
free-living, natural population.
7. Extinct (EX): No way back. The species will never again be seen on Earth.
8. Not Evaluated (NE): It is for species that haven’t yet been studied.
9. Data Deficient (DD): It means that insufficient data has been collected.
5.9.5 Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity

Different strategies are adopted to conserve biodiversity at the genetic, species
and intra-species levels. Gene banks are collections of specimens and genetic
material. Some banks intend to reintroduce banked species to the ecosystem
(e.g., via tree nurseries). Location-specific approaches may be less useful for
protecting migratory species. One approach is to create wildlife corridors that
correspond to the animals’ movements. National and other boundaries can
complicate corridor creation. Removal of exotic species allows the species to
recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be
identified taxonomically.
5.10 CONVENTIONS AND LAWS ON

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
5.10.1 International Conventions
•• United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992), Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety and The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic
Resources
•• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1975;
•• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971;
•• Bonn Convention on Migratory Species, 1979;
•• World Heritage Convention, 1972
•• The International Plant Protection Convention (1952),
•• The International Whaling Commission (1946).
The three Rio Conventions—on Biodiversity, Climate Change and
Desertification—derive directly from the 1992 Earth Summit. Each instrument
represents a way of contributing to the sustainable development goals. The
three conventions are intrinsically linked, operating in the same ecosystems
and addressing interdependent issues.
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally
as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. Its objective
is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable
use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document
regarding sustainable development. The Convention was opened for
100 signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and
entered into force on 29 December 1993. Threats to
Biodiversity
The Convention has three main goals:
•• The conservation of biodiversity,
•• Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and
•• Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization
of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way
CBD has two supplementary agreements - Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya
Protocol.
I. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, 2000
It is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified
organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one
country to another. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary
agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into
force on 11 September 2003.
II. The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair
and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization
(ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity
It is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological
Diversity. It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective
implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair
and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of
genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol on ABS was adopted on
29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan and entered into force on 12
October 2014, 90 days after the deposit of the fiftieth instrument of
ratification. Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby contributing
to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 1975
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international treaty to prevent species
from becoming endangered. This was drafted as a result of a resolution
adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN. The text of the
Convention was finally agreed upon at a meeting of representatives of
80 countries in Washington, D.C., the United States of America, on 3
March 1973, and on 1 July 1975 CITES entered force. Because the trade
in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to
regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species
from over-exploitation. Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to
more than 37,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded
as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.
3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that
provides the framework for national action and international cooperation 101
Land And Soil Issues for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. As of
date, the number of contracting parties is 171 and the total number of
wetlands of international importance is 2395 whereas the total surface of
designated sites is 253,911,099 ha.
4. Bonn Convention on Migratory Species, 1979
The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn
Convention, aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory
species throughout their range. The pact was signed in 1979 in Germany
and is known as the Bonn Convention. The CMS is an environmental
treaty of the UN that provides a global platform for the conservation and
sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats.
5. World Heritage Convention, 1972
The most significant feature of the 1972 World Heritage Convention
is that it links together in a single document the concepts of nature
conservation and the preservation of cultural properties. The Convention
recognizes how people interact with nature, and the fundamental need
to preserve the balance between the two. It embodies a visionary idea
– that some places are so important that their protection is not only the
responsibility of a single nation but is also the duty of the international
community as a whole; and not only for this generation but for all those
to come. The Convention is governed by the World Heritage Committee
supported by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre, the secretariat for the
Convention, and three technical advisory bodies to the Committee: IUCN,
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), International
Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM). IUCN is the Advisory Body on natural heritage. It
monitors listed sites and evaluates sites nominated to the World Heritage
List, following the relevant natural criteria for selection (vii) - (x).
6. The International Plant Protection Convention, 1952
The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is an international
plant health agreement, established as such in 1952, that aims
to protect cultivated and wild plants by preventing the introduction and
spread of pests into endangered areas and cooperating to control pests
of plants and plant products.
7. The International Whaling Commission, 1946
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is the global body charged
with the conservation of whales and the management of whaling signed
in 1946. The IWC currently has 88 member governments from countries
all over the world. The Commission’s role has expanded since its
establishment in 1946. In addition to the regulation of whaling, today’s
IWC works to address a wide range of conservation issues including
bycatch and entanglement, ocean noise, pollution and debris, the collision
between whales and ships, and sustainable whale watching.
5.10.2 India’s Policy Framework

India is one of 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world. With only 2.4 % of
102 the earth’s land area, it accounts for 7-8% of the world’s recorded species. Home
to 96,000 species of animals, 47,000 species of plants and nearly half the Threats to
world’s aquatic plants, India’s management of its natural resources is crucial to Biodiversity
protecting global biodiversity.
5.10.2.1 Constitutional Provisions
Initially, the Constitution of India had no direct provision for environmental

protection. The Indian Government under the 42nd Amendment was made to the
Constitution in 1976 and incorporated “Article 48A” and “Article 51A” after
Stockholm Conference, 1972.
Article 48A
Article 48A states that the state shall be responsible for the protection,
improvement of the environment and safeguarding of forests and wildlife.
Article 51A(g)
Article 51A(g) makes every citizen of India responsible through fundamental

duties to help in the conservation of the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
Article 49A
Article 49A states that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
Article 253
Article 253 states that ‘Parliament has the power to make any law for the whole
or any part of the country for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention
with any other country.
5.10.2.2 National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP)-India

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is implemented through
programmes/ strategic plans adopted by the Conference of Parties to it and needs
to be incorporated into the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP). As per
Article 6 and Article 26, India as well has to prepare the National Biodiversity
Targets (NBTs) in line with the 20 global Aichi Biodiversity Targets (ABTs)
for the conservation of biodiversity and submit the national report. State
Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) are to be established under Section 22 of the
Act. Accordingly, in all 29 States, SBBs have been established. Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMCs) are to be established under Section 41 of the
Act at the local level. The BMCs play a vital role in documenting biodiversity,
their sustainable use and in dealing with Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)
issues.
Sixth National Report (NR6) has been submitted to the CBD on 29 December
2018 so far toward achieving the globally shared Biodiversity Vision 2050 103
Land And Soil Issues through 12 National Biodiversity Targets (NBT) set under the convention process.
Biodiversity Vision 2050, states that biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored
and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet
and delivering benefits essential for all people by 2050 (CBD Decision X/2).
•• Highlights of National Reports
•• India is one of the few countries where forest cover is on the rise, according
to the 15th India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2017.
•• More than 20% of India’s total geographical area is under biodiversity
conservation, India has exceeded the terrestrial component of 17% of Aichi
target 11.
•• The population of Lion has risen to over 520 in 2015, and elephants to
30,000 in 2015.
•• One-horned Indian Rhino which was on the brink of extinction during the
early 20th century is now number 2400.
•• Further, while globally over 0.3 % of total recorded species are critically
endangered, in India only 0.08% of the species recorded are in this category.
•• Programmes are in place to maintain the genetic diversity of cultivated
plants, farms livestock and their wild relatives, towards minimising genetic
erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.
•• Mechanisms and enabling environments are being created for recognising and
protecting the vast heritage of coded and oral traditional knowledge relating
to biodiversity.
•• List of a few initiatives taken by the Government of India
1. India Biodiversity Awards
In 2012, the Government of India, in partnership with United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP)-India, initiated the India Biodiversity Awards
to recognize and honour outstanding models of biodiversity conservation,
sustainable use and governance at the grassroots level. The fourth edition of the
India Biodiversity Awards given on “International Day for Biological Diversity”
on 22 May 2018 recognizes the work of local communities committed to
biodiversity conservation in the areas of (https://www.in.undp.org/content/
india/en/home/climate-and-disaster-reslience/successstories/IBA2018.html):
1. Conservation of Wild and Domesticated Species
2. Sustainable Use of Biological Resources
3. Replicable Mechanisms for Access and Benefit Sharing
4. Best Biodiversity Management Committees
On International Day of Biodiversity on 22nd May 2020, the Government of

India launched a few initiatives toward the Conservation of Biodiversity which
include “Biodiversity Samrakshan Internship Programme”, “UNEP Campaign
on Illegal Trafficking of Endangered Species” and “WWF Model Conference
104 of Parties (MCoP)”.
5.10.2.3 Sectoral Policies Formulated in India Threats to
Biodiversity
There are several sectoral policies formulated and implemented in India that
play important role in achieving the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP).
Important among these are:
•• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, 1991, 2002, 2006
•• National Forest Policy (NFP), 1988
•• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ),1991
•• National Zoo Policy, 1998
•• Biodiversity Act, 2002
•• The National Board for Wildlife Rules, 2003
•• National Environment Policy (NEP), 2006,
•• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition
of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
•• Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010
•• The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
•• National Agroforestry Policy, 2014,
•• National Policy on Marine Fisheries (NPMF), 2017
•• Just to elaborate few important sectoral policies formulated in India are-
•• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted
for the protection of plants and animal species. Before 1972, India only had
five designated national parks. Among other reforms, the Act established
schedules of protected plant and animal species; hunting or harvesting these
species was largely outlawed.
•• National Environmental Policy (NEP) 2006
India’s National Environmental Policy (NEP) was adopted in 2006 and
was built upon the existing policies ( e.g. National Forest Policy, 1988;
National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment
and Development, 1992; and the Policy Statement on Abatement of
Pollution,1992; National Agriculture Policy, 2000; National Population
Policy, 2000; National Water Policy, 2002 etc). The main theme of NEP, 2006
was that while conservation of environmental resources is needed to secure
livelihoods and well-being of all. The basis for conservation is to ensure that
people dependent on particular resources obtain better livelihoods from the
act of conservation than from the degradation of the resource.
The policy also desired to stimulate partnerships of different stakeholders,
public agencies, local communities, academic and scientific institutions, the
investment community, and international development partners, in harnessing
their respective resources and strengths for environmental management
(http://wiienvis.nic.in/Database/gpd_8437.aspx).
105
Land And Soil Issues Pollution related Laws
•• The water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and
amendment,1988
•• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and amendment,
1987
•• Environment (Protection)Act, 1986
•• The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules
•• National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)
5.10.2.4 Ministry/Boards/Authorities/Institutions
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of
India
The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980 to ensure
a healthy environment for the country. This later became the Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF) in 1985 and the ministry of environment,
forest and climate change in the year 2000.
Central Zoo Authority, Government of India
It is a statutory body of the Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
that prepared national wildlife action plans. The first action plan was adopted
in the year 1983-2001., 2nd one was for 2002-2016 and 3rd one is ongoing from
2017 to 2031.
The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003 by the
Central Government to implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).
The NBA performs a facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for the
Government of India on the issue of Conservation, sustainable use of biological
resources and fair equitable sharing of benefits of use. Since its establishment,
NBA has supported the creation of the State Biodiversity Board (SBBs) in
28 States and facilitated the establishment of around 2,05,794 Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMCs).
National Tiger Conservation Authority
National Tiger Conservation Authority provides statutory authority to Project
Tiger so that compliance with its directives becomes legal. It is fostering
accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing
a basis for a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with States within our
federal structure. It is addressing the livelihood interests of local people in areas
surrounding Tiger Reserves as well. (https://ntca.gov.in/)
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) is a premier organisation in zoological
research and studies to promote the survey, exploration and research of the
fauna in the country.
106 Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) was established for the survey, Threats to
research and conservation of plant resources, flora and endangered species Biodiversity
of India, including by collecting and maintaining germplasm and gene
bank of endangered, patent and vulnerable plant species.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) offers a training program, academic
courses and advisory in wildlife research and management. The Institute is
actively engaged in research across the breadth of the country on biodiversity-
related issues.
The Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON),
Coimbatore
SACON is a national centre for information, education and research in

ornithology and natural history in India. India was fortunate to have pioneer
ornithologists like Salim Ali and this institution was named after him. Its
headquarters are at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. Its mission is- “To help
conserve India’s biodiversity and its sustainable use through research, education
and peoples’ participation, with birds at the centre stage”.
Charitable trusts/Non-governmental organisations
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), is a pan-India wildlife research
and conservation organization, founded on 15 September 1883. Undoubtedly its
major contribution has been in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s oldest
conservation research-based NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of the
battle for species and ecosystems.
WWF India, New Delhi
WWF-India was set up as a Charitable Public Trust on 27 November 1969.
WWF-India is not only the country’s largest voluntary body in the field of
conservation, it has also grown into a network with a countrywide presence in
over 60 state and field offices (https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_offices/india/).
Satpuda Foundation, Nagpur
The Satpuda landscape includes the forests of Kanha, Satpura Tiger Reserve,
Pench (Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh), Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve,
Melghat Tiger Reserve, Navegaon-Nagzira and all areas connecting these prime
wildlife pockets. This landscape is viewed by experts as the largest contiguous
tiger habitat in the world. It hosts around 300 tigers. Satpuda Foundation works
at both the grassroots level and policy level to promote its aim to protect wildlife
and forests (http://www.satpuda.org/nature-education.php).
5.11 PROTECTED AREAS OF INDIA

Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation
of resources is limited. The definition that has been widely accepted across
regional and global frameworks has been provided by the International Union
107
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in its categorization guidelines for protected
Land And Soil Issues areas. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of
protection depending on the enabling laws of each country or the regulations of
the international organizations involved. The term “protected area” also includes
Marine Protected Areas, the boundaries of which will include some area of
ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple countries which
remove the borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.
There are four categories of protected areas constituted under the provisions
of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 in India. The four categories of the
protected area are National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves,
and Community Reserves. Tiger Reserves are constituted by including the areas
of National parks and Wildlife sanctuaries. There are 50 tiger reserves in India.
5.12 TYPES OF CONSERVATION

The following conservation areas among others fall under this category.
•• In-situ Conservation
•• On-Farm Conservation
•• Ex-situ Conservation
5.12.1 In-situ Conservation

“In-situ” conservation is the primary means of conservation - focuses on
conserving genes, species, and ecosystems in their natural surroundings, for
example by establishing protected areas, rehabilitating degraded ecosystems,
and adopting legislation to protect threatened species. It is the conservation of
species in their natural habitat. Example: Biosphere Reserves, National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Sacred groves, etc.
A. Biosphere Reserves
The UNESCO’s ‘Man and Biosphere’ (MAB) programme was launched
in 1971. Biosphere reserves are sites established under UNESCO’s Man
and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme with the purpose to promote
sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound
science. It conserves all forms of life in situ along with their support
system in totality and serves as a referral system for monitoring and
evaluating changes in pristine ecosystems. The concept of Biosphere
Reserves is of immense value for conserving the gene-pool resources
of flora and fauna in the country and to serve as benchmarks for future
studies. Biosphere reserves with human beings as their integral parts are
examples of natural biomes. Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve became India’s
first to be established in India in 1986. There are currently 701 biosphere
reserves in 124 countries, including 21 transboundary sites that belong
to the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. A biosphere reserve is a
specified area where multiple uses of the land are permitted by dividing it
into certain zones, each zone is specified for a particular activity.
(a) Core Zone
108 It lies at the centre, the innermost area undisturbed ecosystem where
no human activity is allowed. It is legally protected. Threats to
Biodiversity
(b) Buffer Zone
This zone surrounds the core zone where limited human activities
are allowed for research and educational tours are allowed. Forest
dwellers are allowed to collect forest products without disturbing this
zone.
(c) Manipulative Zone (Transition Zone)
It is the peripheral part of the biosphere reserve that surrounds the
buffer zone. In this zone, multiple human activities such as fishery,
and agricultural activities are carried out by the forest dwellers in
cooperation with the reserve management.
B. National Park
Britannica defines a national park as an area set aside by a national
government to preserve the natural environment. Govt. of India defines it
as “[a]n area, whether within a sanctuary or not, [that] can be notified by
the state government to be constituted as a National Park, because of its
ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or zoological association of
importance, needed to protect & propagate or developing wildlife therein
or its environment. No human activity is permitted inside the national park
except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state under
the conditions given in Chapter IV, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972”. National
parks are constituted under the provision of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972. It protects both flora and fauna in its natural environment. A national
park is an area that is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife and
where activities like forestry, grazing or cultivation are not permitted. In these
parks, even private ownership rights are not allowed. As of May 2020, in
India, there were 105 national parks comprising an area of 40,501.13 km2. . It
comes under protected area category II which comprises 1.23% total surface
area of India. India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey
National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.
C. Sanctuaries
The government of India defines it as any area other than the area comprised
of any reserve forest or the territorial waters that can be notified by the State
Government to constitute a Sanctuary if such area is of adequate ecological,
faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, to protect,
propagate or developing wildlife or its environment. Some restricted human
activities are allowed inside the Sanctuary area details of which are given in
Chapter IV, Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Wildlife sanctuaries of India are
classified as IUCN Category IV protected areas. There are 553 existing
wildlife sanctuaries in India covering an area of 119,776.00 km2, which is
3.64 % of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database,
December 2019).
D. Marine Protected Areas
A marine protected area (MPA) is essentially a space in the ocean where
human activities are more strictly regulated than the surrounding waters -
similar to parks we have on land. These places are given special protections 109
Land And Soil Issues for natural or historic marine resources by local, state, territorial, native,
regional, or national authorities.
The total number of Important Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Areas
(ICMBAs) in India is 107. India has taken several steps to achieve the
National Biodiversity Target no 6 and Aichi Biodiversity Target no 11
which aim to conserve a substantial portion of the coastal and marine
areas in the country and world respectively. Towards achieving these two
targets, 106 coastal and marine sites have been identified and prioritized as
Important Coastal and Marine Areas (ICMBAs) by the Wildlife Institute
of India. Sixty-two ICMBAs have been identified along the west coast of
India, and 44 have been identified along the east coast. Of these, 22 ICMBAs
have been prioritized for immediate conservation actions and proposed to
be upgraded as Protected Areas under categories such as Conservation or
Communities Reserve to increase participation of the local communities
in governance (http://natureconservation.in/list-of-important-coastal-
and-marine-biodiversity-areas-icmbas-in-india/). Names of few Marine
Protected Areas in India are Gulf of Mannar National Park, Tamil Nadu., Gulf
of Kutch Marine National Park, Gujarat., Gulf of Kutch Marine Sanctuary,
Gujarat., Malvan (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra., Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
E. UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) seeks to encourage the identification, protection and preservation
of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of
outstanding value to humanity. This is embodied in an international treaty
called the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 1972. A UNESCO World Heritage
Site is a place that is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization as of special cultural or physical significance.
World Heritage is the designation for places on Earth that are of outstanding
universal value to humanity and as such, have been inscribed on the World
Heritage List to be protected for future generations to appreciate and enjoy.
The total number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India is 38 (1 mixed,
7 Natural and 30 Cultural). Places as diverse and unique as the Pyramids of
Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador,
the Taj Mahal in India, the Grand Canyon in the USA, and the Acropolis in
Greece are examples of the 1007 natural and cultural places inscribed on the
World Heritage List to date.
F. Tiger Reserves in India
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in the year 1973
to save the endangered species of tiger in the country. Starting from nine
(9) reserves in 1973-74 the number is grown up to fifty (50). A total area
of 71027.10 km2 is covered by these project tiger areas. Under this project,
the fourth cycle of the National tiger status assessment was done in 2018-
19 and is declared the most accurate one. The survey covered 381,400 km
2 of forested habitats in 20 tigers occupied states of India. A foot survey of
522,996 km was done for carnivore signs and prey abundance estimation.
110 In these forests, 317,958 habitat plots were sampled for vegetation, human
impacts and prey dung. A total of 2,461 individual tigers (>1 year of age) Threats to
were photo-captured. Biodiversity
India is home to 80 % of tigers in the world. In 2006, there were 1,411
tigers which increased to 1,706 in 2010, 2,226 in 2014 and 2967 in 2018.
The overall tiger population in India was estimated at 2,967(https://ntca.gov.
in/monitoring/#monitoring). The number of wild tigers globally rose from
3,159 in 2010 to 3,890 in 2016 according to World Wildlife Fund and Global
Tiger Forum.
G. Elephant Reserves in India
The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) occurs in the central and southern
Western Ghats, North-east India, eastern India and northern India and some
parts of southern peninsular India. It is included in Schedule I of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in Appendix I of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). It
occurs in 16 of the 28 states in the country and is showing an increasing trend
across its distributional range. Its population in 2007 was estimated to be in
the range of 27,657 to 27,682, whereas in 2012 the population was estimated
to be between 27,785 and 31,368. Project Elephant was launched by the
Government of India in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme
with the objectives to protect elephants, their habitat & corridors, to address
issues of man-animal conflict and the welfare of captive elephants. The total
number of Elephant Reserves in India is 32.
H. Ramsar Wetland Sites in India
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation
and sustainable utilization of wetlands, recognizing the fundamental
ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural, scientific,
and recreational value. The Contracting Parties confirmed in 2005 that
their vision for the Ramsar List is “to develop and maintain an international
network of wetlands which are important for the conservation of global
biological diversity and for sustaining human life through the maintenance
of their ecosystem components, processes and benefits/services”. This vision
reflects the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, which describes ecosystems
as the complex of living communities (including human communities) and
non-living environments (ecosystem components) interacting (through
ecological processes) as a functional unit that provides, among other things,
a variety of benefits to people (ecosystem services). A key commitment of
Ramsar Contracting Parties is to identify and place suitable wetlands on the
List of Wetlands of International Importance. There are over 2,000 Ramsar
Sites on the territories of over 160 Ramsar Contracting Parties across the
world whereas in August 2020 it is 37 in India.
I. Community Reserves of India
Community reserves typically act as buffer zones to connectors and
migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries
and reserved and protected forests of India. These protected area categories
were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002
which is the amendment of 1972. The total number of community reserves
in India is 45. A few examples to cite are Kadalundi Community Reserve
(Kerala), Lalwan Community Reserve (Punjab), Jawai Bandh Conservation 111
Land And Soil Issues Reserve (Rajasthan), Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve (Punjab) and
Gogabeel Community Reserve (Bihar).
J. Community/People’s Initiatives
Sacred Groves/Sacred Forests and Sacred Lakes
Sacred groves are conserved by communities for cultural, religious and
livelihood-related purposes through customary practices. These customary
practices signify area/ species/ faith-based traditional ethos. Known by
different names in different parts of the country, these often harbour
unique and endemic biodiversity. Sacred groves are mini forests with rich
diversity. Sacred groves are forest fragments, sizes varying between 0.5
- 500 hectares, which are protected by religious communities and have a
significant religious connotation for the protecting community. Over 7,000
sacred groves preserved through generations, most of them in pristine
form have been documented. A few examples are- patches of scrub forest
and that desert of Rajasthan by the Bishnoi community of Rajasthan., rain
forests in the Western Ghats of Kerala. The Gurjar people of Rajasthan plant
and worship, the neem tree (Azadirachta indica). Mangar Bani is the last
surviving natural forest of Delhi and is protected by Gurjar in the nearby
area (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India). India’s Forest
Rights Act of 2006, which grants communities rights to manage neighbouring
forests, is a significant step to this end. In Sikkim, Khecheopalri lake is
declared a sacred lake by people, thus protecting the aquatic flora and fauna.
People’s Initiatives
1. The Bishnoi community spread over Barmer, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer
district of Rajasthan have been successfully preserving the Khejri
trees, the pea-fowl and certain mammals like the chinkara, nilgai
and the blackbuck. They are enjoined by their religious traditions to
preserve nature.
2. There are many examples of women’s involvement in biodiversity
preservation from Himachal Pradesh. Women organized into Mahila
Mandals have successfully protected patches of the forest all over
Karsog in the Mandi district. Similarly, Mahila Mandals are protecting
forests in the Chular valley of Mandi from timber smugglers and
sometimes from their men.
3. The Nature Conservation Society (NCS) formed in 1976 by a group
of college and university teachers and forest department officials
has been successfully involved in research promotion, awareness
generation and biological documentation in Palamau Tiger Reserve in
Bihar.
4. Navdanya is a grassroots people’s movement for the in-situ
conservation of genetic resources.
5.12.2 On-Farm Conservation

On-farm conservation and in-situ conservation are often used interchangeably.
In simpler terms, on-farm conservation is the process of conserving an
endangered plant or animal in its natural habitat. It is applied to the conservation
112 of agricultural biodiversity in agroforestry by farmers, especially through
unconventional farming practices. Threats to
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) requires, under Article 8, that Biodiversity
the countries develop guidelines for selecting areas for in situ conservation,
establish protected areas, regulate the use of resources to make a sustainable
use and protect ecosystems and natural habitats. On-farm conservation takes
care of the conservation of crop genetic resources (or crop biodiversity) in a
crop species as designated by different landraces and crop cultivars and their
wild relatives. On-farm conservation of traditional crop cultivars (landraces) or
farming systems by farmers within traditional agricultural systems is needed.
At the same time in situ conservation of crop wild relatives in natural habitat is
required as well.
5.12.3 Ex-Situ Conservation

“Ex-situ” conservation is defined as the conservation of species in a man-made
ecosystem like zoos, botanical gardens, captive breeding, aquaria and through the
use of various techniques like gene banks, seed banks, ova banks etc. to conserve
genetic diversity. Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-
situ methods as they provide a safeguard against extinction. These measures
also play a crucial role in recovery programmes for endangered species.
There are about 70 Botanic Gardens situated in different states of India including
33 university Botanical Gardens. More than 2,00,000 living plant accession
belonging to 15,000-16,000 plant species are housed in these Botanic Gardens.
There are also around 275 centres of ex-situ wildlife preservation in the form of
zoos, deer parks, safari parks, aquaria etc. A Central Zoo Authority has also been
formed which monitors it all. Germplasm bank stores the germplasm of plants at
a low-temperature process called cryopreservation. Genetic variability can also
be preserved by field gene banks under normal growing conditions. The field
gene banks are used to store living sperms, eggs or embryos. This type of in vitro
conservation is done at a very low temperature i.e., -196°C in liquid nitrogen.
This may be done with very rapid cooking (in storing seeds) or by gradual
cooling and simultaneous dehydration (in tissue culture). Cryopreservation is
highly successful in crops like potatoes.
Though there are so many advantages to having ex-situ conservation but has a
few limitations as well. It stops the natural evolution and adaptations processes.
Ex-situ conservation strategies are highly expensive. Man-made environments
can never be like a natural environment and so a species adapts to altered
environmental conditions due to genetic variation of a species. Seed banks are
not effective for a few plant species with recalcitrant seeds that do not show
viability for a long time.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 113
Land And Soil Issues 1. What are the drivers of biodiversity loss?
……………………………………………………………………………
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2. Discuss the impacts of biodiversity loss.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
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3. What are the strategies to conserve biodiversity?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
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…...........……………………………….....................................................
5.13 LET US SUM UP

From looking around us to visiting an island, biodiversity is everywhere. Some
are meant for those particular climatic conditions and became endemic and few
can survive elsewhere too. Life and death are the rules of nature and species.
Through different successions, one species makes space for others to bloom.
But, through human interference, the period has been reduced from centuries or
more to much less on the temporal scale. It becomes difficult for part of these
species to adapt and flourish. Threats to their loss are many, they are losing
their habitat, exotic species are evading the ecosystem of a native one, global
warming is on the rise, people’s greed is unstoppable and so on. These have
impacted one of the most diverse ecosystems like coral reefs and top predators
of oceanic ecosystems. The need to do something might not be a good word in
terms of reducing the extent and intensity of biodiversity loss. So, efforts have
been made through international conventions, global-regional alliances, at the
national level through policies, and by a team approach to include policymakers,
NGOs, wildlife activists, researchers, indigenous people and so on. There are
some success stories across the globe and nationally. But we need to save those
pristine ecosystems whose floral and faunal populations are yet to be known to
mankind.
5.14 KEY WORDS

Biodiversity: Biodiversity is defined as the variability among living
biota from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
114 aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this
includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. Threats to
Biodiversity
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Web Links
•• https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade
•• http://www.fao.org/3/a-bt661e.pdf
•• www.globalamphibians.org
•• https://www.in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/climate-and-disaster-
reslience/successstories/IBA2018.html
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•• https://ntca.gov.in/
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•• http://www.satpuda.org/nature-education.php
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biodiversity-areas-icmbas-in-india/
•• https://ntca.gov.in/monitoring/#monitoring
•• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_groves_of_India

116
UNIT 6 BIOMASS BURNING
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Biomass Burning
6.4 Classification of Biomass Burning
6.4.1 Forest Fire
6.4.2 Agricultural Straw Open Burning
6.4.3 Wood and Straw Combustion as Fuel
6.4.4 Miscellaneous
6.5 Smoke from Biomass Burning
6.6 Causes of Biomass Burning
6.7 Extent and Intensity of Biomass Burning
6.8 Impacts of Crop Biomass Burning
6.8.1 Soil Nutrients
6.8.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
6.8.3 Air Quality
6.8.4 Health
6.9 Sustainable Options and Alternatives to Biomass Burning
6.9.1 Biomass Management Practices
6.9.2 Renewable Energy Strategy
6.10 Let Us Sum Up
6.11 Key Words
6.1 Introduction
Biomass burning is the burning of vegetation. It may be the human-initiated
burning of vegetation for land clearing and land-use change as well as
natural, lightning-induced fires. The practice of biomass burning is not new.
For several decades, farmers have burned stubble and followed crop residue
burning practices in fields and farmlands as an inexpensive and efficient way
of controlling weeds, insects, diseases, and excess crop residues. Recently, crop
residues have often been field burnt post harvests in a couple of days to prepare
for planting the next season’s crops. However, the studies have shown that,
although there are some short-term benefits to burning biomass, there are long-
term detrimental effects on soil quality and the overall reduction in soil health
and its function that will ultimately result in reduced productivity that cannot be
overcome by increased additions of mineral fertilizers.
Crop biomass is an abandoned natural resource, not waste materials that require
disposal. About 25% of N and P and 50% of S and 75% K uptake by cereal
crops are retained in the harvested biomass, making them valuable nutrients.
It is estimated that the burning of one ton of rice straw accounts for the loss
of 5.5 Kg nitrogen (N), 2.3 Kg phosphorus (P), 25 Kg potassium (K), and 1.2
Land And Soil Issues Kg sulfur (S). Crop biomass is the primary source of carbon inputs, and how
these are managed has a significant effect on soil’s physical, chemical, and
biological properties. In addition, crop biomass is the source of plant nutrients
and is an essential component for the stability of agricultural ecosystems. Open
field biomass burning also causes severe air pollution, public health risk and
potential climate impact. Thus, it is one of the significant issues of concern for
agriculture and society. This unit emphasizes the causes, extent and intensity
of biomass burning; impacts of biomass burning and sustainable alternatives to
biomass burning.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define biomass burning;
•• explain the causes of biomass burning;
•• explain the extent and intensity of biomass burning;
•• explain the impacts of biomass burning and
•• discuss the sustainable alternatives to biomass burning.
6.3 BIOMASS BURNING

It refers to the burning of living and dead vegetation either by natural induced
fires, i.e., forest fires ignited by lightning strikes, or human-made (anthropogenic)
fires, i.e., combustion of the forests and grassland for agricultural uses.
Presently, anthropogenic burning makes up more than 90% of the fires on the
planet. These fires damage forests and destroy the habitats for many plant and
animal species, but the fires release large amounts of gasses and particles into
the atmosphere. ‘Prescribed burning’ is a term used to describe the deliberate
use of fire for management purposes. It is a significant source of various types
of airborne particulate matter. It traces gasses that influence the quality of air,
ground-level ozone concentration, and impact on the global climate.
6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMASS BURNING

6.4.1 Forest Fire
Forests are the main part of the terrain ecosystem and play a significant role
in maintaining the balance of the terrain ecosystem. The forest coverage is
very limited. However, during the last few decades, the number of forest fires
and burned areas has drastically increased due to deforestation. Forest fires
have impacted the biosphere-atmosphere interface, atmospheric chemistry,
the composition of the ecosystem system and its distribution, environmental
degradation, and air quality monitoring. In addition, they emit significant
amounts of trace gases (both chemically active and greenhouse gases), non-
methane hydrocarbons, and aerosols. These aerosols and pollutants significantly
affect atmospheric chemistry, cloud properties, Earth radiation budget and
climate change, global carbon cycle, ecosystem and biodiversity, vegetation,
rainfall, air quality, and atmospheric circulation.
118
6.4.2 Agricultural Straw Open Burning Biomass Burning
India is among the major agricultural nations in the world. Although agricultural
crop production generates tremendous amounts of agricultural residues during
the summer/autumn harvest season, a significant amount of farm straws are
removed by burning in a short period to prepare for the next crop planting. Open
burning is the most convenient and less expensive way to eliminate agricultural
straw. It is well known that the impact of agricultural straw open burning on
heavy haze formation during and shortly after the harvest seasons is complex and
contributes to primary PM2.5 emissions and includes the potential contribution
to the secondary PM2.5 formation.
6.4.3 Wood and Straw Combustion as Fuel

Approximately more than half of India’s population lives in rural areas and
uses biomass fuels (such as timber and straw) as the domestic fuel for cooking/
heating. Wood and straw combustion fuel burnt in low-efficient stoves, which
generally produce much smoke and substantial air pollutants. It is associated
with adverse health impacts such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease.
6.4.4 Miscellaneous
Apart from traditional field burning and domestic use of biomass waste, co-firing
with coal or municipal solid waste (MSW) in power stations or incineration
plants is indeed a practical method to deal with biomass waste, and many studies
have focused on the development of combustion technologies and emission
control of pyrogenic pollutants
6.5 SMOKE FROM BIOMASS BURNING

Fire is a chemical reaction sometimes called rapid oxidation. When a fire is
first lit, the moisture is driven off. As it gets hotter, chemical reactions through
which biomass rapidly reacts with the oxygen in the air, producing intense heat
and light. Biomass burning involves three stages: ignition, flaming (burning
and smoking with flame), and smoldering (burning and smoking without
flame). Smoke contains the unburnt portion of these gases. Smoke is a complex
mixture of many chemicals and gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour,
carbon monoxide, significant amounts of particulates (solid carbon combustion
particles), hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and thousands of other compounds.
Particles from smoke tend to be tiny less than one micrometre in diameter. Their
size can classify particles, referred to as their “aerodynamic diameter”. Coarse
particles are those between 10 and 2.5 micrometres (µm) in diameter. Fine
particles are smaller than 2.5 µm, and ultrafine particles are less than 0.1 µm.
Smoke is a primary source of aerosol and gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere,
potentially impacting global air quality and climate chemistry (Yang et al.,
2008; Allen et al., 2017). The open burning results in perturbations to the local
atmospheric chemistry due to trace gases and aerosols emissions, a health hazard
to local inhabitants (Wang and Christopher, 2003). Studies suggest that biomass
burning has increased globally over the last 100 years. They also indicated that
hotter earth resulting from global warming would lead to more frequent and
larger fires. 119
6.6 CAUSES OF BIOMASS BURNING
Open-field burning of crop biomass is a simple method for farmers to clean
agricultural land after crop harvest to facilitate soil tillage. Plant biomass
burning has proved to be efficient in controlling insects, diseases, and the
emergence of invasive weed species. However, as a general practice, its use
has been questioned for several reasons, such as nutrient loss, environmental
degradation, and loss of soil organic matter, which may contribute to the overall
deterioration of agricultural soil productivity (Stan et al., 2014). The rationale
for burning as a crop residue management technique by farmers is as follows:
•• Burning is an essential cultural tool that removes large quantities of crop
residue and enables the timely and successful establishment of high-value
crops with minimal cultivation in a more weed, pest, and disease-free
environment.
•• Residue burning reduces the risk of untimely operations and subsequent
crop failure.
•• Burning cereal residues means fewer cultivation passes resulting in
increased soil moisture retention, fine soil tilth, and better soil structure.
Stubble burning can also improve weed control.
•• Large quantities of crop residue on or close to the soil surface can restrict
herbicide choice and increase herbicide resistance risk.
•• Stubble burning lowers the cost of production on farms by reducing
agrochemical usage, machinery costs and the number of cultivation passes.
6.7 EXTENT AND INTENSITY OF BIOMASS

BURNING
India is an agrarian economy where a vast majority of the land is used for
agriculture, and a wide range of plants are grown in its different agro-ecological
regions. According to MoA, Govt. of India, the country had a production of
94 million tons (Mt) of wheat, 106 Mt of rice, 21.6 Mt of maize, 20.7 Mt of
millets, 357.7 Mt of sugarcane, 8.1 Mt of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 17.2
Mt of pulses and 30.0 Mt of oilseeds crops, in the year 2012-13. Among the
different crop categories, 361.85 Mt of residue was generated by cereal crops,
followed by fibre crops (122.4 Mt) and sugarcane (107.5 Mt). The cereals crops
produced 58% of residue while rice crop alone contributed 53% and wheat
ranked second with 33% of cereal crop biomass. Fibre crops contributed 20% of
biomass generated, with cotton ranking first (90.86 Mt) with 74% crop biomass.
Sugarcane residues produced 17% of the total crop residues. The oilseed crops
produced 28.72 Mt of residue annually (Pathak et al., 2012).
The burning of stalks and stubble during the wheat and rice harvesting seasons
in the Indo-Gangetic plains resulted in a substantial increase in trace gases
and particulate matter emissions. It negatively impacts the environment and
economy as this straw is wasted and has grave implications for health and
society due to the smoke and fumes produced. Punjab and Haryana are burning
120 almost 30 million tons of biomass annually. These two states contribute to 48 per
cent of the total emission due to paddy burning across India. On-farm burning
of biomass has been intensifying in recent years due to the shortage of human Biomass Burning
labour, the high cost of removing the crop biomass by conventional methods,
and the use of combines to harvest crops. The biomass of rice, wheat, cotton,
maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, rapeseed-mustard, and groundnut are typically
burnt on-farm across different states of the country. According to the IPCC,
25% of the crop biomass is burnt on the farm. The problem is more severe,
particularly in the mechanized rice-wheat cropping system of NW India (Fig.
6.1). The summer wheat residue burning season happens from April to May,
while in the winter season, rice residue burning is mostly seen during October
and November. The crop residue burning in northwest India causes an immense
pollution problem in Delhi and the NCR region of India.
According to MNRE (2009), the crop biomass generation was 500 Mt, and the
surplus was 141 Mt (Table 1). However, according to Sardar Patel Renewable
Energy Research Institute (2004), about 72 Mt crop biomass is burnt on-farm.
Recently, Pathak et al. (2010) have concluded that about 93 Mt of crop biomass
is burnt on-farm.
According to National Biomass Resource Assessment (NBRA), 23 % of the total
rice straw produced in the field is surplus. Punjab and Haryana contribute 48
% and Uttar Pradesh 14 % of the total subject to open field burning. Therefore,
this study estimates a 13.92 Tg quantity of rice straw burning in the open fields.
Fig.6.1. Burning of rice biomass is a widespread practice in northwest India

Table 6.1. Crop biomass burnt in various states of India
States •• Residue •• Residue Residue burned
generation surplus (Pathak et al.
(MNRE, 2009) (MNRE, 2009) 2010)
Andhra Pradesh 43.89 6.96 2.73
Arunachal Pradesh 0.4 0.07 0.04
Assam 11.43 2.34 0.73
Bihar 25.29 5.08 3.19
Chhattisgarh 11.25 2.12 0.83
Goa 0.57 0.14 0.04
Gujarat 28.73 8.9 3.81
Haryana 27.83 11.22 9.06 121
Himachal Pradesh 2.85 1.03 0.41
Jammu and Kashmir 1.59 0.28 0.89
Jharkhand 3.61 0.89 1.10
Karnataka 33.94 8.98 5.66
Kerala 9.74 5.07 0.22
Madhya Pradesh 33.18 10.22 1.91
Maharashtra 46.45 14.67 7.41
Manipur 0.9 0.11 0.07
Meghalaya 0.51 0.09 0.05
Mizoram 0.06 0.01 0.01
Nagaland 0.49 0.09 0.08
Orissa 20.07 3.68 1.34
Punjab 50.75 24.83 19.62
Rajasthan 29.32 8.52 1.78
Sikkim 0.15 0.02 0.01
Tamil Nadu 19.93 7.05 4.08
Tripura 0.04 0.02 0.11
Uttarakhand 2.86 0.63 21.92
Uttar Pradesh 59.97 13.53 0.78
West Bengal 35.93 4.29 4.96
India 501.76 140.84 92.81
Source: Pathak et al., (2012).
6.8 IMPACTS OF CROP BIOMASS BURNING

Biomass burning is one of the leading causes of air pollution during winters,
leading to the deterioration of air quality in North India. The issue of crop
residue burning has to be addressed holistically.
6.8.1 Soil Nutrients
During combustion, 50-70% of the crop biomass carbon is commonly
volatilized to CO2 and CO, although losses of up to 90% have been measured
when combustion of the residue is almost complete. The remaining carbon is
returned to the soil surface as charred residue, which is not biologically active.
Consequently, burning can alter both the quantity and the quality of organic
matter in the soil (Pathak et al. 2012). The ash from stubble burning is alkaline,
which can immediately increase the pH at the soil surface. In general, losses
of nutrients due to burning decrease in the order N > Ca > S > K > Mg > P
> Na. These losses depend on the heat reached in soil layers during burning.
Volatile losses of P and K occur at temperatures exceeding 500°C, whereas the
vaporization of Na is reported at temperatures exceeding 880°C. However, this
temperature may not be achieved during the burning of cereal crop biomass or
grass/legume pastures, and most of these elements are left in the ash (Kumar &
Goh 2000).
Crop residue contains nutrients that can be recycled to replace part of the nutrients
removed by grain harvest. Cereal crop biomass comprises approximately 15%
of the N and P, 36% of the S, and 80% of the K present in wheat at maturity.
Burning crop biomass results in an immediate increase in extractable phosphorus
and potassium content in the surface 0-2.5 cm soil layer, although no long-term
build-up of these nutrients is observed (Prasad & Power 1991). The majority
122 of the nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur in burned biomass will be escaped into
the atmosphere as gases, but the other nutrients present in the biomass, such Biomass Burning
as phosphorous, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, will often be returned
to the soil as ash biomass. Estimates of losses of N to the atmosphere during
burning are in the order of 30-90%, depending on the extent of combustion.
That represents a loss of 10-25 kg N ha-1 for a straw crop of 5 tons per hectare.
Like phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), the nutrients are typically retained
after burning. Nutrient content in harvested straw and ash from different crop
biomass is shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Nutrient content in harvested straw and ash from various crop
biomasses
Nutrient Material Spring wheat Oats Flax
Straw 40.0 - 42.0 39.8 - 40.1 45.7 - 46.2
Carbon (%C)
Ash 8.6 - 29.4 9.2 - 28.8 27 - 51
Straw 0.66 - 1.28 0.26 - 1.02 0.68 - 1.04
Nitrogen (% N)
Ash 0.42 - 1.76 0.25 - 0.71 0.93 - 1.87
Straw 0.09 - 0.19 0.04 - 0.12 0.04 - 0.10
Phosphorus (% P)
Ash 0.92 - 1.02 0.50 - 1.02 0.40 - 2.20
Straw 0.67 - 2.21 1.37 - 3.31 0.19 - 0.29
Potassium (% K)
Ash 3.1 - 16.6 9.35 - 29.45 2.49 - 4.97
Straw 0.06 - 0.16 0.01 - 0.50 0.05 - 0.07
Sulfur (% S)
Ash 0.05 - 0.55 0.10 - 3.30 0.11 - 0.29
Range of values = average (mean) value minus or plus one standard deviation
Source: www.servitechlabs.com
6.8.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Agricultural activities are significant producers of CH4 and N2O (IPCC, 2018). Of
the three most important gases influenced by land management and responsible
for the potential greenhouse effect, CO2 has the greatest climate forcing potential
(57%), while CH4 and N2O account for 27% and 16%, respectively. Modern
agriculture contributes to atmospheric greenhouse gasses (GHG) with about
14% of global net CO2 emissions (IPCC, 2007). It has been reported that field
burning of crop biomass represents a significant source of greenhouse gasses
and aerosols. Field biomass burning converts many nutrients into gaseous form,
then lost from the site (Haider, 2013). Badrinath et al. (2006) estimated the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from rice and wheat straw burning in Punjab
during May and October 2005 and suggested that emissions from wheat crop
biomass in Punjab are relatively small compared to those from paddy fields.
6.8.3 Air Quality

Crop residue burning is one of the many sources of air pollution. It is the largest
source of primary carbonaceous, fine aerosols and the second most important
source of trace gasses. Species directly emitted from biomass burning include
CO2, CH4, CO, NOx, NH3, non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs), carbonyl
sulfide (COS), SO2, and elemental and organic carbonaceous and sulfate-
containing particles. Secondary species formed from biomass burning precursors
include ozone (O3), oxygenated NMOCs, and inorganic and organic aerosol.
Globally, crop residue burning is estimated to produce 40 per cent of the carbon
dioxide, 32 per cent of the carbon monoxide, 20 per cent of the particulates, and
50 per cent of the highly carcinogenic polyaromatic hydrocarbons produced 123
Land And Soil Issues by all sources (Levine, 1990). In Asia, the annual contribution from open-field
biomass burning is estimated to emit 0.37 Tg of SO2, 2.8 Tg of NOx, 1100 Tg
of CO2, 67 Tg CO, and 3.1 Tg methane (CH4) (Streets et al., 2003).
According to Mandal et al. (2004), the total crop residue generated in India
is estimated at 350 × 106 kg year−1, of which wheat residue constitutes about
27 % and rice residue about 51 %. A study by Badrinath et al. (2008) shows
that approximately 5,504 km2 of the wheat crop area was burnt during May
2005, with the average biomass in the field after harvesting at about 5.94 t ha−1.
While for paddy, about 12,685 km2 of the area was burnt during that period.
The result of the study on crop residue burning and its emission contribution is
summarized in Table 6.3. Gupta et al. (2004) showed that the burning of straw
also emits an enormous amount of particulates composed of a wide variety
of organic and inorganic species. One ton of straw on the burning releases
particulate matter, 60 kg CO, 1,460 kg CO2, 199 kg ash, and 2 kg SO2. These
gases and aerosols consisting of carbonaceous value have an essential role in
the atmospheric chemistry and can affect the local environment and also has
linkages with global climate change (Kumar et al., 2014).
Table 6.3. Total emission by the burning of rice and wheat biomass
Name of the crop Total Emissions Gg
CO NOX CH4 PM10 PM2.5
Wheat 113 8.6 1.33 13 12
Rice 261 19.8 3 30 28.3
Source Badrinath et al. (2008)
Open burning contributes 25 % of black carbon, organic matter, and carbon
monoxide emissions, 9–13 % of PM2.5 and CO2 emissions, and 1 % of SO2
emissions (Venkataraman et al. 2006). Table 6.4 gives the national estimates of
biomass burned and emission of aerosols and trace gases for crop waste open
burning. The crop residue burning in the fields ranges from 18 to 30% and has
substantial regional variations.
Table 6.4. National estimates of biomass burned and emission of aerosols
and trace gasses
Pollutants Crop biomass burning (Emission factors Gg year−1)
Total crop Total open
Cereals Sugarcane Others
waste burning
Biomass
burned Tg 67–189 32–70 17–30 116–289 148–350
year−1
Black
carbon 55–292 19–49 12–31 86–372 102–409
(BC)
Organic
carbon 134–770 48–122 39–79 211–970 399–1,529
(OC)
124
Organic Biomass Burning
matter 287–1,250 97–247 60–143 444–1,639 663–2,303
(OM)
PM2.5 369–1,913 125–289 78–191 572–2,393 851–3,317
CO2 (Tg
102–353 48–131 25–55 175–539 224–638
year−1)
CO (Tg
6–49 3–18 2–8 10–74 13–81
year−1)
SO2 27–113 13–42 7–18 46–172 66–238
NOX 168–845 80–313 42–132 289–1,290 393–1,540
CH4 181–762 86–283 45–119 313–1,164 420–1,486
1,055– 263– 2,039–
NMVOC 500–1,644 1,818–6,767
4,430 693 7,406
NH3 87–367 41–136 22–57 151–560 189–661
Source: Venkataraman et al. (2006)
The complex mixture of reactive gases and aerosol that make up biomass
burning plumes can act as short-lived climate forcers (Keywood et al., 2011).
While biomass is burning, plumes often have the most significant impact on the
atmosphere close to the source of the fire. Once injected into the free troposphere,
plumes may travel long distances, so climate and air quality effects may be
regional or global. For example, a recent modelling study by Lewis et al. (2013)
highlighted the significant contribution that biomass burning emissions make
to the burden of several NMOC in the background atmosphere, particularly in
the Southern Hemisphere. It has been shown that polluted air masses resulting
from fires in Brazil can be transported over the tropical Atlantic towards Africa
and the Indian Ocean (Singh et al., 1996); plumes originating from Alaskan
fires in 2004 have also been detected in Europe, leading to an increase in the
ozone background concentration, and even to high ozone episodes (Real et al.,
2007). During October- November, a vast cloud of smoke engulfs the Punjab
state, India, as farmers burn the stubble of freshly harvested rice. Smog engulfed
several parts of Delhi after farmers in Haryana and Punjab continued to burn
paddy stubble in their fields.
6.8.4 Health
The ill-health effects of biomass burning are well-established. Smoke from crop
biomass burning is hazardous since most particulates are smaller than 10 microns
in size (PM10) and can easily travel deep into the lungs. Numerous studies have
noted that increasing levels of PM10 (even if below the US EPA standard of 50
micrograms PM10 per cubic meter of air) can significantly increase levels of
respiratory and heart problems (Morris, 2001). Long et al. (1998) studied the
health outcomes from biomass burning through a survey of 428 participants
with underlying respiratory disorders and exposure to pollution from the burning
of crop residue, affirmed that people with underlying respiratory diseases
were sensitive to the air pollution caused by biomass burning. Furthermore,
their study found that the infection either aggravated underlying symptoms or
induced additional air-pollution-related symptoms. 125
Land And Soil Issues The burning of crop waste also has adverse implications for the health of milk-
producing animals. Air pollution can result in the death of animals as the high
levels of CO2 and CO in the blood can transform normal haemoglobin into
deadly haemoglobin. There can also be a potential decrease in the yield of the
milk-producing animals (Kumar et al., 2014). Pregnant women and children are
also likely to suffer from the smoke produced due to stubble burning. Moreover,
inhaling fine particulate matter of less than PM2.5 triggers asthma and can
even aggravate symptoms of the bronchial attack. According to Singh et al.
(2008), more than 60 % of the peoples in Punjab live in rice-growing areas and
is exposed to air pollution due to the burning of rice stubbles. As per the same
study, medical records of the civil hospital of Jira in the rice-wheat belt showed
a 10 % increase in the number of patients within 20–25 days of the burning
period every season (Kumar et al., 2014).
6.9 SUSTAINABLE OPTIONS AND ALTERNA-

TIVES TO BIOMASS BURNING
The biomass produced during the harvesting of crops can be used for various
alternative uses if it is not burnt. Several options can be practised to manage
biomass productively. Biomass can be used as cattle feed and compost. It can also
be used for energy generation, biofuel generation and mushroom cultivation. As
it was already argued, sequestration of C from plant biomass into soil organic
matter (SOM) is a key sequestration pathway in agriculture. Thus, there are
multiple benefits to sequestering C in the forest and agricultural soils, beyond
the apparent use of offsetting CO2 emissions (Johnson et al., 2007).
6.9.1 Biomass Management Practices
In India, biomass residue management is crucial in the rice-wheat cropping
system because large quantities of plant biomass are left on the ground surface,
mainly when combine machines are used for crop harvest. It has been reported
that the rice-wheat system is producing about 10.0 tons ha-1 yield exhausts about
500 kg ha-1 of NPK and other trace elements from the soil. Several options
for agricultural crop biomass utilization can be practised to manage biomass
productively.
1. Composting of Biomass for Manure
The biomass can be composted by using it as animal bedding and then heaping
in a dung pit. Each kg of straw absorbs about 2-3 kg of urine from the animal
shed. Alternative methods on the farm itself can also compost it. For example,
rice biomass from one hectare gives about 3.2 tons of manure as rich in nutrients
as farmyard manure (Pathak et al., 2010).
2. Biomass incorporation
As per Singh et al. (1996), if the rice residue is incorporated immediately
before sowing the wheat crop, the crop yield is considerably reduced because
of the immobilization of inorganic nitrogen and its adverse effect due to
126
nitrogen deficiency. However, in a few studies, it was established that wheat Biomass Burning
yield decreased in the first 1–3 years when the rice stubble was incorporated
into the soil 30 days before sowing of the wheat crop, primarily because of the
immobilization of soil nitrogen in the presence of plant biomass with wide C/N
ratio. However, in later years rice stubble incorporation did not affect wheat
crop yield.
According to Verma and Bhagat (1992), the incorporation of rice residue
30 days before sowing of wheat crop resulted in lower wheat yields than
wheat yields when the rice residue is burnt or removed from the fields.
Furthermore, incorporating rice stubble in the soil impacts the soil’s physical,
chemical, and biological properties such as pH, organic carbon, water holding
capacity, and soil bulk density. Thus, in general, biomass recycling will have
agronomic, environmental, and economic advantages; however, sometimes,
its mismanagement and other technical problems may result in limited uses in
farmer’s fields.
3. Vermicomposting
Vermicompost is an essential method in which crop biomass is converted into
valuable compost using worms. Earthworms and microbes act together and
break down the complex organic matter, and the resulting material is rich in
nutrients and oxygen. Thus, it is an effective way to increase organic matter in
the soil. In addition, increasing the organic matter of soil compost also increases
the soil microbial population (Perucci, 1990), which improves soil quality. After
the crop is harvested, the total biomass must go back to the soil to replenish
the lost nutrient, so vermicompost is considered an excellent way to recycle
nutrients in the ecosystem and an effective option to improve soil health and
crop productivity.
4. Conservation Agriculture (CA)
Conservation agriculture (CA) has been introduced as a widely adopted set of
management principles to ensure more sustainable crop production. CA is a
broader concept than conservation tillage, a system where at least 30% of the soil
surface is covered with crop biomass after seeding the next crop. In conservation
agriculture, the emphasis lies in the tillage component and the combination of
the following three principles. These are (i) Reduction in tillage- the purpose
is to reach zero tillage (i.e., no-tillage), but the system may include controlled
tillage seeding systems that usually do not disturb more than 20–25% of the soil
surface. (ii) Retention of adequate levels of crop biomass and soil surface cover.
(iii) Use of crop rotations, the objective, is to employ diversified crop rotations
to help moderate/mitigate possible weed, disease, and pest problems.
These conservation agriculture principles apply to a wide range of crop production
systems from low-yielding, dry, rainfed conditions to high-yielding, irrigated
conditions. However, the application of the principles of CA will be very different
from one situation to another. Distinct and compatible management components
127
such as pest and weed control tactics, nutrient management strategies, and crop
Land And Soil Issues rotations will need to be identified through adaptive research with active farmer
involvement. For example, under gravity-fed irrigated conditions, a permanent
raised bed system with furrow irrigation may be more suitable and sustainable
than a reduced or zero tillage system on the flat to replace the widely used,
conventionally tilled system of flood irrigation on flat land.
6.9.2 Renewable Energy Strategy
There is an increasing interest in converting crop biomass into energy products
due to new emerging technologies and their environmental benefits. In recent
years, there has been an addition to the usage of crop biomass for power
generation and as an excellent alternative to fossil fuels. It also gives an instant
solution for the reduction of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Compared
with other renewable energy resources such as solar and wind power, biomass
is a storable resource, inexpensive, energy-efficient, and environment-friendly.
1. Electricity Generation from Crop Biomass
Several studies indicate the potential of electricity generation from crop residues.
However, straw is characterized by low bulk density and low energy yield
per weight basis. In addition, the logistics of transporting the large volumes
of straw required for efficient power generation represents a significant cost
factor irrespective of the bioenergy technology. Therefore, biomass availability,
transportation cost, and infrastructural settings (harvest machinery, modes of
collection, etc.) drive biomass for energy generation.
2. Liquid or Gaseous Biofuel from Crop Biomass
Using thermochemical or biological techniques, liquid or gaseous biofuel
can be produced from crop biomass like cereals and corn. The conversion
of lignocellulosic biomass into bio-based ethanol production is of immense
importance. It is a researchable issue as it can be either blended with gasoline
as a fuel extender and octane-enhancing agent or used as a neat fuel in internal
combustion engines. The theoretical estimates of ethanol production from
different feedstock (corn grain, rice straw, wheat straw, bagasse, and sawdust)
vary from 382 to 471 L t-1 of dry matter.
3. Bio-methanation
Biomass such as rice straw can be transformed into biogas, a mixture of carbon
dioxide and methane. It is stated that biogas of 300 m3 t-1 of dry rice straw can
be obtained. The process yields a high gas quality with 55-60% methane, and
the spent slurry can be used as manure in the crops. This process promises
to utilize plant biomass in a non-destructive way to extract high-quality fuel
biogas and produce waste to be recycled in soil.
4. Gasification of Biomass
Gasification is a thermochemical energy production process in which gas is
formed due to the partial combustion of biomass. The process breaks down
biomass entirely to yield energy-rich gaseous products after initial pyrolysis. The
major problem in biomass gasification for power generation is gas purification
so that impurities are separated. The biomass can be used in the gasifiers for
the creation of producer gas. In some states, gasifiers with more than 1MW
capacity have been introduced to generate producer gas. One ton of biomass
can be used for the production of 300 kWh of electricity.
5. Fast Pyrolysis
128
Fast pyrolysis of crop biomass needs the temperature of biomass to be raised to Biomass Burning
400-500 oC within a few seconds. This results in a striking change in the thermal
disintegration process. About 75% of the dry weight of biomass is transformed
into condensable vapours. If the condensate cools rapidly within a couple of
seconds, it yields a dark brown viscous liquid commonly called bio-oil. The
calorific value of bio-oil varies from 16-20 MJkg-1.
6. Biochar
Biochar is the leading carbon material produced from biomass’s slow pyrolysis
(heating in the absence of oxygen). It has benefits regarding its efficiency as an
energy source, its use as a fertilizer when incorporated into the soil, and its ability
to stabilize and reduce emissions of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Biochar
finds utilization in releasing energy-rich gases used to produce liquid fuels or
directly for power and heat generation. It can potentially play a significant role
in the long-term storage of carbon. Moreover, biochar improves the fertility and
water retention capability of the soil and increases the rate of mineral transport
to the roots of the plants.
1. Explain the causes of biomass burning.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
2. Discuss the extent of biomass burning in India.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
3. Explain the impacts of crop biomass burning.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
4. Explain the sustainable alternatives to crop residue burning.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
6.10 LET US SUM UP

Crop biomass is an abandoned natural resource, not waste materials that require
disposal. A significant portion of unused crop biomass is burnt in the fields to
clear the left-over straw and stubbles after the harvest. The burning of crop 129
Land And Soil Issues biomass creates environmental pollution, is hazardous to human and animal
health, produces greenhouse gases causing global warming, and loses plant
nutrients. About 25% of N and P and 50% of S and 75% K uptake by cereal crops
are retained in the harvested biomass, making them valuable nutrients. After the
crop is harvested, the entire biomass must go back to the soil to replenish the
lost nutrients. The world is focusing on conserving this natural resource.
Furthermore, intensive soil cultivation devoid of organics has resulted in the

degradation of agricultural soils with the decrease in soil organic matter and loss
of soil structure, adversely affecting soil functioning and causing a long-term
threat to future crop yields. Therefore, appropriate management of crop biomass
assumes importance. The crop biomass is a good source of plant nutrients and is
an essential component for the stability of agricultural ecosystems.
6.11 KEY WORDS

Biomass Burning: It refers to the burning of living and dead vegetation either
by natural induced fires, i.e., forest fires ignited by lightning strikes, or human-
made (anthropogenic) fires, i.e., combustion of the forests and grassland for
agricultural uses.

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132
UNIT 7 SOIL POLLUTION, LAND DEGRA-
DATION AND DESERTIFICATION
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Soil Pollution
7.3.1 Definition of Soil Pollution
7.3.2 Causes of Soil Pollution
7.3.3 Effects of Soil Pollution
7.3.4 Soil Pollution Control
7.4 Land Degradation
7.4.1 Definition of Land Degradation
7.4.2 Causes of Land Degradation
7.4.3 Impacts of Land Degradation
7.5 Desertification
7.5.1 Definition of Desertification
7.5.2 Causes of Desertification
7.5.3 Impacts of Desertification
7.5.4 Solutions to Combat Desertification
7.6 Let Us Sum Up
7.7 Key Words
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The soil is a vital part of the natural environment and one of the essential
foundations of the life of planet earth. All crops and other plants species for
human food and animal feed depend on it. It influences the distribution of
vegetation and provides a habitat for a broad range of organisms. It acts as a
source and sinks for many atmospheric gases, controls water flow and recycles
chemical substances between Earth and the atmosphere. Over the last century,
industrial, and technological advances, particularly in the manufacturing, mining
sector and the revolution in agriculture, have added many toxic chemicals
to the soil. These activities also produce an enormous amount of liquid and
solid waste. Improper disposal of these wastes has persuaded soil pollution in
different ways. Also, by storing municipal waste, and hazardous waste, the soil
may be contaminated with various heavy metals.
Land degradation and desertification are serious problems in India. Nearly

25%of India’s total land is suffering from desertification, while 32% is facing
degradation that has affected its productivity, critically troubling the livelihood
and food security of millions of people across the nation. In India, 105.19 million
hectares (Mha) of the total geographical area of 328.73 Mha is degraded, whereas
82.18 Mha is desertified. In addition, the National Bureau of Soil Survey and
Land-Use Planning (NBSS&LUP) data show that nearly 3.7 Mha land suffers
Land And Soil Issues from nutrient loss or depletion of organic matter. It is estimated that every year,
20.2 Mt of the three major nutrients is removed. In the Fifth National Report
on Land desertification, degradation and drought, the government of India has
recognized that land degradation continues to be a major environmental concern
for the country, with consequent implications for sustainable development.
This unit emphasizes the causes, extent and management of soil pollution, land
degradation and desertification.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define soil pollution;
•• explain the causes of soil pollution;
•• identify different types of soil pollutants;
•• define land degradation and desertification and
•• describe the causes of land degradation and desertification.
7.3 SOIL POLLUTION

7.3.1 Definition of Soil Pollution
It is challenging to define soil pollution precisely because various opinions
exist on how to characterize a pollutant. At the same time, some think the use
of pesticides is acceptable if their effect does not exceed the intended result;
others do not find any use of pesticides or even chemical fertilizers acceptable.
However, it comprises the pollution of soils with materials, typically chemicals
that are out of place or are existing at higher concentrations than normal which
may have adverse effects on humans or other organisms.
Soil pollution is defined as the presence of materials in the soil which are
harmful to living beings when they cross their threshold concentration levels.
Soil pollutants harm the physical, chemical and biological properties of the
soil and reduce its productivity. In other words, soil pollution means changing
soil’s physicochemical and biological properties, reducing its fertility and
productivity.
7.3.2 Causes of Soil Pollution

Anthropogenic activities produce a massive amount of liquid and solid waste.
As per CPCB India, 41,523 industries annually generate 7.9 million tonnes
of hazardous waste. Improper disposal of these wastes can persuade soil
pollution in different ways. Soil pollution can cause an imbalance in the soil
ecosystem. Also, by storing municipal waste, and hazardous waste, the soil may
be contaminated with various heavy metals. Heavy metals sources that pollute
the soils are given in Table 7.1. Furthermore, plants will absorb some pesticides
and heavy metals from the soil, and as a result, when they decompose, they
pollute the soil.
134
Table 7.1. Sources of heavy metals that pollute the soil Soil Pollution, Land
Degradation and
Anthropogenic activity Heavy metals
Desertification
Metalliferous mining As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn
Smelters As, Cd, Pb
Electronic industry, where metals
are used in semiconductors, Hg, Ni, Cd, Pb
circuits batteries, etc
Paints and dyes industries Cd, Pb, As, Zn Cr, Co, Se, Mo, Ba,
Cd, Zn, Pb, Sn are used as polymer
Plastics Industries
stabilizers
Hg, Pt, Pb, Ni, Nb, Ru as electrode
Chemical industry
catalysts
Wood industry, furniture, and
As, Cr and Cu
wood-processing
Metals Corrosion contained in Cr, Ni, Co in stainless steel, Cu, Pb pipes,
many materials and roofs, Pb painting
Phosphate fertilizers and
Cd, As, Pb, Mn, Cu, Zn
pesticides
Soil pollution is usually associated with the indiscriminate use of agricultural
chemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers. In addition, industrial activities,
rapid urbanization, improper disposal of mining waste, radioactive substances
and atmospheric deposition often cause soil pollution. As we know, the
chemical compounds degrade very slowly in the soil and as a result, they seep
into the ground and harm the soil’s fertility. Moreover, it can be dangerous to
humans because of toxic substances contaminating food and drinking water.
The significant leading causes of soil pollution are discussed as follows.
1. Waste Disposal
Waste disposal did not always mean soil pollution. Earlier, most of the materials
used were of completely natural origin or primarily organic. When disposed of,
the waste products would naturally biodegrade (break down eventually into soil-
like compost). However, plastics (polymers), petroleum, and synthetic (human-
created) chemicals have produced a new generation of synthetic materials. They
are mostly non-degradable. For example, a plastic bottle can take more than 100
years to biodegrade. Many electronic components, made from metals and other
chemicals, are tightly bonded together and almost impossible to dismantle.
Nuclear power stations produce toxic radioactive chemical waste that can
remain for thousands of years. Improper disposal of urban and municipal waste,
hazardous waste from industrial processing units, and dangerous substances
deposition often cause soil pollution.
2. Mining
In India, as mining and manufacturing activities are increasing rapidly, soil
degradation is also growing. Surface mining requires the removal of topsoil 135
Land And Soil Issues to get the precious rocks below. Even if the damage to topsoil is the worst
that happens, it can turn a productive landscape into a barren one. Most of the
metals, for example, occur in rock-strewn mixtures called ores, from which the
valued elements have to be extracted by electrical, chemical, or other processes.
That leaves behind waste byproducts and many chemicals used to treat them,
which historically were simply dumped back on the land. Since all the trash is
left in one place, the concentration of pollution often becomes highly dangerous.
When mines have been fully worked out, all that was left behind was polluted
land that couldn’t be used for any other purpose. Often old mines have been
used as landfills, adding the abuse of an inverted garbage mountain to the injury
of the initial damage. However, at least it saved destroying more land elsewhere.
3. Urbanization
Urbanization marks an enormous and significant change to the landscape that
can cause soil contamination in various subtle and not-so-subtle ways. With
over 7 billion people on Earth, it might come as a surprise to find that people
have urbanized only about 3 per cent of Earth’s total land surface, though
exactly a third of the total land area has been altered if we include agriculture.
One of the problems of urbanization is that concentrating people focus on their
waste products at the same time. So, for example, unskillful disposal of sewage
from big cities creates water or soil pollution. Having said that, it is essential
to remember that urbanization, when it works, can also help people to live very
efficiently.
4. Agricultural Chemicals
Feeding the world on such a large scale is only possible because of agriculture.
In the past, chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides have played a significant
role in increasing food production in the world. Unfortunately, by definition,
most pesticides are poisons, and many remain in the soil or accumulate there for
years. For example, one infamous and now widely banned pesticide, DDT, is not
ordinarily biodegradable, so it has stayed in the environment ever since it was
first used in the mid-20th century and even spread to Antarctica. DDT is just one
of various organic (carbon-based) substances that remain in the environment
for years or decades, known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Soil
pollution can occur when pesticides persist and accumulate in soils, affecting
microbial processes, increasing plant uptake of the chemical, and excess amount
also causes toxicity to soil organisms.
5. Atmospheric Deposition
Atmospheric deposition is the transfer of air pollutants (dust, particulate matter
containing heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, furans,
sulfates, nitrates, etc.) to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Soil becomes
polluted by deposition in some very unexpected ways. A portion of these
pollutants could be dispersed into the air or deposited onto soils due to wind
dispersion. For example, the land or roadside of a highway becomes regularly
136 contaminated over time with various types of toxic pollutants exhausted from
fuel spills and brake linings to dust worn from the pavement and heavy metal Soil Pollution, Land
deposits (such as lead) wiped from the engines. These chemicals accumulate in Degradation and
the soil, undergoing various reactions and forming even more toxic substances. Desertification
6. Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that refers to losing the field’s topsoil
by water and wind or converting natural forest to agricultural land. However,
soil fertility loss due to erosion is more challenging because the response is often
to apply chemical fertilizers, which leads to further water and soil pollution,
rather than allowing the land to regenerate. In addition, excessive ploughing,
overgrazing and over-production of crops erode soil, damaging its structure and
drastically reducing its productivity until it is little more than dust. At its worst,
soil erosion results in desertification.
Soil degradation and desertification through the loss of topsoil is one of the
significant factors of unstable and low crop yield in the rain-fed, semi-arid to sub-
humid subtropics of India. The fertility status and soil productivity as a medium
for biomass production depend primarily on the topsoil, which is necessary for
many other well-known essential functions besides being a biomass producer.
A study by IFPRI, using an overlay of cropland areas and GLASOD data,
showed that soil degradation had a significant impact on the productivity of
about 16% of the world’s agricultural land. Land degradation will remain an
important global issue in the 21st century. It has adversely impacted agronomic
productivity, environment, food security and quality of life in both low and
high-income countries. According to Eswaran et al. (2019), the productivity
of some lands has declined by 50% due to soil erosion and desertification. The
impact of soil erosion on world food production (with and without erosion) is
shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Impact of soil erosion on global food production (with and
without erosion)
Commodity Estimated Net production Estimated
production if there with erosion production loss
is no erosion (Mt) (Mt) (%)
Cereals 2086 1896 10
Soybeans 132 126 5
Pulses 59 56 5
Root and tubers 682 609 12
Total 2959 2687 32
Source: Eswaran, H., Lal, R. and Reich, P.F., 2019. Land degradation: an
overview. Response to land degradation, pp.20-35.
7.3.3 Effects of Soil Pollution

Soil pollutants harm soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties and
reduce its productivity. As a result, soil pollution can have many harmful effects 137
Land And Soil Issues on ecosystems, humans, plants and animal health. The detrimental effects of soil
pollution may come from direct contact with polluted soil or other resources,
such as water or food grown on or indirectly in contact with the polluted soil.
1. Effects on Biological Productivity

One of the most important soil characteristics is the ability to filtrate, absorb
and precipitate the substances falling on its surface. The presence of toxic
chemicals (pesticides, heavy metals, polycyclic carbohydrates, polychlorinated
biphenyls and furans, dioxins, petroleum products, etc.) influence the status and
functioning of the soil. Its biological productivity depends on the soil microflora
activities. Soil pollution will lead to the loss of soil fertility and crop failure.
Therefore, the question arises about using these toxic chemicals to be fruitful
but may not adversely affect soil fertility and the environment. However, some
of the adverse effects of heavy metals on plants’ physical and biochemical
function such as inhibition of growth, chlorosis, necrosis, inhibition of several
key enzymes, photosynthesis, respiration, etc., are shown in Fig. 7.1.
Fig. 7.1 Effects of Heavy Metals on Plant

2. Effects on Human Health
People can be affected indirectly due to the bioaccumulation of pollutants. It
happens when people consume crop produce grown in the polluted soils or
animal products that eat plants from polluted soils. We are aware, that excess
heavy metal accumulation in soils is toxic to humans and other animals. However,
exposure to heavy metals is usually chronic (exposure over a longer period)
due to food chain transfer. Acute (immediate) poisoning from heavy metals
is rare but possible through ingestion or dermal contact. Heavy metal toxicity
can lower energy levels and damage the central nervous and functioning of the
brain, cardiovascular system, lungs, kidney, liver, blood composition and other
vital organs, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The chronic problems in man associated with
long-term heavy metal exposures are given in Table 7.3.
138
Degradation and
Desertification
Fig. 7.2. Heavy metal toxicity in human

Table 7.3. Chronic problems associated with long heavy metal exposures in
man
Metal Toxic form Effects
Severe injury to the brain, nervous system and
Lead Pb+2
kidney. Haematological damage
Cadmium Cd+2 Damages kidney, liver and gastrointestinal tract
Skin damage increases the risk of cancer and
problems with the circulatory system. Also,
Arsenic As-3
it affects the kidneys and the central nervous
system.
Chromium Cr+6 Allergic dermatitis in humans
Mercury CH3Hg+ Kidney damage
3. Economic Losses
Crops and plants grown on polluted soils can accumulate toxic chemicals to an
extent deemed unfit for human consumption. Consequently, it leads to enormous 139
Land And Soil Issues economic losses. In some parts of the world, heavily polluted soils with metals
and chemicals such as lead, asbestos and sulfur are considered unfavourable for
crop production and cannot be used to grow crops. The crops grown in the soils
and the nearby lands are often poisoned with heavy metals and chemicals and
thus, discarded after harvesting because of high toxicity levels. For instance,
according to China’s agricultural sector, about 12 million tons of polluted grains
are subjected to disposal annually, costing Chinese farmers economic losses of
up to 2.6 billion U.S. dollars.
4. Air and Water Contamination
Contaminated soil by natural means contributes to air pollution by discharging
volatile compounds into the atmosphere. So, the more toxic contaminants
in the soil, the higher the level of poisonous gases emitted into the air. Soil
pollution can also lead to water pollution if the toxic chemicals and materials
like dangerous heavy metals leach into groundwater or contaminate stormwater
runoff, which reaches lakes, rivers, streams, or oceans.
7.3.4 Soil Pollution Control
The following measures have been suggested to control soil pollution. In
general, we would need less fertilizer and fewer pesticides if we could all adopt
the three R’s: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. This would give us less solid waste.
1. Application of organic manure: The use of more organic manure
can increase the organic matter and soil microbial activity, improve
soil structure, enhance the absorption capacity of the soil, enhance the
colloidal adsorption of heavy metals and other toxic materials.
2. Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use: Fertilizers and
pesticides should be applied on croplands only in the recommended dose.
It will help in reducing the level of water and soil pollution caused by
these chemicals. Applying biofertilizers and biopesticides can decrease
chemical fertilizer and pesticide use. Biological means of pest control can
also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby reduce soil pollution.
3. Reusing of materials: Materials such as plastic bags, glass containers,
paper, cloth, etc., can be reused at domestic levels rather than being
disposed of, reducing solid waste pollution.
4. Recycling and recovery of materials: This is a rational solution for
reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some plastics, and glass
can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps
in the conservation of natural resources. For example, the recovery of one
ton of paper can save 17 trees.
5. Reforesting: Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted by
restoring forest and grass cover to check soil erosion, floods and wasteland
development. In addition, mixed cropping or crop rotation can enhance
the fertility of the land.
6. Solid waste treatment: Proper methods should be adopted for the
management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes can be treated
140
physically, biologically, and chemically until they are less hazardous. Soil Pollution, Land
Alkaline and acidic wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble Degradation and
material, if biodegradable, should be allowed to degrade under controlled Desertification
conditions before being disposed of. As a last option, new areas for
hazardous waste storage should be investigated, such as real deep injection
and more secure landfills.
7. Wastewater treatment: Wastewater from industries should not be used
for irrigation without proper treatment and eliminating toxic chemicals
from the effluent. This will also decrease the concentration of unwanted
substances in the soil.
8. Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes: Carbonaceous wastes like firewood,
paddy straw and sawdust yields charcoal along with products like tar,
acetic acid, methyl alcohol and fuel gas. Pyrolysis is very useful for
managing biodegradable municipal waste to produce manure and biogas
for domestic use.
9. Bioremediation: Bioremediation is a very promising land-cleaning
technology, in which various kinds of microbes are used to break down
toxic substances into less toxic or non-toxic substances.
10. Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is the direct use of green plants
for the removal, or degradation of pollutants from polluted soils, sludges,
sediments, surface water and groundwater. It offers hope for a better future
for land as itself is a limited and precious resource.
7.4 LAND DEGRADATION

The demand for food, energy and other human needs depends upon the
productivity of the land. However, land resources are limited. India has about
18% of the world’s population and 15% of the livestock population to be
supported by only 2% of the geographical area and 1.5% of forest and pasture
lands. The per capita availability of land has declined from 0.89 hectares (ha) in
1951 to 0.37 ha in 1991. It is projected to go down to 0.20 ha in 2035. However,
agricultural land per capita availability has declined from 0.48 ha in 1951 to
0.16 ha in 1991 and is likely to fall further to 0.08 ha in 2035.
7.4.1 Definition of Land Degradation

Land degradation is defined as a human-induced or natural process that
adversely affects the soil to function effectively. It is estimated that land
degradation constitutes 75% of the Earth’s usable landmass affecting 4 billion
people globally. Thus, nearly 15% of the world’s population is affected by land
degradation, which is likely to worsen unless adequate and necessary actions
are taken to prevent the land degradation processes.
7.4.2 Causes of Land Degradation

Land degradation is a consequence of either natural hazards or direct causes,
or underlying causes. The direct reasons are human-induced, resulting from
unsustainable land use and inappropriate land management practices such as
deforestation and over-exploitation of vegetation, overgrazing and cultivation
on steep slopes and marginal/fragile areas without adopting soil conservation
141
measures, shifting cultivation, etc. The underlying causes are indirectly
Land And Soil Issues responsible for land degradation such as population pressures, land shortage,
tenancy rights, economic pressures, and poverty. A brief description of the
causes of land degradation is presented as follows:
1. Natural Causes
Natural hazards are the environmental conditions that lead to high
susceptibility to erosion. These include high-intensity storms on steep
slopes and soils having less resistance to water erosion, high-speed winds,
soil fertility decline due to heavy leaching in humid climates, acidity or
loss of nutrients, waterlogging high-speed winds, etc.
2. Direct Causes
The direct causes are human-induced, which result from unsustainable land
use and inappropriate land management practices such as deforestation
and over-exploitation of vegetation, overgrazing, cultivation on steep
slopes and marginal/fragile lands without adoption of soil conservation
measures, shifting cultivation, improper crop rotations, imbalanced
fertilizer use or excessive use of agrochemicals, over-exploitation of
groundwater and inadequate management of canal water.
3. Underlying Causes
The underlying causes are the factors indirectly responsible for land
degradation such as population pressures, land shortage, tenancy rights,
economic pressures, and poverty. Land shortage and poverty together
lead to non-sustainability.
•• Water Erosion
This is the most widespread form of degradation and occurs widely
in all agro-climatic zones of India. Soil material displacement by
water can result either in loss of topsoil or terrain deformation or both
through the processes of splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion
and gully erosion. Soil erosion starts with the falling of the raindrops
onto the bare surface of the ground. The impact of raindrops break-
up surface soil aggregates and splashes particles into the air. On
sloping land, detached soil materials flow with runoff down the slope,
resulting in the ground loss. The extent and the severity of the erosion
are a function of rainfall intensity, land slope, soil and land use.
Soil loss values were categorized into five classes (moderate,
moderately severe, severe, very severe, and extremely severe), and
state-wise areas under different categories have been determined and
mapped. State-wise area under different soil loss classes due to water
erosion (> 10 tons/ha/year) is shown in Table 7.5. An area of about
126 Mha has been found suffering from various degrees of water
erosion.
•• Wind Erosion
This type of erosion involves the displacement of soil particles by
the action of wind. Usually, the soil is removed in thin layers as sheet
erosion, but sometimes wind effects can carve out hollows and other
features. Wind erosion is a function of wind velocity, soil characteristics
142 and land use. The Wind displaces fine- to medium-size sand particles.
The land degradation due to wind erosion is limited to arid regions of Soil Pollution, Land
India. The CAZRI, Jodhpur, conducted experimental studies on wind Degradation and
erosion under different land uses, and various parameters have been Desertification
standardized for wind erosion. An area of 11 Mha is found suffering
from wind erosion of different intensities. Very severe and severe wind
erosion occurs in 16% of the country’s total geographical area (TGA).
Moderate wind erosion occurs in 32% of TGA.
•• Acid Soils
These soils develop in humid and per-humid areas due to excessive
leaching of cations with high rainfall, resulting in lowering of pH
and loss of soil fertility and can be reclaimed by adding chemical
amendments like lime. For assessing the area under acid soils, soil
maps of different states on 1: 250,000 scale were digitized in the GIS
format. The non-spatial (attribute) data on pH values were linked to
the master soil layer to generate a soil reaction (pH) map of India,
which was reclassified to produce a soil acidity map. The acidity map
of India, thus created, facilitates an understanding of soils’ spatial
distribution and pH status in different parts of India. Based on the range
of pH values, the map has been reclassified as strongly acidic (pH <
4.5); moderately acidic (pH 4.5–5.5); slightly acidic (pH 5.5–6.5) and
non-acidic (pH > 6.5). However, for the estimation of the degraded
lands of India, only strongly acidic (pH < 4.5) and moderately acidic
(pH 4.5–5.5) soils have been considered. About 6.98 Mha are affected
by acid soils in India.
•• Salt-affected Soils
These soils contain excessive soluble salts or exchangeable sodium,
or both, affecting crop yields and crop production. Depending upon
the physicochemical properties and the nature of the salts, the soils
are classified into saline, sodic and saline-sodic. These soils appear
in different shades of white tone with fine to coarse texture on the
False Color Composite (FCC) prints of the satellite data, owing to the
presence of the salts, and are recognizable for healthy crop growth.
For assessing these soils, the National Remote Sensing Agency has
prepared maps on 1: 250,000 scale using satellite data from Landsat
TM/IRS sensors in association with other central and state government
organizations (Table 7). Information on the salt-affected soils provided
by the CSSRI, Karnal, was used to harmonize the degraded wasteland
datasets of India. Salt-affected soils were regrouped into two classes,
namely saline and sodic soils, in the GIS format.
7.4.3 Impacts of Land Degradation

Land degradation leads to a significant reduction of the productive capacity
of the land. Land degradation has both on-site and off-site impacts. Nutrient
depletion as a form of land degradation has a severe impact on the environment
and food security. The main effects of land degradation include deterioration
of soil health, desertification and impairment of water quality, pollution of
surface and groundwater resources, loss of storage capacity of reservoirs, loss
of biodiversity, reduction in productive potential, poverty, food insecurity and
143
Land And Soil Issues several types of environmental hazards.
Land degradation will remain an important global issue for the 21st century
because of its adverse impact on agronomic productivity, the environment and
its effect on food security and the quality of life. Productivity impacts of land
degradation are due to a decline in land quality on the site where degradation
occurs (e.g., erosion) and off-site where sediments are deposited. However, the
on-site impacts of land degradation on productivity are easily masked due to
the use of additional inputs and the adoption of improved technology. They
have led some to question the adverse effects of desertification. In addition,
the relative magnitude of economic losses due to productivity decline versus
environmental deterioration also has created a debate.
Land degradation affects large areas and many people in dryland regions.
Increased population pressures and excessive human expansion into drylands
during long wet periods leave an increasing number of people stranded there
during dry periods. The removal of the protective cover to reduce competition
for water and nutrients, ploughing, heavy grazing and deforestation all leave
the soil highly vulnerable to wind erosion, particularly during severe droughts.
Heavy grazing around water points or during prolonged droughts prevents or
delays vegetation regrowth or favours unpalatable shrubs. Land degradation
costs an estimated US$40 billion annually worldwide, without taking into
account hidden costs of increased fertilizer use, loss of biodiversity and loss of
unique landscapes. Land degradation’s consequences are reduced productivity,
socio-economic problems, including uncertainty in food security, migration,
limited development and damage to ecosystems.
Degraded land is costly to reclaim and, if severely degraded, may no longer
provide a range of ecosystem functions and services with a loss of the goods
and many other potential environmental, social, economic, and non-material
benefits that are critical for society and development.
According to FAO, severe land degradation affects a significant portion of
the Earth’s arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of
nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is
compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of
famine and potential conflict are sown.
Table 7.4. State-wise distribution of degraded and wasteland area (2007)

Degraded
% of Degraded Degraded Degraded % of
and % of % of
degraded and and and degraded
wasteland degraded degraded
Total and wasteland wasteland wasteland and
due to and and
States geographical wasteland due to due to due to wasteland
water wasteland wasteland
area (sq km) due to acid soil saline sodic due to
erosion due to due to saline
water ('000 soil ('000 soil ('000 sodic
('000 acid soil soil
erosion hectares) hectares) hectares) soil
hectares)
Andhra
2,75,045 8,864 32.2 1 0.004 77 0.3 194 0.7
Pradesh
Arunachal
83,743 380 4.5 1,769 21.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
Pradesh
Assam 78,438 2,366 30.2 1,995 25.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
Bihar 94,163 1,049 11.1 41 0.4 45 0.5 106 1.1
Chhattisgarh 1,34,805 2,422 18.0 2,342 17.4 0 0.0 13 0.1
Delhi 1,483 28 18.9 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

144
Goa 3,702 1 0.3 103 27.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 Soil Pollution, Land
Gujarat 1,96,024 1,011 5.2 0 0.0 1,559 8.0 545 2.8 Degradation and
Haryana 44,212 303 6.9 2 0.05 46 1.0 184 4.2 Desertification
Himachal
55,673 984 17.7 76 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
Pradesh
Jammu &
2,22,236 2,001 9.0 78 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
Kashmir
Jharkhand 79,714 3,181 39.9 735 9.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
Karnataka 1,91,791 7,799 40.7 93 0.5 1 0.01 145 0.8
Kerala 38,863 117 3.0 2,426 62.4 21 0.5 0 0.0
Madhya
3,08,641 13,465 43.6 482 1.6 0 0.0 124 0.4
Pradesh
Maharashtra 3,07,713 8,822 28.7 269 0.9 171 0.6 421 1.4
Manipur 22,327 150 6.7 1,597 71.5 0 0.0 0 0.0
Meghalaya 22,429 706 31.5 1,023 45.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
Mizoram 21,081 0 0.0 1,163 55.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
Nagaland 16,579 31 1.9 1,516 91.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
Odisha 1,55,707 3,328 21.4 203 1.3 137 0.9 0 0.0
Punjab 50,362 302 6.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 152 3.0
Rajasthan 3,42,239 8,632 25.2 0 0.0 192 0.6 181 0.5
Sikkim 7,096 2 0.3 58 8.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
Tamil Nadu 1,30,058 2,134 16.4 427 3.3 13 0.1 352 2.7
Tripura 10,486 74 7.1 709 67.6 0 0.0 0 0.0
Uttar Pradesh 2,38,566 12,884 54.0 0 0.0 22 0.1 1,320 5.5
Uttarakhand 55,845 1,009 18.1 401 7.2 0 0.0 0 0.0
West Bengal 88,752 1,264 14.2 418 4.7 408 4.6 0 0.0
All-India 32,87,270 83,310 25.3 17,930 5.5 2,887 0.9 3,737 1.1
Notes: Saline soil data is for 2004; Acid soil data is for 2005; Water erosion data is for 2007.
Source: Degraded and Wastelands of India—Status and Spatial Distribution, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research and National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, June 2010, website (http://www.icar.org.in/
files/Degraded-and-Wastelands.pdf, accessed on 7 February 2013).
Table 7.5. State-wise area under different soil loss classes due to water
erosion (> 10 tons/ha/yr)
Moderate severe Extreme severe
Moderate (10–15) Severe (20–40) Very severe (40–80)
(15–20) (>80)
Total
Total (tonnes/ha/year) (tonnes/ha/year) (tonnes/ha/year)
(tonnes/ha/year) (tonnes/ha/year) area for
geographical Area
States different
area (sq. (%)
Area Area Area Area Area classes
km) Area Area Area Area Area (sq. km)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(sq. km) (sq. km) (sq. km) (sq. km) (sq. km)
Andhra
2,75,045 36,196 13.2 20,738 7.5 34,381 12.5 17,960 6.5 0 0.0 1,09,275 39.7
Pradesh
Arunachal
83,743 4,271 5.1 4,539 5.4 19,805 23.6 22,870 27.3 9,354 11.2 60,839 72.6
Pradesh
Assam 78,438 3,592 4.6 14,182 18.1 11,632 14.8 22,198 28.3 0 0.0 51,604 65.8
Bihar 94,163 5,855 6.2 3,223 3.4 2,566 2.7 545 0.6 0 0.0 12,189 12.9
Chhattisgarh 1,34,805 10,771 8.0 8,695 6.5 24,561 18.2 18,360 13.6 25,640 19.0 88,027 65.3
Delhi 1,483 136 9.2 78 5.3 98 6.6 17 1.1 0 0.0 329 22.2
Gujarat 1,66,024 13,722 8.3 5,881 3.5 9,801 5.9 1,960 1.2 0 0.0 31,364 18.9
Haryana 44,212 1,136 2.6 553 1.3 809 1.8 420 0.9 0 0.0 2,918 6.6
Himachal
55,673 3,023 5.4 2,088 3.8 4,120 7.4 3,196 5.7 5,612 10.1 18,039 32.4
Pradesh 145
Land And Soil Issues Jammu &
2,22,236 1,400 0.6 1,178 0.5 3,689 1.7 6,067 2.7 22,690 10.2 35,024 15.8
Kashmir
Jharkhand 79,714 12,424 15.6 9,140 11.5 16,739 21.0 9,748 12.2 3,699 4.6 51,750 64.9
Karnataka 1,91,791 51,784 27.0 21,097 11.0 17,261 9.0 3,836 2.0 0 0.0 93,978 49.0
Kerala 38,863 3,968 10.2 1,007 2.6 917 2.4 35 0.1 0 0.0 5,927 15.3
Madhya
3,08,641 39,876 12.9 29,413 9.5 58,426 18.9 28,734 9.3 26,420 8.6 1,82,869 59.2
Pradesh
Maharashtra 3,07,713 30,064 9.8 17,663 5.7 25,202 8.2 15,078 4.9 17,263 5.6 1,05,270 34.2
Manipur 22,327 3,405 15.3 2,552 11.4 5,941 26.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 11,898 53.3
Meghalaya 22,429 3,315 14.8 2,290 10.2 5,888 26.3 3,109 13.9 2,871 12.8 17,473 77.9
Nagaland 16,579 678 4.1 630 3.8 2,646 16.0 4,722 28.5 5,793 34.9 14,469 87.3
Odisha 1,55,707 16,007 10.3 10,417 6.7 14,854 9.5 6,571 4.2 1,619 1.0 49,468 31.8
Punjab 50,362 1,269 2.5 453 0.9 901 1.8 745 1.5 0 0.0 3,368 6.7
Rajasthan 3,42,239 26,250 7.7 15,811 4.6 27,790 8.1 13,347 3.9 6,571 1.9 89,769 26.2
Sikkim 7,096 64 0.9 84 1.2 555 7.8 776 10.9 1,137 16.0 2,616 36.9
Tamil Nadu 1,30,058 14,020 10.8 6,048 4.7 5,397 4.1 195 0.1 0 0.0 25,660 19.7
Tripura 10,486 745 7.1 734 7.0 682 6.5 902 8.6 965 9.2 4,028 38.4
Uttar Pradesh 2,38,568 66,480 27.9 23,984 10.1 19,910 8.3 32,397 13.6 0 0.0 1,42,771 59.8
Uttarakhand 55,845 4,114 7.4 3,757 6.7 4,931 8.8 18,267 32.7 0 0.0 31,069 55.6
West Bengal 88,752 10,553 11.9 3,763 4.2 3,257 3.7 346 0.4 0 0.0 17,919 20.2
Total 32,22,922 3,65,118 11.3 2,09,998 6.5 3,22,759 10.0 2,32,401 7.2 1,29,634 4.0 12,59,910 39.1
Notes: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Goa, and Mizoram not evaluated; ha: hectare.
Source: Degraded and Wastelands of India—Status and Spatial Distribution, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research and National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, June 2010, website (http://www.icar.org.in/
files/Degraded-and-Wastelands.pdf, accessed on 7 February 2013).
7.5 DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is a phenomenon that ranks among the greatest environmental
challenges of our time. The common leading cause of desertification is
urbanization, overdraft of groundwater, unsustainable farming, mining,
deforestation, overgrazing, natural disasters, climate change and tillage practices
in agriculture that place soils more vulnerable to the wind. Desertification is the
form of soil degradation occurring in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas of
the world. It includes 40% of the earth’s surface and hits 1 billion people tilling
the land for survival (Anon 1999).
7.5.1 Definition of Desertification

According to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
it is defined as “land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid
areas resulting from several factors, including climatic variations and human
146 activities”. Land degradation is, in turn, defined as the decline or loss of
drylands’ biological or economic productivity. Soil Pollution, Land
Degradation and
According to UNESCO, one-third of the world’s land surface is threatened by Desertification
desertification. Across the world, it affects the livelihood of millions of people
who depend on the benefits of ecosystems that drylands provide. Thus, it is a
major environmental concern and an important barrier to meeting basic human
needs in drylands and is being invariably threatened by increases in human
pressures and climatic variability.
According to Wikipedia: “Desertification is a kind of land degradation in
which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically losing
its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of
factors such as climate change and human activities. As a result, desertification
is a significant global ecological and environmental problem.”
7.5.2 Causes of Desertification
1. Overgrazing: Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are
starting to become desert biomes. If there are too many animals that are
overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for the plants to grow
back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.
2. Deforestation: When people are looking to move into an area or need
trees to make houses and do other tasks, they contribute to desertification
problems. Without the plants (especially the trees) around, the rest of the
biome cannot thrive.
3. Farming Practices: Some farmers do not know how to use the land
efficiently. They may essentially strip the land of everything before
moving on to another plot of land. By stripping the soil of its nutrients,
desertification becomes more and more of a reality for the area used for
farming.
4. Urbanization and other types of land development: As areas become
more urbanized, there are fewer places for plants to grow, thus causing
desertification.
5. Climate Change: Climate change plays a considerable role in
desertification. With warmer days and more frequent periods of drought,
desertification becomes more imminent. Unless climate change is slowed
down, vast land areas will become a desert; some of those areas may even
become uninhabitable as time goes on.
6. Stripping the land of resources: If an area of land has natural resources like
natural gas, oil, or minerals, people will come in and mine it or take it out.
This usually strips the soil of nutrients, which kills the plant life, which
starts becoming a desert biome as time goes on.
7. Natural Disasters: There are some cases where the land gets damaged
because of natural disasters, including drought. In those cases, there isn’t
a lot that people can do except work to try and help rehabilitate the land
after nature has already damaged it.
147
Land And Soil Issues 7.5.3 Impacts of Desertification
Farming becomes next to impossible. If an area becomes a desert, then it is almost
impossible to grow substantial crops there without particular technologies. This
can cost more money to try and do, so many farmers will have to sell their land
and leave the desert areas.
1. Hunger: Without farms in these regions, the food that those farms produce
will become much scarcer, and the people who live in those local areas
will be a lot more likely to try and deal with hunger problems. Animals
will also go hungry, which will cause even more of a food shortage.
2. Flooding: Without plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more imminent.
Not all deserts are dry; those wet could experience more flooding because
there is nothing to stop the water from gathering and going all over the
place. Flooding can also negatively affect the water supply.
3. Poor Water Quality: If an area becomes a desert, the water quality will
become a lot worse than it would have been otherwise. This is because
plant life plays a significant role in keeping the water clean and clear;
without its presence.
4. Overpopulation: When areas become desert, animals, and people will
go to other regions to thrive. This causes crowding and overpopulation,
which will, in the long run, end up continuing the cycle of desertification.
5. Poverty: All of the issues that we have talked about above (related to the
problem of desertification) can lead to poverty if it is not kept in check.
Without food and water, it becomes harder for people to thrive, and they
take much time to try and get the things they need.
Desertification, climate change, and biodiversity loss were identified as the

most significant challenges to sustainable development during the 1992 Rio
Earth Summit. Established in 1994, the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) is the sole legally binding international agreement
linking environment and development to sustainable land management.
Parties to the Convention work together to maintain and restore land and soil
productivity and mitigate the effects of drought in drylands. However, some of
the most vulnerable ecosystems and peoples can be found in these arid, semi-
arid and dry sub-humid areas.
7.5.4 Solutions to Combat Desertification
1. Policy Changes Related to How People can Farm: Policy changes
related to how often people can farm and how much they can farm in
particular areas could be put into place to help reduce the problems
associated with farming and desertification.
2. Policy Changes to Other Types of Land Use. If people are using the
land to get natural resources or they are developing it for people to live
on, then the policies that govern them should be ones that will help the
land to thrive instead of allowing them to harm the land further. The
policy changes could be sweeping, or they could be depending on the
type of land use at hand.
148
3. Education: In developing countries, education is an essential tool that
Degradation and
needs to be utilized to help people understand the best way to use the land
Desertification
they are farming on. By educating them on sustainable practices, more
land will be saved from becoming a desert.
4. Technology Advances: In some cases, it is challenging to try and prevent
desertification from happening. In those cases, there needs to be research
and advancements in technology that push the limits of what we currently
know. Advances could help us find more ways to prevent the issue from
becoming an epidemic.
5. Rehabilitation Efforts: There are some ways that we can go back and
rehabilitate the land that we have already pushed into desertification; it
just takes some investment of time and money. Putting these together can
prevent the issue from becoming even more widespread in areas already
being affected.
6. Sustainable practices to avoid desertification from happening: There
are plenty of sustainable practices that can be applied to those acts that
may be causing desertification. By adding these to what we should be
doing with the land, we can ensure that we do not turn the entire world
into a desert.
Facts and Figures

•• 2.6 billion people depend directly on agriculture, but 52% of the land used
for agriculture is moderately or severely affected by soil degradation.
•• Land degradation affects 1.5 billion people globally.
•• Arable land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical rate.
•• Due to drought and desertification, 12 million hectares are lost (23 hectares/
minute!), where 20 million tons of grain could have been grown.
•• 74% of the poor (42% of the very and 32% of the moderately poor) are
•• directly affected by land degradation globally.
Source: UNCCD Brochure

1. Explain the causes of soil pollution.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………………………………
………………………………………….……………………………........
2. Explain the impacts of land degradation.
………………………………………………………………… 149
Land And Soil Issues …………….…………………………………………………
……………………………………….………………………
………………………………………………………………
….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….…………………………………
……………………………………….………………………………
3. Explain the impacts of desertification.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
7.6 LET US SUM UP

India has a significant land degradation problem. It is a complex and grave
issue arising from various factors like deforestation, unsustainable fuelwood,
overgrazing, shifting cultivation, encroachment of forest land, forest fires, etc.
The degradation is aggravated by natural hazards, inadequate soil conservation
measures, improper crop rotation and excessive groundwater extraction.
Desertification is a global issue, with grave consequences worldwide for eco-
safety, biodiversity, poverty eradication, socio-economic stability and sustainable
development. Drylands are already fragile. As they become degraded, the impact
on people, livestock and the environment can be devastating. The increased
frequency and severity of droughts resulting from projected climate change
are likely to exacerbate desertification further. Depending on soil properties
and the degree of degradation, adverse effects of erosion on crop yields can
be mainly compensated for by additional inputs of macronutrients (N, P, K)
and micronutrients plus organic matter, by supplemental applications of some
micronutrients and by irrigation. The degraded soils can be managed through
proper engineering of machines used and appropriate conservation measures
for soil management. There is a need for the spatial distribution of problem soil
through innovative techniques like remote sensing and GIS, which can act as
a platform for policymakers to manage degraded land. People’s consciousness
and public-private cooperation need to be emphasized to combat the degradation
problem.
7.7 KEY WORDS

Land Degradation: Land degradation is defined as a human-induced or natural
process that adversely affects the soil to function effectively.

ENCES
•• Ayyappan, S. and NASC, D., 2014. Family Farms: Farm, Feed &
Flourish. Presidential Address on the Foundation.
•• Bhattacharyya, R., Ghosh, B.N., Mishra, P.K., Mandal, B., Rao, C.S.,
150 Sarkar, D., Das, K., Anil, K.S., Lalitha, M., Hati, K.M. and Franzluebbers,
A.J., 2015. Soil degradation in India: Challenges and potential Soil Pollution, Land
solutions. Sustainability, 7(4), pp.3528-3570. Degradation and
Desertification
•• Conliffe, A., 2011. Combating ineffectiveness: climate change band wagons
and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. Global Environmental
Politics, 11(3), pp.44-63.
•• Degradation and wastelands map of India. Source: ICAR and NAAS, 2010.
Desertification affects a quarter of India’s land - India News (indiatoday. in)
•• Eswaran, H., Lal, R. and Reich, P.F., 2019. Land degradation: an
overview. Response to land degradation, pp.20-35.
•• Gabathuler, E., Hauert, C. and Giger, M., 2009. Benefits of sustainable land
management.
•• ICAR, 2010. Degraded and Wastelands of India—Status and Spatial
Distribution, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and National Academy
of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi, June 2010, website (http://www.icar.
org.in/files/Degraded-and-Wastelands.pdf, accessed on 7 February 2013).
•• Manchanda, M.L., Kudrat, M. and Tiwari, A.K., 2002. Soil survey and
mapping using remote sensing. Tropical Ecology, 43(1), pp.61-74.
•• Mandal, D.K., Mandal, C., Prasad, J. and Bhattacharyya, T., 2019. Acid
soils in agro-ecological sub-regions of India: a revisit. Indian Journal of
Fertilizers, 15(10), pp.1156-1166.
•• Subramanian, V. and Ramanathan, A.L., 1996. Nature of sediment load in
the Ganges-Brahmaputra River systems in India. In Sea-Level Rise and
Coastal Subsidence (pp. 151-168). Springer, Dordrecht.
•• Thakkar, H. and Bhattacharya, S., 2006. Revealing results, a wake-up
call. Dams, Rivers and People, 4(7-8).

151
UNIT 8 WASTE MANAGEMENT
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Waste Generation
8.3.1 Scenario
8.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
8.4 Interlinkages between Waste generation and Climate Change
8.5 Waste Management Strategies for Climate Change Mitigation
8.6 Technologies for GHG Reduction
8.6.1 Composting
8.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
8.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment
8.6.4 Incineration
8.6.5 Pyrolysis
8.6.6 Gasification
8.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuels
8.6.8 Engineered Landfill
8.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
8.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies
8.7 Waste Hierarchy
8.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
8.7.2 Resource Recovery
8.7.3 Disposal
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Key Words
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Accelerated urbanization, unprecedented population growth, growing incomes
and changing consumption patterns have resulted in a vast increase in the
amount of solid waste generated worldwide. According to a World Bank Report
by 2025, the world’s urban areas are projected to produce 2.2 billion tonnes of
waste every year which is almost twice the amount (1.3 billion tonnes) produced
in the year 2012. It is estimated that waste is responsible for up to five per
cent of global greenhouse emissions, as the methane emissions that come from
waste is an especially potent greenhouse gas. As waste production from cities is
set to almost double by 2020 better waste management is essential to meet the
Paris Climate Agreement goals. Cutting waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse is the fifth target of the 2030 Sustainable
Development Goal 12. Greenhouse gases mitigation measures in the waste
management sector would reduce global average temperature increases by 0.5
degrees centigrade over the next 50 years.
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include landfill Waste Management
methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and to a lesser
extent, carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies adopted till now by
many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a scope to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions from the waste management sector. Waste management thus
occupies a unique position as a potential reducer of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and climate change mitigation. Keeping all this in view, the present
unit endeavours to provide an overview of inter-linkages between waste
management and climate change and discuss briefly various technologies for
mitigation of greenhouse gases from the waste sector.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
•• assess the status and trends in the waste sector and the associated problems;
•• assess waste management strategies for climate change mitigation;
•• discuss various technologies options for greenhouse gas mitigation; and
•• explain the role of waste hierarchy in waste management.
8.3 WASTE GENERATION

8.3.1. Scenario
The ever-rising population, along with rapid urbanization and industrialization,
economic development, increased trade, increased consumption of goods,
changes in lifestyle, use and throw culture and increasing wealth of the rising
middle class, directly affects the amount of waste generated. As far as urbanization
is concerned, the 21st century will be the century of the cities. The urban
population of the world has grown rapidly. According to UN data, it is expected
to increase up to 9.7 billion by 2050, with nearly 90 per cent of the increase
taking place in the urban areas. According to a recent World Bank report (Waste
2.0, 2018), the World generates 2.01 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste
annually, with at least 33 per cent of that not managed in an environmentally
safe manner. Worldwide, waste generated per person per day averages 0.74
kilograms but ranges widely, from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Though high-income
countries only account for 16 per cent of the world’s population, they generate
about 34 per cent, or 683 million tonnes, of the world’s waste. Global waste is
expected to grow to 3.40 billion tonnes by 2050.
According to the International Energy Agency, waste generation rates will more
than double over the next twenty years in lower-income countries. Irrespective
of the accuracy of these forecasts, these enormous waste volumes will pose
a tremendous challenge to many local urban authorities which are already
struggling to manage the waste quantities of today. To date, about 70% of MSW
still ends up in landfills or uncontrolled dumpsites, which often contaminate 153
Land And Soil Issues surface water, groundwater or soil and emit greenhouse gases. Waste disposal
close to coastlines and along rivers pose a risk for land-based marine littering.
Although good examples of the management of sanitary landfills (SLFs) with
substantially reduced negative environmental impacts exist, the search for new
SLF sites is often accompanied by public protests. Moreover, space for new sites
is rarely available near metropolitan areas or urban centres due to land scarcity,
conflicting land use, and rapidly increasing land prices. Proper treatment and
disposal of waste remain highly challenging and often overwhelming for many
municipalities. Segregation at the source, collection, transportation, treatment
and proper disposal of MSW has become a very serious concern in many
developing countries. However, despite good progress in the past decades in
the recycling of materials such as paper, metal, glass or plastic, the current
recycling levels are still insufficient.
Now as far as Indian statistics are concerned according to CPCB, 2016, the
generation of MSW in India is 0.136 million tonnes per day, out of these 0.111
million tonnes per day are collected, 0.026 million tonnes per day are treated
and 0.073 million tonnes per day is landfilled. This shows that only 75-80% of
the municipal waste gets collected and only 22-28% of this waste is processed
and treated. The per capita waste generation rate in Indian cities ranges from 0.2
to 0.87 Kg/day. The quantity of waste depends on various aspects for example
living standards, food habits, commercial activity and population.
8.3.2 Problems Associated with Waste
Most wastes that are generated, find their way into land and water bodies
without proper treatment, causing severe water pollution. They also emit
greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide and add to air pollution.
Any organic waste from urban and rural areas and industries is a resource due
to its ability to get degraded, resulting in energy generation. Solid waste has a
direct impact on the health of the community. If the solid waste is burned out in
the open, it produces uncontrolled emissions of pollutants in the air and ruins
the land, making it barren for a long time. More importantly, the emissions lead
to various respiratory issues. If it is left out in the open, it becomes a breeding
ground for various diseases, like cholera, dengue, malaria, etc. If it is dumped
in an unsustainable manner, it can cause problems for the settlements near the
dumpsites as well as for the rag pickers. Moreover, unsustainable dumping can
pollute waterways or block wastewater streams leading to the spread of diseases.
Open dumpsites are a major problem. They cause public health issues as well
as environmental ones. The production of methane in such dumpsites makes it
a source of greenhouse gas (GHG). Methane causes fires and explosions and
is a major contributor to global warming. There are also problems associated
with odour and migration of leachates to receiving waters. Odour is a serious
problem, particularly during the summer when average temperatures in India
can exceed 45°C. If the dumpsite is near a water body, it makes the water body
prone to pollution too.
Solid wastes generated by domestic, commercial and industrial activities are

often indiscriminately disposed of. Unscientific management of such wastes
154
leads to serious environmental problems. The problems are already acute in Waste Management
cities and towns, as the disposal facilities are not keeping pace with the quantum
of waste being generated. It is very common to find large heaps of garbage in
a disorganized manner at every nook and corner of the cities. The unsanitary
method being adopted for the disposal of solid wastes is a serious health concern.
Particularly, during the rainy season, run-off and high humid conditions increase
the health hazards. The landfill sites, which are not well maintained, are prone
to groundwater contamination due to leachate percolation. Open dumping of
garbage serves as a breeding ground for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes,
cockroaches, rats and other pests. High risks of spreading diseases like typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, yellow fever, encephalitis, plague and dengue fever may not
be ruled out.
There are three major steps involved in the management of garbage viz.
collection, transportation and disposal (CTD). The modern society produces a
massive amount of waste daily of which a large part is hazardous and cannot
be disposed of using conventional treatment. Big projects are a nightmare and
more prone to failure. Government should try to create favourable policies for
the establishment of decentralised solid waste disposal plants. No “one solution”
or technology meets all needs. Some useful equipment using clean technology
to ensure the elimination of waste without atmospheric pollution and respecting
emission standards should be invented. Improper waste management would
negatively impact public health. Incidences of infections and diseases would
increase due to poor waste management. As regards our country, the challenges
about waste generation, collection and management are many, as it is projected
that increasing population in particular urban populations would increase waste
generation. Further, solid waste management is considered a major problem for
many urban local bodies in our country. Reducing waste volume is the most
effective and sustainable action but we are not doing this. Recycling is vital but
not everything can be recycled. There will always be residual waste items that
need to be managed after recycling has been optimized.
8.4 INTERLINKAGES BETWEEN WASTE GEN-

ERATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE
It is reported that waste disposal and treatment can emit greenhouse gases.
Among the sources of greenhouse gases from waste treatment include landfill
methane, followed by wastewater methane and nitrous oxide and to a lesser
extent, carbon dioxide. The waste management technologies adopted till now by
many countries are efficient. Nevertheless, there is a scope to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions from the waste management sector. The IPCC estimates that
solid waste management accounted for around 3% of global greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions in 2010, with most of that attributable to methane emissions
from landfill sites. Methane is released due to organic matter decomposition in
landfills. So the landfill gas is released due to microbial mediated organic matter
breakdown. Optimum environmental conditions within the landfill ecosystem 155
Land And Soil Issues result in increased microbial activity and consequent increase in landfill gas.
Methane is generated in landfills by the anaerobic biodegradation of organic
matter (food and municipal wastes, paper, wood, organic textiles, leather, etc.).
The maximum amount of methane generated during anaerobic decomposition
can be determined from the structural formula presented below:
C6H10O4 + 1.5H2O = 3.25CH4 + 2.75CO2
According to this chemical equation, the biogas generated in a landfill should
consist of ~54% methane and 46% carbon dioxide. For nearly one billion
tons of MSW landfilled, the annual generation of methane is 50 million tons.
However, some modern landfills are equipped for capturing some of the
generated methane. Therefore, the fugitive emissions of methane in landfill gas
have been estimated at 45 million tons, which is 4% of the anthropogenic GHG
emissions. This contribution is expected to increase because as estimated that
the global rate of MSW generation will increase based on projected population
growth and energy use per capita.
Minor sources of GHG from the waste sector at the global scale include
combustion of waste and biological treatment. Uncontrolled burning of waste
largely continues to be practised in developing regions, causing the release of
CO2. Controlled burning, in waste incinerators, also generates CO2 emissions.
Where incinerators generate energy, they also contribute to total GHG emissions.
Aerobic composting processes directly emit varying levels of methane and
nitrous oxide, depending on how the process is managed in practice.
8.5 WASTE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR

CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
Waste management provides immense opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions and towards this end, many environmentally friendly technologies
are developed which in addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions aid in
delivering a sustainable living environment. These technologies can directly
reduce GHG emissions through
•• landfill gas recovery;
•• improved landfill practices;
•• controlled composting of organic waste;
•• state-of-the-art incineration;
•• expanded sanitation coverage; and
•• complementary measures (increased recycling, decreased landfilling, use of
alternative waste-management technologies).
Further, waste reduction, recycling, and reuse have huge potential to reduce
GHG emissions through increased resource use efficiency and conservation
of raw materials. In developing countries, landfill methane emissions are
increasing due to anaerobic landfilling practices. Steps like engineered landfill
gas recovery and advanced waste management strategies would greatly
156
reduce GHG emissions from landfills. Further, state-of-the-art incineration and Waste Management
industrial co-combustion provide additional benefits. Additionally, thermal
processes combined with improved emission controls are gaining importance.
Nevertheless, the cost is an important barrier in the thermal process technology.
The reduction of GHG emissions from waste must be looked at through the
lens of integrated waste management. In this regard, Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) is an important tool to gauge the impacts of waste management
technologies. Decision support tools including LCA provide opportunities to
adopt mitigation strategies that are cost-effective and sustainable in the long
run. While landfill methane recovery and improved wastewater treatment
technologies decrease GHG emissions directly, controlled aerobic composting
and thermal processes (incineration for waste-to-energy) have the potential to
minimise the GHG generation markedly. All said, waste prevention, reduction,
recycling and recovery of material, and re-use exhibit an increasing prospects
for GHG emissions reduction indirectly through reduced consumption and
waste generation; decreased energy demand, etc. Hence waste management has
huge potential for carbon emission reduction, and it should form an important
component of climate change mitigation strategy.
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are the main problems associated with waste?
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2. How waste is responsible for climate change?
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8.6 TECHNOLOGIES FOR GHG REDUCTION

8.6.1 Composting
Composting is a microbial mediated aerobic process of decomposition and
stabilization of the organic matter present in the solid waste. It is gaining
importance as a centralized waste management method due to its benefits in
the form of reduction in waste volume and generation of useful value-added
products. Composting is practised either at the household level or municipality
level. Composting creates benefits as it is not generating methane, and also
157
Land And Soil Issues reduces the environmental burden. Further, it also meets four major objectives
of waste management such as: “to reduce the volume of waste, to stabilize
waste, to sterilize waste, and to produce a valuable product from the waste”.
The end product of composting is rich in excessive nutrients called humus or
compost. This compost solid product is used to fertilize crops and combustible
gas, a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane called biogas is used to produce
heat and/or electric energy.
Composting process enables the decomposition of organic matter in the
presence of oxygen, resulting in the reduction of volume and mass of the waste.
Being an exothermic process, the heat generated increases the temperature of
the compost which aids in the destruction of pathogens and weed seeds. It is
important to note that composting process demands the biogenic fractions of
waste. Further, the separation of waste into biogenic and non-biogenic fractions
has a beneficial impact on composting process. Concern about methane release
from landfills has resulted in increased interest in composting as a waste
management strategy.
8.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is yet another bacterial driven process, occurring in
the absence of oxygen. Microbial communities decompose the waste and
release carbon dioxide and methane through processes such as “hydrolysis”,
“acidogenesis” and “methanogenesis”. The product of anaerobic digestion is
biogas which contains about 55-65 per cent of methane and is used as a renewable
fuel. Nevertheless, the anaerobic digestion process depends on environmental
factors like pH, temperature, moisture; and feedstock characteristics like carbon
to nitrogen ratio, and nitrogen content. Anaerobic digestion of waste offers a
wide range of benefits viz. reduction of waste volume, nutrient recovery, and
use of effluent as compost/fertilizer. Further, through this method of waste
management, even wet waste can be treated. Energy production is indeed an
extremely important benefit. The natural gas so produced can be used to power
the digester, for home use, and can be sold in the market as well. Currently
in India, many biomethanation plants are working to generate energy from
vegetable and food waste.
8.6.3 Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT)
The mixed wastes are treated through mechanical operations and biological
methods to reduce the volume of the wastes. The mechanical operations such
as sorting, shredding and crushing result in waste fractions that can be either
recycled or treated with biological methods. Mechanical biological treatment
(MBT) of waste is a widely implemented method of waste management. The
biological methods in waste management mainly include aerobic composting,
anaerobic digestion, etc. Through MBT, a reduction of even 40–60% of the
organic carbon present originally in the waste are possible.
8.6.4 Incineration
158 One of the most common waste treatment technologies is incineration, in
which waste mass is reduced by 70% and waste volume is reduced up to 90%. Waste Management
Incineration is suitable for high calorific value wastes. Incineration is the
controlled burning of waste at a high temperature. The whole process is carried
out in three phases i.e. incineration, energy recovery and control of air pollution.
In the first phase (incineration process), waste is directly burned at 700-1000oC
in the combustion chamber by using flue gas and preheated air. Ultra-hot steam
is produced after the combustion of waste and this steam is used to create heat
energy. The turbine is connected to a generator which produces energy, heat and
bottom ash. Bottom ash primarily contains silicon, iron, calcium, aluminium,
sodium and potassium. Wastes like municipal solid waste, and refuse-derived
fuel (RDF) are burned in the incinerator. The advantage of waste incineration
includes but is not limited to volume reduction of waste; destruction of harmful
organisms; production of electricity and heat.
8.6.5 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermal waste method, that uses heat at 300-800oC to break
down organic constituents in the anaerobic environment. It produces synthetic
gases also known as syngas (methane, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen
and carbon mono-oxide), liquids and solids residues. The produced syngas can
be utilized in different energy applications such as engines, boilers, turbines, and
heat pumps. Small temperature pyrolysis can also be used to generate synthetic
diesel fuel from plastic waste.
8.6.6 Gasification
The gasification process contains partial combustion of waste to generate energy.
This is accomplished by providing a high temperature (>700oC) with a limited
amount of air (i.e. partial combustion). The final product of the gasification
process is char, tar and syngas. Syngas is energy-rich content and cleans through
a gas turbine or engine to produce energy and heat. This process can reduce
about 70% mass and 90% volume of waste.
8.6.7 Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
RDF technology stipulates safe and eco-friendly disposal of MSW. It is an
alternating fuel that can be used in boilers in place of fossil fuels. Processing
can include separation of recyclables and non-combustible materials, shredding,
size reduction, and pelletizing. RDF pellets are frequently used for pulp, paper
industry, wood industry waste and saw-mill industry
8.6.8 Engineered Landfills

An engineered landfill presents an opportunity for proper waste management
that allows resource recovery from waste. However, for this to be achieved
several technical parameters must be considered when designing a sanitary
landfill. These technical parameters include proper site selection with minimal
environmental and hydrological negative impacts and selection of a liner network
that will not allow the leachate to infiltrate into the ground. Furthermore, there
is a need to have an integrated network for monitoring the movement of the 159
Land And Soil Issues waste as well as the quality of the leachate. Anaerobic bacteria in the landfill
break down the organic waste in the absence of oxygen because the landfill
is airtight. Anaerobic breakdown results in biogas production, which contains
approximately 70% methane and 25% carbon dioxide with trace amounts of
nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen sulphide. The biogas composition varies from
the landfill site to landfill site and is dependent on the waste types. The biogas
can be removed via a collection network and to attain this, a chain of pipes is
fixed within the landfill to harness the biogas.
8.6.9 Biofuel and Biodiesel Production
New technologies are on the anvil, to convert solid waste into biofuel. The
technology to transform solid waste particularly municipal waste management
into biofuel (ethanol) is technically possible. Improvements in technology in
terms of technical aspects, and economic aspects would provide an impetus for
biofuel production from waste.
8.6.10 Waste to Energy Technologies
“Waste to Energy” is a comprehensive term, which refers to a series of
technologies that transform/convert a waste, particularly a non-recyclable
portion of waste into energy (heat, fuels, electricity). Waste to Energy involves
processes like “incineration”, “gasification”, “pyrolysis”, “anaerobic digestion”,
and “landfill gas recovery”. The feedstocks to waste to energy technologies
include but are not limited to “municipal solid waste” (MSW); “construction
and demolition (C&D) debris”; “agricultural waste”; and “industrial waste”.
Aided by Kyoto mechanisms such as the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI), as well as other measures to increase
worldwide rates of landfill CH4 recovery, the total global economic mitigation
potential for reducing landfill CH4 emissions in 2030 is estimated to be >1000
MtCO2-eq (or 70% of estimated emissions) for waste-to-energy.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is actively promoting all the
technology options available for energy recovery from urban and industrial
wastes. MNRE is also promoting the research on waste to energy by providing
financial support for R&D projects on a cost-sharing basis following the R&D
Policy of the MNRE. In addition to that, MNRE also provides financial support
for projects involving applied R&D and studies on resource assessment,
technology up-gradation and performance evaluation.
1. What are the biological methods for waste management?
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160 ………………………………………………….………………………
2. Discuss non-biogenic methods of waste management. Waste Management
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8.7 WASTE HIERARCHY

The waste hierarchy is a tool to reckon with, as they aid in creating and organizing
waste management scenarios, which are subsequently analysed to provide
inputs to decision-makers. International Solid Waste Association (ISWA 2009):
“the waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political prioritisation tool
which can assist in developing waste management strategies aimed at limiting
resource consumption and protecting the environment”. In effect, as regards the
waste management, priority is provided to “minimization of waste”, “re-use”,
“recycling”, “waste-to-energy”, and “landfill”. The waste hierarchy is a set of
priorities for the efficient use of resources.
8.7.1 Avoiding and Reducing the Generation of Waste
Waste prevention and reduction are provided top priority in the waste hierarchy.
This is important as it greatly reduces the demand for raw materials. Emissions
from fossil fuel use are lessened due to the reduction in transportation of raw
materials. Waste prevention is perhaps a critical step in waste management as it
has huge potential to mitigate greenhouse gases emissions. Avoidance includes
action to reduce the amount of waste generated by households, industry and all
levels of government. The highest priority encourages the community, industry
and government to reduce the number of virgin materials extracted and used.
The goal is to maximise efficiency and avoid unnecessary consumption through
behaviours such as selecting items with the least packaging or that require the
fewest resources to produce avoiding disposable goods or single-use materials
buying products that are recycled, recyclable, repairable, refillable, re-usable or
biodegradable using leftover food rather than throwing it away.
8.7.2 Resource Recovery
The second priority, resource recovery, maximises options for re-use, recycling,
reprocessing and energy recovery. Where avoiding and reducing waste is not
possible, the next most preferred option is to re-use the materials without
further processing, avoiding the costs of energy and other resources required for
recycling. For example, many household and industrial items can be repaired,
reused, sold or donated to charities. Re-use (without further processing) and
recycling (processing waste materials to make the same or different products)
keep materials in the productive economy and benefit the environment by
decreasing the need for new materials and waste absorption. Where further
recycling is not feasible, it may be possible to recover the energy from the
161
Land And Soil Issues material and feed that back into the economy where this is acceptable to the
community.
Recycling is yet another step in waste management and it is very crucial for
climate change management. For instance, recycling materials in addition to
saving energy, reduce resource consumption. Further, a series of biological
treatment technologies are available for converting organic wastes into valuable
organic soil amendments. These soil conditioners aid in sequestering carbon
and subsequently improve the biological properties of soil.
8.7.3 Disposal
Some materials may be inappropriate to re-use, recycle or recover for energy and
instead require treatment to stabilise them and minimize their environmental or
health impacts. It includes the management of all disposal options in the most
environmentally responsible manner.
Goal Attribute Outcomes

Reduce
Preventative
Predominantly ameliorative, partly
Reuse Most desired
preventative
Predominantly ameliorative, partly
Recycle
preventative
Predominantly assimilative, partly Least desired
Treatment
ameliorative
Disposal Assimilative
Table 8.1: The Waste Hierarchy
1. What is waste hierarchy? Give various goals of waste hierarchy in climate
change mitigation.
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8.8 LET US SUM UP

Irrespective of countries, growing population and associated developments such
as urbanization, and industrialization contribute largely to waste generation.
Waste management is a critical issue for urban planners and environmental
engineers. It is also a challenge for urban local bodies to collect, recycle,
reuse, and disposal of waste products. In addition, public health issues related
162
to waste management are critical particularly in over-populated developing Waste Management
countries. Nevertheless, effective and advanced waste management techniques
provide opportunities in terms of environmental benefits and greenhouse gases
emission reduction. Integrated waste management strategies must be adopted
to cut down the emissions from waste processing and treatment. The solution
for greenhouse gases mitigation in the waste management domain include
prevention, recycling, reuse of waste; biological treatment coupled with energy
recovery and production of valuable by-products; and adoption of engineered
and improved landfilling practices. In effect, the hallmark of waste management
includes waste prevention, waste minimization, recycling and reuse of wastes.
In this unit, we have learnt about the status of the waste sector and associated
problems; inter-linkages between waste generation and climate change; waste
management strategies for climate change mitigation; and various technologies
options for greenhouse gas mitigation.
8.9 KEY WORDS

Municipal Waste
Waste originates from, households, commerce and trade, small businesses,
office buildings and institutions (schools, hospitals, government buildings).
Hazardous Waste
Categories of waste are to be controlled according to the Basel Convention on
the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and its disposal.
Recycling
Any reprocessing of waste material in a production process that diverts it from
the waste stream, except reuse as fuel.
Anaerobic digestion
A method of composting that does not require oxygen. This composting method
produces methane. Also known as anaerobic composting.
Composting
Biological decomposition of solid organic materials by bacteria, fungi, and
other organisms into a soil-like product.
Energy recovery
The process of extracting useful energy from waste, typically from the heat
produced by incineration or via methane gas from landfills.
Incineration
The process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions to reduce its
weight and volume, and often to produce energy.
Landfill gases
Gases arise from the decomposition of organic wastes; principally methane,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
Fuel produced from MSW has undergone processing. 163
ENCES
•• Bogner, J., M. Abdelrafie Ahmed, C. Diaz, A. Faaij, Q. Gao, S. Hashimoto,
K. Mareckova, R. Pipatti, T. Zhang, Waste Management, In Climate
Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B.
Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
•• IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:
Vol. 5 “Waste”, Chapter, IPCC/OECD/IEA, Paris, France.
•• IPCC (2013) Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M.Tignor, S.K. Allen, J.Boschung,
A.Nauels, Y.Xia, V.Bex and P.M.Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
•• IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E.
Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y .O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S.
Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P .R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, USA, 1132 pp.
•• IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-
Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum,
S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von
Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
•• IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution
of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K.
Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
•• Web Links
•• http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/
•• http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/
164
Waste Management
Check your progress 1
1. Your answer should include:
Health hazards, groundwater contamination due to leachate percolation, a
breeding ground for disease vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches,
rats and other pests, and high risks of spreading diseases like typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, yellow fever, encephalitis, plague and dengue fever,
etc.
2. The disposal and treatment of waste can produce emissions of several
greenhouse gases (GHGs), which contribute to global climate change. The
most significant GHG gas produced from waste is methane. It is released
during the breakdown of organic matter in landfills. Other forms of waste
disposal also produce GHGs but these are mainly in the form of carbon
dioxide (a less powerful GHG).
Your answer should include:
1. Biological methods include composting, anaerobic digestion, MBT, etc.
2. Non-biogenic methods include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, RDF,
etc.
Your answer should include:
1. The waste hierarchy is a valuable conceptual and political prioritisation
tool that can assist in developing waste management strategies aimed at
limiting resource consumption and protecting the environment. The goals
are to reduce, reuse, recycle, treat and disposal.
165
MEVE 019
ENVIRONMENTAL

Block
3
WATER-RELATED ISSUES
Unit 9
Eutrophication 169
Unit 10
Marine pollution 191
Unit 11
Inland Water Pollution 223
Unit 12
Arsenic and Fluoride Pollution 2449
BLOCK 3 WATER-RELATED ISSUES
Block 3 “Water-Related Issues” discusses issues like eutrophication, marine
pollution, inland water pollution and arsenic and fluoride pollution.
Unit 9 “Eutrophication” discusses the sources, causes, extent and intensity of
eutrophication; the mechanism and process of eutrophication and the ecological
impacts of eutrophication.
Unit 10 “Marine Pollution” deals with types of marine pollution; the sources, causes,
extent and intensity of marine pollution; the mechanism and process of marine
pollution and the ecological impacts of marine pollution.
Unit 11 “Inland Water Pollution” delves into the causes of inland water pollution;
the extent and intensity of inland water pollution and the mechanism and impacts of
inland water pollution.
Unit 12 “Arsenic and Fluoride Pollution” deals with the sources, status, impacts and
management of arsenic and fluoride pollution.
Objectives
After studying this block, you should be able to:
•• describe the mechanism and process of eutrophication;
•• explain the ecological impacts of eutrophication;
•• describe the mechanism and process of marine pollution;
•• explain the ecological impacts of marine pollution;
•• explain the extent and intensity of inland water pollution;
•• explain the mechanism and impacts of inland water pollution;
•• explain the sources of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• discuss the status of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• explain the impacts of arsenic and fluoride pollution and
•• explain the management of arsenic and fluoride pollution.
We hope that after studying this block you will acquire an understanding of water-
related environmental issues.

UNIT 9 EUTROPHICATION
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Eutrophication
9.4 Sources of Eutrophication
9.4.1 Urban and Industrial Sources
9.4.2 Agricultural Sources
9.4.3 Hydrocarbon Sources
9.5 Causes of Eutrophication
9.5.1 Primary Drivers of Eutrophication
9.5.1.1 Energy Consumption
9.5.1.2 Fertilizer Use
9.5.1.3 Land-use Conversion
9.5.2 Secondary Causes of Eutrophication
9.5.2.1 Population Increase
9.5.2.2 Economic Growth
9.5.2.3 Agricultural Intensification
9.6 Extent of Eutrophication
9.7 Intensity of Eutrophication
9.8 Mechanism and Process of Eutrophication
9.8.1 Natural Eutrophication
9.8.2 Anthropogenic Eutrophication
9.9 Ecological Impacts of Eutrophication
9.9.1 Changes in Algal population
9.9.2 Changes in Zooplankton and Fish population
9.11 Crisis Management
9.11.1 Public Information
9.11.2 Drinking Water
9.12 Let Us Sum Up
9.13 Key Words
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Eutrophication is considered one of the complex environmental problems in
water bodies like lakes, oceans and reservoirs. Large algal and plant growth
like algal blooms and water orchids may be seen in water bodies affected by
eutrophication. Their vigorous growth of them is due to the enrichment of
phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients required for the process of photosynthesis. As
a result, it often helps in the formation of extensive layers of unsettled or
Water-Related floating plants on the water body. These nutrients are added from animal
Issues excreta, fertilizers and wastewater from domestic and industrial effluents,
which come into the water bodies through surface run-off by rain or irrigation.
As lakes become old and get swelled with sediments also cause eutrophication
naturally. Phosphates and nitrates released into water bodies through point and
non-point sources as a result of indiscriminate human activities increase the rate
of eutrophication. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) defined the eutrophic process in the 70s as “Eutrophication is an
enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural changes to the
ecosystem such as increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion
of fish species, general deterioration of water quality and other effects that
reduce and preclude use”. Eutrophication is a serious environmental problem
since it degrades surface water quality and depletes oxygen in the water body
due to the bacterial decomposition of algae. A survey of the State of the World’s
Lakes demonstrates that World’s Lakes suffered from eutrophication are found
in 54% of lakes in Asia, 53% in Europe, 48% in America 41% in South America
and 28% lakes of in Africa. This unit emphasizes the sources, causes, extent and
intensity of eutrophication; the mechanism and process of eutrophication and
the ecological impacts of eutrophication.
9.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define eutrophication and its types;
•• describe the mechanism and process of eutrophication and
•• explain the ecological impacts of eutrophication.
9.3 EUTROPHICATION
The term ‘eutrophication’ comes from the Greek word ‘eutrophos,’ which
means well-fed or enriched. In context with the environment, eutrophication
can be defined as the addition of artificial or non-artificial substances such as
nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to a freshwater system
which leads to an increase in the primary productivity of phytoplankton.
Eutrophication enhances the method of growth of plants in a water body by
enriching them with nutrients. Eutrophication could be a serious environmental
concern leading to the deterioration of water quality and therefore the depletion
of dissolved O2 in water bodies. Eutrophic waters will become dead zones that
are unable to support life. Excessive content of nutrients in the eutrophic water
can cause severe problems like low dissolved oxygen in the water. Severe algal
growth decreases the light required for the growth of plants and in the process
of plant decay, the level of oxygen in the water is depleted causing serious
threats to the life of aquatic animals.
170 Many times, lakes are naturally eutrophic by nature. There is progressive
eutrophication in some instances as the lake gets old. There are different stages Eutrophication
during the eutrophication process. They are nutrient-poor oligotrophic stage,
nutrient-enriched mesotrophic stage and then nutrient saturated eutrophic stage.
The term eutrophication is more widely known in relation to human activities
where the artificial introduction of plant nutrients has led to community changes
and a deterioration of water quality in many freshwater systems. This aspect has
become increasingly important with increases in human population and more
extensive development of agriculture and eutrophication now ranks with other
major anthropogenic effects such as deforestation, global warming, depletion
of the ozone layer and large scale environmental disturbance in relation to its
potentially harmful effect on natural ecosystems.
9.4 SOURCES OF EUTROPHICATION

Human-induced eutrophication is a fast-growing ecological crisis for both
the freshwater as well as marine ecosystems at the global level. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are the main nutrients that are responsible for eutrophication as
these play a major role in critical biological processes in aquatic ecosystems. It
forms part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA. As such, phosphate
salts are used as fertilizers to aid plant growth. Living cells also use phosphate to
transport cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Increased
wastewater run-off containing these nutrients to aquatic ecosystems, induced
from various human activities results in increased biomass production in aquatic
bodies and distress the aquatic ecosystem’s natural balance, which further results
in hypoxic or dead zones formation of harmful algal blooms, and ultimately
results in collapse of the ecosystem. Selman et al. (2008) and Diaz and Rosenberg
(2008) identified more than 500 coastal areas as affected by eutrophication;
out of these, 405 have also been categorized as hypoxic. Phosphorus is mostly
the main agent for damage in freshwater systems, while nitrogen is generally
found responsible for the destruction of coastal systems. Nutrients can originate
from several different places. They might arise naturally in the watershed as
a result of soil erosion, or they can be added from the ocean. More nutrients
are entering our coastal waters as a result of wastewater treatment facilities,
surface runoff from metropolitan areas, and agricultural activities. Agriculture,
aquaculture, septic tanks, wastewater, stormwater run-off, industrial waste, and
burning of fossil fuels are some of the sources of nutrient pollution discharged
into freshwater and coastal areas.
Sources of eutrophication may be categorized as urban and industrial, agricultural

and fossil fuel sources based on their originating source.
9.4.1 Urban and Industrial Sources
In the urban system, municipal and industrial discharge nutrients to surface/
ground waters through a pipe or other discrete conveyance system and hence
called point sources. These sources of nutrients can be checked easily and are
often regulated in developed countries. Wastewater discharges from municipal
treatment plants and industrial effluents, nitrogen seepage from septic pits,
and surface water runoff are the primary sources of nutrient losses causing
eutrophication. Human excrement is the leading source of nutrient pollution.
171
This variation is because of divergence in treatment levels of sewage water
Water-Related among the countries. Leaching from septic tank systems of households of
Issues undesired nutrients to the groundwater system through soils adds nitrogen to
groundwater and surface water. Rainwater run-off is also an important source
of nutrients from habitat areas which carry nutrients from habitat areas and
agricultural fields into nearby rivers and streams. It results in the excess
discharge of untreated wastewater directly into nearby streams and rivers.
Industries and water transport systems are the larger contributors to industrial
nutrient pollution.
9.4.2 Agricultural Sources

Fertilizer percolation, run-off from crop fields, mulch from livestock activities,
and aquaculture are the biggest sources of agricultural nutrients. During the last
few decades, excess use of chemical fertilizers in the agricultural landscape
was observed. The excess uses of these nutrients add nitrogen and phosphorus
to surface water and groundwater through surface run-off and percolation,
respectively. “On an average, about 20 per cent of nitrogen fertilizer applied
is lost through surface run-off or leaching into the groundwater” (MA, 2005).
Nitrogen-based fertilizer and manure spread on farms are also subject to
dissolving in water and being lost to the atmosphere through evaporation.
(University of Delaware Cooperative Extension, 2009).
The rapid change in rearing livestock techniques has also been a reason for a
steep increase in nutrient flow over the last many years. The huge quantity of
manure and mulch produced by increased animal production is applied to land
as fertilizer in excessive quantity without keeping actual requirements by crop
leads to over-application of manure, further intensifying nutrient run-off and its
percolation.
Aquaculture is also one of the sources of nutrient pollution in the water bodies.
Annual aquaculture production worldwide is increasing day by day to meet the
demand that amounts to produce concentrated nitrogen and phosphorus organic
waste. These activities may lead to serious consequences on aquatic ecosystems
if managed improperly.
9.4.3 Hydrocarbon Sources
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are
indiscriminately burned. Nitrogen oxides help in bringing smog and acid rain
and are re-accumulated on land and water through the air, rain and snow. The
primary sources of nitrogen oxide are thermal power plants and emissions from
automobiles. “Approximately 22 teragrams of nitrogen pollution is contributed
every year from fossil fuel burning at global level, which is equivalent to
approximately one-fifth of the contribution of nitrogen-based fertilizers” (MA,
2005).
9.5 Causes of Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a complicated process occurring both in fresh as well as
marine waters due to nutrient enrichment of a water body, where excessive
development of certain types of algae disturbs the aquatic ecosystems, and
further due to oxygen depletion and toxin production becomes a threat to
172
animal and human health. The primary cause of eutrophication is an excessive Eutrophication
addition of plant nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus originating from
agriculture or sewage treatment. Eutrophication is characterized by the presence
of an ample number of plankton, algae, and water weeds, which cause water
quality impairments for domestic water supply such as tastes and odours. Due
to the growing population, there is a greater need for energy and food. Increased
losses of nutrients from urban, industrial, and agricultural sources as well as
from the combustion of hydrocarbons are a cause of concern. A complex web of
socio-economic factors that are interconnected induces the eutrophication rate.
Primary sources of eutrophication are higher energy consumption, increased
fertilizer consumption, and land-use change. As populations increase, growing
economic activities in developing countries are some of the secondary sources.
Complex and interrelated socio-economic reasons lead to an increase in

nutrient pollution further resulting in increased occurrences of eutrophication.
The causes of eutrophication may be broadly classified into indirect and direct
causes. Further, Indirect causes may be subcategorized into population growth;
economic growth in the developing world, and agriculture intensification.
Increased energy consumption, increased fertilizer consumption, and a change
in the land-use pattern are all primary drivers of eutrophication.
9.5.1 Primary Drivers of Eutrophication
9.5.1.1 Energy Consumption

There is always a need for more energy to meet the ever-increasing demands for
development due to population growth and expansion in economies. Between
1990 and 2005 the total worldwide energy consumption rose by 33 per cent.
Currently, coal, oil, and natural gas resources fulfil more than 86 per cent of
the world’s energy needs. The heavy dependence on fossil fuels is expected
to continue despite the availability of alternative energy sources like solar,
wind, and geothermal. As a consequence of pressure on fossil fuels, the nutrient
emissions will be more and this will be further added to eutrophication. Global
energy consumption is expected to increase by 50 per cent between 2005 and
2030, according to experts. “The majority of the increase in energy consumption
is expected to come from developing countries. It is expected that fossil fuels
will continue to meet 86 per cent of the world’s energy needs”.
9.5.1.2 Fertilizer Use
Increased agricultural production will be required to meet the food demands of a
growing population. FAO (2000) projects that fertilizer consumption will increase
by 40 per cent between 2002 and 2030. The projected increase in fertilizer use
for the same period is only 17 per cent if genetic engineering is used to improve
crop nutrient use efficiency. Growing food production and intensive agricultural
practices are expected to drive global fertilizer consumption upward, according
to projections.
9.5.1.3 Land-use Conversion
Due to the demand for more food and pressure on agricultural practices, land 173
Water-Related use has also shifted to cultivated land. Between 1995 and 2002, the global net
Issues increase in arable land was approximately 3 million hectares per year. Forests
account for more than 90% of the total cultivated land production (Holmgren,
2006). The change in agricultural land is the main reason for the decline and
invasion of wetlands. As per OECD/ IUCN report (1996), about 50% of the
world’s wetlands have disappeared due to the drainage system of agricultural
production since the 1950s. FAO (2002) predicts that the conversion of land
use to agriculture will continue at a slower pace. Forests and wetlands provide
ecosystem services for humans, and land is essential for the reuse of nutrients.
This helps increase nutrients in water bodies and ecosystems.
9.5.2 Secondary Causes of Eutrophication
9.5.2.1 Population Increase

The world’s population is expected to grow to one thousand million approximately
in 2050 as per the estimation of the United Nations Population Division. It is
expected that the developing world will continue to dominate world population
growth (UNPD, 2008). Our natural resources are under pressure as a result
of the increase in population. This demand will lead to increased agricultural
production and excessive combustion of fossil fuels for various domestic and
industrial purposes resulting in more waste generation and nutrient losses.
9.5.2.2 Economic Growth
It is projected that between 2002 and 2030, global per capita income will be
doubled, and the developing countries will have the greatest income growth.
There will be an expected annual increase of 2.2% in per capita income of
developing countries between 2002 and 2030. Increasing incomes will lead to
changes in diet consumption patterns and choices. As the purchasing power
of lower to middle-income populations is increasing worldwide, the dietary
tendency is shifting toward greater meat consumption (FAO, 2002).
It is necessary to increase livestock production to meet the growing global
demand for meat, which is expected to have significant ramifications for the
increase in nutrient pollution globally. About 10-20% of the nitrogen used in
piggery production is consumed by humans and the remaining 80% is excreted
as manure (UNEP and WHRC, 2007).
9.5.2.3 Agricultural Intensification
In the last seven decades, agricultural practices for growing food have
undergone significant changes. Crop yields increased significantly as a result
of the widespread use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides during the Green
Revolution. Intensification of agriculture activities was aided by the use of
chemicals and modern machinery. Intense farming practices have improved
food security and scale economies, but they have also resulted in unintended
environmental impacts, such as nutrient pollution, which are expected to
increase in the coming years.
174
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Eutrophication
1. Define Eutrophication.
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2. What do you understand by cultural eutrophication? How do excess nutrients
(fertilizers) affect water quality in lakes and rivers?
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9.6 EXTENT OF EUTROPHICATION
In the past 50 years, eutrophication has been identified as one of the leading
causes of water quality deterioration. It is identified that over 415 areas world-
wide are experiencing symptoms of eutrophication, highlighting the global scale
of the problem. Recent coastal surveys of the United States and Europe found
that a staggering 78 per cent of the assessed continental U.S. coastal area and
approximately 65 per cent of Europe’s Atlantic coast exhibit symptoms of eu-
trophication. In other regions, the lack of reliable data hinders the assessment of
coastal eutrophication. Nevertheless, trends in agricultural practices, energy use,
and population growth indicate that coastal eutrophication will be an ever-grow-
ing problem. This unit focuses on what is currently known about the extent of
eutrophication globally, and how to improve the state of our knowledge to more
accurately inform and drive policy decisions for mitigating eutrophication.
The rise in eutrophic and hypoxic events has been primarily attributed to the
rapid growth in intensive agricultural practices, increased industrial activities,
and rise in population, which together have increased nitrogen and phosphorus
flows in the environment. Human activities have resulted in the near doubling
of nitrogen and tripling of phosphorus flows to the environment when compared
to natural values. By comparison, human activities have increased atmospher-
ic concentrations of carbon dioxide, the gas primarily responsible for global
warming, by approximately 32 per cent since the onset of the industrial age. Be-
fore nutrients- nitrogen in particular- are delivered to coastal ecosystems, they
pass through a variety of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, causing other
environmental problems such as freshwater quality impairments, acid rain, the 175
Water-Related formation of greenhouse gases, shifts in community food webs, and a loss of
Issues biodiversity (Ansari and Khan, 2006). Once nutrients reach coastal systems,
they can trigger several responses within the ecosystem. The initial impacts
of nutrient enrichment are the exorbitant growth of phytoplankton, microalgae
(e.g., epiphytes and microphytes), and seaweed. Sequentially are the other ad-
verse impacts such as:
•• Loss of sub-aquatic vegetation as redundant phytoplankton, microalgae,
and macro-algae growth scale down light penetration.
•• Change in species distribution and biomass of the bottom-dwelling aquatic
populace, ultimately leading to diminished species diversity and the
influence of organisms such as jellyfish.
•• Destruction of coral reefs causes an increase in nutrient levels which support
algae growth. Coral growth is subdued due to more algae growth.
•• Low dissolved oxygen and the formation of hypoxic or oxygen-depleted
waters, which eventually lead to ecosystem destruction.
Nearly half of the world’s population lives within 60 kilometres of the coast
and many communities rely mostly on coastal ecosystems for their livelihoods.
This indicates that a significant segment of the world’s population is exposed
to the effects of eutrophication in their territorial coastal ecosystems. Two of
the most subtle and commonly recognized manifestations of eutrophication are
noxious algal growth and hypoxia. Detrimental algal blooms can lead to fish
kills, human ailment through shellfish poisoning, death of marine mammals and
shorebirds. Dangerous algal growth is also referred to as “red tides” or “brown
tides” due to the appearance of the water when these growths occur. In 1998,
a red tide event near Hong Kong wiped out 90 per cent of fish farms, causing
enormous monetary loss for the city. Hypoxia, treated to be the most severe
evidence of eutrophication, has escalated dramatically over the past 50 years.
Hypoxia takes place when algae and other organisms perish, sink to the bottom,
and are decomposed by bacteria, using the available dissolved oxygen. Salin-
ity and temperature differences between surface and subsurface waters lead to
stratification, limiting oxygen replenishment from surface waters and creating
conditions that can lead to the formation of a hypoxic condition (dead zone).
Two of the most well-known hypoxic areas are the Gulf of Mexico and the
Black Sea. There is a seasonal hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico that forms
every year in the late summer varying from 5,000 km2 in 2000 to about 22,000
in 2002. A Mississippi River/ Gulf Coast Nutrient Task Force was formed in
1997 to develop a strategy to reduce the five-year running average area of the
hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico. The Black Sea, which was once the largest
dead zone in the world, had 26 commercially viable fish species in the 1960s
but only five species by the 1980s. The growth of the Black Sea hypoxic zone
176
was attributed to the intensification of agriculture. The coastal areas reported Eutrophication
as experiencing eutrophication are steadily growing. This is because of the in-
creasing prevalence of eutrophication and advances in identifying and report-
ing eutrophic conditions. The first comprehensive list of hypoxic zones was
compiled by Diaz and Rosenberg (1995) and identified 44 documented hypoxic
areas. Twelve years later, there are 169 documented hypoxic areas, a nearly
four-fold increase. The list of hypoxic areas assembled by Diaz was compiled
from scientific literature and identified the majority of documented hypoxic ar-
eas. However, the list did not include areas with suspected-but, not document-
ed-hypoxic events or systems that suffer from other impacts of eutrophication
such as nuisance or harmful algal blooms, loss of sub-aquatic vegetation, and
changes in the structure of the benthic aquatic community (for example, decline
in biomass, changes in species composition, and loss of diversity). The eutro-
phic areas identified were categorized as:
•• Documented hypoxic areas: Areas with scientific evidence that hypoxia was
caused, at least in part, by nutrient over-enrichment. This category includes
the recent list of hypoxic areas compiled by Diaz (excluding hypoxia caused
by natural upwelling of nutrients).
•• Areas of concern: The indications of the presence of eutrophication in the
water are elevated nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll levels, harmful algal
blooms, coral reef damage, and fish mortality. As a result of nutrients, these
systems are at risk of hypoxia. The hypoxia may already be present in some
of the systems listed as areas of concern, but there is no conclusive scientific
evidence to support this claim.
•• Systems in recovery: Areas are found to be improving which was hypoxic
earlier e.g., the Black Sea is now in a state of recovery which exhibited
annual hypoxic events in the past.
The actual extent and prevalence of eutrophication in many regions are only
beginning to be studied. As a consequence, data do not exist or are not publicly
available for many areas that may be suffering from the effects of eutrophica-
tion. In addition, the data that do exist are often inconsistent in terms of param-
eters measured, indicators used, and the scale at which data are reported. Given
the state of global data, the number of eutrophic and hypoxic areas around the
world is expected to be greater than 415. The most underrepresented region is
Asia. Asia has relatively few documented eutrophic and hypoxic areas despite a
substantial rise in intensive agricultural practices, industrial growth, and a rise
in population in the past twenty years. Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean
also have few reliable sources of coastal water quality data, making it difficult
to assess the true level of eutrophication.
9.7 INTENSITY OF EUTROPHICATION

177
Water-Related Eutrophication was viewed as a problem of pollution in the lakes and reservoirs
Issues
all over the world. Surveys reveal that most of the lakes in Asia, Europe, North
America, South America, and Africa are found to be in eutrophic condition with
marked adverse changes in their quality for various purposes. Indiscriminate
growth of algae makes water unsuitable for swimming, boating and other water
sports activities. The excessive growth of algae in lengths often strings around
boat propellers creating difficulty in boating. Eutrophic waters turn dirty, dark-
ish, dense and mushy green. The rapid flourishing aquatic plants may wash
onto the riverbanks and seashores and after dying produce an awful stink. The
eutrophication in an aquatic ecosystem also causes remarkable modifications
in biodiversity and surrounding ecology with an increase in turbidity. Due to
the high density of aquatic organisms and plants in a eutrophic system, there
is much competition for resources. This high amount of competition and in-
creased chemical or physical stress led to a higher survival struggle in eutrophic
systems resulting in decreased organisms’ diversity in the eutrophic system
than in the oligotrophic system (low nutrient values). Eutrophication is one of
the serious kinds of water pollution directly affecting the flora and fauna due to
the loss of dissolved oxygen. It leads to an early and relatively faster mortality
rate of fishes and thus spoils the desired water qualities of ponds and lakes. The
fishing operation and navigation in eutrophic water become difficult due to the
enmeshed and heavy growth of plants.
The problem of eutrophication besides being dependent upon the nutrient in-
puts is greatly influenced by several environmental factors. Eutrophication in-
duced a significant change in biodiversity. The change in biodiversity directly
affects the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The floral and faunal diversity
is threatened in the coastal areas receiving direct input of nutrients from some
of the major rivers like the Amazon, Nile, Ganges, Mississippi, Brahmaputra,
and Thames. Some effective control measures like biological control, mechani-
cal control, legislative measures, and awareness programmes about the present
threat to water resources on the blue planet need to be carried out effectively.
Continued eutrophication leads to rapid upwelling of the water body. Eutro-
phication is viewed as a major cause of concern in developing and developed
countries. The water bodies of the highly populated countries like China, India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, and industrialized countries of Europe and
the Great Lakes states of the USA and Canada are under the direct threat of eu-
trophication. The population increase coupled with economic development and
changes in lifestyle during this period has added to the problem. The availabil-
ity of fresh water for human consumption will be one of the great issues of the
twenty-first century. The scientific interest and research in eutrophication have
consistently been significant during the last 25 years because of the likely haz-
178
ards to freshwater resources and ecosystems by eutrophication. Human-made Eutrophication
eutrophication vitiates freshwater systems worldwide by decreasing water qual-
ity and transforming the ecosystem. Present total nitrogen and total phosphorus
concentrations of rivers and lakes exceeded reference median values compared
to estimated reference values of the US Environmental Protection Agency and it
is found that 90% of rivers presently exceed reference median values. Eutrophi-
cation is a natural process that occurs in all the aquatic systems and takes thou-
sands of years. However, a high rate of input of nutrients due to anthropogenic
activities significantly develops this condition in a very short period. In most of
the lakes and rivers where eutrophication is encountered, the principal causes of
excessive enrichment of water are phosphates and nitrates. In and around cities
and industries, phosphate contents increased 20- to 25-fold during the last 10-15
years (Muller and Helsel, 1999).
9.8 MECHANISM AND PROCESS OF EUTROPHI-

CATION
Eutrophication is considered a major cause of water pollution, affecting the

fauna due to the loss of dissolved oxygen. It leads to an early and relatively faster
mortality rate of fish and thus spoils the desired water qualities of ponds and
lakes. Hydroelectric generation from such water storage is adversely affected
as nutrient-rich water acts chemically upon the turbines. At the end of an algal
bloom, the decomposing debris also spoils the desired water characteristics
and may result in the growth of disease-causing bacteria. Nutrient enrichment,
hydrodynamics (the study of liquids in motion), environmental factors like
temperature, salinity, carbon dioxide, etc., and microbial and biodiversity
are some of the key factors for eutrophication (Khan and Ansari, 2005). The
occurrence of water eutrophication is a complex function. A little understanding
of the mechanisms and processes of algal growth needs further investigation and
research. Excessive nutrient addition to the surface water system is established
as one of the main causes of the eutrophication mechanism. The concentration of
nutrient levels in various lakes and rivers has shown a gradual increase in the last
decades on account of increased mixing of domestic wastes discharges and non-
point source pollutants from agricultural practices and unplanned urban areas. If
a water body becomes eutrophicated, its primary functions are lost and thereby
adversely affecting sustainable expansion in the economy and development of
society (Western, 2001). Therefore, the solution to the eutrophication process
has become a challenge for environmentalists. The main purpose of this unit is
to understand the mechanisms and processes involved in water eutrophication.
Inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus are the two most important controlling factors
for algae growth. The natural balance of the aquatic ecosystem is disturbed
due to eutrophication damaging it further resulting in its functions degradation
over time (Yang et. al., 2008). The water quality became poorer than ever due 179
Water-Related to little sunlight penetration into the water body weakening the process of
Issues photosynthesis of plants (Richardson et al., 2007). Eutrophication results in an
oversaturation of dissolved oxygen in the water, which is harmful to aquatic
biodiversity. Dell’Anno et al. (2002) found that the biochemical composition
of organic matter is changed in eutrophic systems. It is caused by the growth of
algae, mostly Cyanophyta, on the water’s surface, which releases toxins. The
organic matter in the water is then decomposed into dangerous gases, which
harm fish and other aquatic organisms. Poor water quality due to eutrophication
also hampers the supply of drinking water sources. Because of decay in
blooming algae, algae toxins are released which is dangerous to human health.
Cyanobacteria toxins and other cytotoxins and biotoxins are liable for acute
poisonings of wild/domestic animals and humans (Carmichael, 2001). A higher
level of nitrate concentration in the eutrophic water poses serious threats to
human health because of the carcinogenic effect associated with the nitrification
process. All the adverse effects of eutrophication in surface water systems have
created the interest of public and private sectors for further investigation and
research. In eutrophicated water bodies, algal growth or bloom varies with
seasons, depending on favourable environmental conditions. The algal bloom
caused by phosphorus inputs into the water bodies accelerates algal growth
and also modifies several abiotic factors of the surface water body. As a result,
these factors may affect the biotic components directly, and the nature of water
bodies in an indirect manner (Kant and Raina, 1990). The main reasons for algal
growth are temperature and salinity. Temperatures between 23°C and 28°C, and
salinity between 23% and 28% are most and always suitable for algal bloom
(Wang et al., 1996). Apart from temperature and salinity, the level of carbon
dioxide in water is a major controlling factor for eutrophication. Cyanophytes
are more adept at low levels of carbon dioxide and high pH and thus float on top
of the water column even under insufficient sunlight. Such conditions together
restrict the freshwater ecosystem into a slow-moving state, formation of blue-
green algae, uprooting of phytoplankton and aquatic animals. The minimum
amount of light reaching the bottom surface of the lake inhibits submerged
and rooted macrophytes causing depletion of oxygen due to the addition of
planktonic biomass. It is believed there is an increase in algal growth with light
intensity. There are other factors too like pH and dissolved oxygen which affect
eutrophication.
9.8.1 Natural Eutrophication
Natural eutrophication processes take place over geological time and they
mean the ageing or dying of water bodies. The run-off water brings silt, rich
in organic nutrients and minerals, into the newly formed lakes. A wind-borne
bacterial, protozoan and algal spores soon establish a population and form the
base of a food pyramid which, in time, builds to support a larger plant and
animal population. Decay by bacteria breaks down the remains of dead plants
and animals at the bottom of lakes. In addition, sediments of surface water run-
off from the surrounding land continue to supply organic nutrients and minerals
180 to the lake ecosystem. Algae and bacteria grow in nutrient-rich water. As long
Eutrophication
as there is adequate dissolved oxygen in the water the decomposition remains
primarily aerobic. However, with the continued influx of silt and the build-up of
organic matter, the aerobic decay bacteria use the oxygen and a different kind of
bacteria begin to dominate the decay process. These are the anaerobic bacteria
whose products of decay are methane and hydrogen sulfide gases. Natural
eutrophication is the adding of nutrients to an ecosystem, resulting in a decrease
of available oxygen in the water. It is the force that drives the succession from
lake to marsh to meadow to forest. This natural succession process may take
place anywhere in a period of 500-10,000 or more years depending on the initial
condition of the site. The natural eutrophication process is highly variable and
depends on site-specific factors such as nutrient stoichiometry, biodiversity,
climate-related factors, and geomorphology.
9.8.2 Anthropogenic Eutrophication
Human activities have been proven to accelerate the rate at which nutrients enter
ecosystems as a result of agricultural runoff, unplanned urban development,
and industrial activities, inorganic nutrients and organic material enter aquatic
and coastal marine ecosystems. The indiscreet activities and unplanned
development on land add more nutrients like phosphates and nitrate to lakes,
rivers and other water bodies. Intensive agricultural practices can dramatically
change the landscape by increasing the concentrations and rates at which
nutrients are delivered to aquatic ecosystems. Intensive agricultural practices
have had a dramatic effect on rates of eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems.
In most freshwater lakes, phosphorus is the principal limiting nutrient for
eutrophication and transport of phosphorus to lakes increases as a result of
intensive agricultural practices in the watershed. Because of this, pollution
of aquatic ecosystems by phosphorus is the primary cause of water quality
degradation in most freshwater systems; and intensive agriculture is a primary
source of this pollution. Anthropogenic eutrophication has negative impacts
on fisheries, recreation, and ecosystem function associated with it, therefore a
better understanding of the driving mechanisms behind it is needed. In regions
of intensive agriculture, increased phosphorus loads are primarily from non-
point sources, such as fertilizer run-off. Fish farming is increasing day by day
which affects the marine environment adversely along with the intensification
of livestock production and other unchecked human activities and industrial
developments.
1. Eutrophication is a big threat in the coming days for the world. Discuss.
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Water-Related 2. Write in brief about the mechanism of eutrophication.
Issues ……………………………………………………………………………
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9.9 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF EUTROPHIC

ATION
Eutrophication may cause reductions in local as well as regional biodiversity

in a water body. The references are there about the effects of eutrophication
on coastal ecosystems, yet the long-term implications of increased nutrient
fluxes in our coastal waters are yet to be understood. Life disappears from a
water body due to eutrophication mainly due to oxygen depletion. We all know
that during the process of photosynthesis in daylight plants produce oxygen
and contrary to this, during the process of respiration in darkness all the living
beings including plants, animals, aerobic microorganisms and decomposing
dead organisms consume the oxygen. Biomass accumulation in a water body
due to eutrophication causes organic matter deposition at the bottom to undergo
an oxidation process, consuming all the oxygen available. Some bacteria even
use the oxygen contained in sulphates, releasing sulphide as a result. In the
upper layers of the water body, these sulphides, once released, will immediately
capture the oxygen that is still available. Due to all of these consequences, the
water body will lose all of its oxygen, causing all life to cease to exist in the
water body altogether. There is a distinct smell that permeates the air around the
water originating from sulphur concentration.
9.9.1 Changes in Algal Population
As well as light, temperature and water movement, nutrients play a role in
the growth of macroalgae, phytoplankton and cyanobacteria. Here, it is also
important to note that some of these organisms can release toxins into the water,
or they may be toxic on their own.
9.9.2 Changes in Zooplankton and Fish Population

Eutrophication in an aquatic system has first-order effects on zooplankton
and fish populations. In addition to oxygen deficiency, these species are also
susceptible to changes in the chemical composition of the water, such as
excessive alkalinity conditions created by intense photosynthesis. In alkaline
waters, fish are more toxic to ammonia. Cyanobacteria have been largely
studied in freshwater systems due to their ability to proliferate, form massive
surface scum, and produce toxins that have been involved in animal or human
poisoning. Some species of algae may also contain toxins, but incidents, where
freshwater algae are at the origin of cases of human or animal illness, are very
rare. In coastal and estuarine systems, where conditions are less favourable to
the proliferation of cyanobacteria, which need oligo-elements such as iron, toxic
182 algae such as dinoflagellates have been observed and have been at the origin of
health troubles. There is growing evidence that nutrients, especially nitrogen, Eutrophication
favour the duration and frequency of such toxic blooms, and concentrations of
the toxin in the cells.
The effects of eutrophication have deleterious consequences for the health of
the exposed animal and human populations, through various pathways. Specific
health risks appear when freshwater extracted from eutrophic areas is used for
the production of drinking water. Severe impacts can also occur during animal
watering in eutrophic waters.
Phosphorus and nitrogen nutrient enrichment in water may indicate the extent
of the disturbance of aquatic equilibrium. Oligotrophic is the name given to an
aquatic environment with low amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus. Eutrophic
is the name given to an aquatic environment with high amounts of these
nutrients and lakes with a moderate amount of nutrients is called mesotrophic.
Eutrophication is characterized by hypoxia at the lake’s bottom due to oxygen
depletion and indiscriminate algal growth that produces toxic substances. As
a result of hypoxia and algal growth, aquatic life in the affected areas can be
negatively affected.
Some of the effects caused by eutrophication are mentioned below:

•• Debris and a wide variety of water organisms (phytoplankton, zooplankton,
bacteria, and fungi) determine the water’s physical properties;
•• Nitrosamines, which are suspected of changes in the structure of the genetic
material of cells or organisms, are formed when inorganic chemicals used in
water treatment are released into the environment;
•• Significant reduction and loss of good quality fish and adverse effects on
fishing activities;
•• Potential health hazards to humans and animals, drinking the affected water;
•• Oxygen concentration is reduced in the deeper portion of the lake during
summer and
•• Deterioration of water quality- As water attains the anaerobic conditions;
toxic bacterial growth is encouraged. High organic substances make drinking
water unsafe permanently.
Because of these above-mentioned serious impacts and damage to all aspects of

human and animal life including economic loss, there is an urgency to control
the progress of eutrophication, saving ecosystems from damage.

Eutrophication is a threat to ecosystems, humans and animals. Minimizing
eutrophication must be considered a key concern while formulating sustainable
future policies worldwide. The primary step in the reduction of eutrophication
of a lake or reservoir is to limit, divert or treat inputs of nutrients and associated
particles. However, because lakes and reservoirs can trap and recycle nutrients
and organic matter, a reduction in loading from the watershed may not reverse
the impact of eutrophication. Therefore, it may be necessary to modify internal
chemical, biological and physical processes. It is suggested that the prediction
of changes in physical, chemical, and biological processes should be based 183
Water-Related on available information and data on particular lakes and reservoirs. In some
Issues cases, measures for the removal of nitrogen and/or phosphorus in eutrophic
reservoirs failed to improve water quality because of the substantial quantity of
nutrients accumulated in sediments being released into the water, continuously.
Therefore, it is shown the need to avoid nutrient loading into the water bodies
as early as possible through proper management and planning practices. New
monitoring technologies employing robotics and advanced probes or sensors
open new horizons in water quality protection. Also, the last two decades have
seen a dramatic increase in numerical simulation models in a variety of large
water bodies. Prevention is certainly easier than treatment. This principle is
perfectly valid in the water domain, being important to preventing pollution of
rivers and lakes. When preventive measures came too late or had no effect, the
authorities have to appeal for water treatment. This can be extremely costly,
and complicated and may present risks and unwanted side effects. Evaluation
of eutrophication, particularly in developing countries, must balance benefits
gained from increased fertility of lakes or reservoirs against problems associated
with the degraded quality of water used for domestic and industrial purposes.
Eutrophication is caused by a variety of factors and involves several complex
mechanisms. Several factors should be taken into account when evaluating
possible measures to limit nutrient enrichment in water supplies. Modern
computerized models allow a better understanding of each factor, as well as
forecasting the effectiveness of various curative and preventive measures.
Avoiding eutrophication is best accomplished by disrupting human-controllable
mechanisms, which means reducing nutrient input into water basins. This type
of control has no linear effect on the intensity of eutrophication. The following
should be included in an integrated management programme.
•• Identification of all sources of dietary nutrition can be done through
studies of the catchment area of the water supply which can provide useful
information. Prior knowledge of industrial activities, discharge practices,
and localization is required to plan and implement actions aimed at limiting
nutrient enrichment in water. Knowing which areas to target can be greatly
aided by identifying sewage discharge points, agricultural practices, the
nature of the soil, vegetation, and the interaction between the soil and the
water.
•• Water nutrient enrichment methods can be determined based on the
hydrodynamics of the water body and the vulnerability of the below-ground
aquifer system. Systematic wastewater treatment can reduce anthropogenic
nutrient point sources, such as untreated industrial and domestic wastewater
discharges. In sensitive areas, industries and local authorities should use
specific de-nitrification or phosphorus removal treatments to control the
level of nutrients in treated wastewater. Soil conservation techniques and
fertilizer restrictions can be used to control diffuse anthropogenic nutrient
sources. Fertilizer contribution to plant use and the agronomic balance is
crucial for optimizing fertilization practices and limiting nutrients loss.
•• Adopting good practices may help to control nutrient losses such as:
i. The supply of nutrients must be adequate for a crop to produce
reasonable yields, taking into account soil and atmospheric nitrogen.
184 ii. Analyses and fertilization plans at the plot level of soil nutrients
should be done regularly. Eutrophication
iii. Sufficient manure storage capacity must be developed, allowing for

appropriate manure spreading times.
iv. Adoption of crop rotations in farming.
v. Methods for preventing soil erosion on slopes should be applied.
Drip irrigation should be used to create a precise and effective irrigation

management plan so that nutrients are not discharged into water bodies and
consumed directly by the local plants and animals. Aquaculture and agriculture
can optimize the reuse and recycling of nutrient-rich waters.
There should be extreme caution taken when only eutrophic water is available for
use. Local authorities should take all necessary steps to ensure that monitoring
mechanisms are in place that allows for the timely implementation of protective
measures. Therefore, public health will be better protected than if a crisis were
to arise.
However, although not all water-receiving bodies are equally susceptible to
eutrophication, every effort should be made to reduce the discharge of nutrients
such as phosphorus and nitrogen. To achieve this, a variety of policies can be
implemented, but two are particularly important: Nitrogen- and phosphorus-
based chemicals should be used less, as should wastewaters that must be treated
before they are discharged into the environment.
When bloom occurs in a body of water, preventative measures can be taken to
either limit its spread or treat the affected areas. It is possible to use algaecides
if no alternative solution is available. This is a radical approach that should only
be attempted with extreme caution in some cases, algicide treatment of water
bodies can result in an unpleasant taste and odour.
9.11 CRISIS MANAGEMENT

The following actions should be taken in the event of an algal bloom:
9.11.1 Public Information
Local authorities must inform the public about toxic algal phytoplankton or
cyanobacterial blooms in areas at risk. As a result of the bloom, temporary
warning signs should be placed along with water bodies and adjacent land that
are affected by it. This includes diagnostic and treatment techniques for those
who are affected. It is a good idea to let people know about:
•• Risks associated with swimming in abnormally coloured or turbid water or
participating in sports in such waters.
•• People who are allergic to blooms can experience anaphylaxis, which can be
life-threatening. Because many algae are capable of producing and releasing
toxins as well as allergens;
•• During a bloom, eating fish poses a health risk. 185
Water-Related •• To discourage domestic animals from drinking or bathing in bloom-affected
Issues fresh water and from grazing along the shore where scum has accumulated
and hardened.
9.11.2 Drinking Water

•• During a bloom, contaminated water supplies should not be used for
drinking.
•• It is important to check the water quality if there is no alternative water
supply and to determine whether it has been or is likely to be affected by a
toxic bloom. As a result, the water should be treated appropriately to keep
it safe.
•• There should be specific measures taken to prevent the consumption of
drinking water from the contaminated distribution network if suitable water
treatment processes are not available. As a substitute for tap water, bottled
or tanked water should be made available to the public.
1. Differentiate between natural and anthropogenic eutrophication.
……………………………………………………………………………
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2. List down the main effects caused by eutrophication.
……………………………………………………………………………
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3. Discuss the integrated management practices for avoiding eutrophication.
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9.12 LET US SUM UP

Eutrophication is a complicated process that occurs both in fresh and marine
waters, where excessive development of certain types of algae disturbs the
aquatic ecosystems and becomes a threat to animal and human health. The
primary cause of eutrophication is an excessive concentration of plant nutrients
like nitrogen and phosphorus originating from agriculture or sewage treatment.
Eutrophication is characterized by the presence of an ample number of plankton,
186
algae, and water weeds, which cause water quality impairments for domestic Eutrophication
water supply such as tastes and odours. The input of large amounts of nutrients
creates eutrophic conditions. These nutrients enter water bodies through untreated
sewage water inflow, human and animal waste and agricultural fields causing
an imbalance in the food system that results in high levels of phytoplankton
microalgae, in stratified water bodies which can lead to algal blooms. In freshwater
and marine systems worldwide, eutrophication, or nutrient oversupply, is a
growing environmental crisis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are two of the nutrients
that cause eutrophication in aquatic environments. However, increased runoff
of nitrogen and phosphorus from land-based sources into aquatic ecosystems
causes an increase in biomass production, which upsets the natural balance
of these ecosystems. As a result of eutrophication, algal blooms, hypoxic or
“dead” zones are generated and ecosystem collapse may occur. Nutrient losses
in urban and industrial areas are caused by municipal wastewater treatment
plants, industrial wastewater discharges, below-ground septic pits, and surface
water runoff. Municipal and industrial sources are considered “point sources” of
nutrient pollution because they discharge nutrients directly into surface waters
or groundwater through a pipe or other discrete conveyance. Fertilizer leaching
and farm runoff are the largest sources of nutrients, followed by aquaculture.
In addition to nutrient pollution, typical and interrelated socioeconomic factors
also contribute to the eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. Secondary drivers
include population growth, economic expansion in developing countries, which
will impact consumer consumption, and the growth of intensive agricultural
practices. Eutrophication is primarily caused by energy consumption, fertilizer
consumption, and land-use changes. Population growth is driving up energy and
food demand. Due to this increased demand, urban, industrial, and agricultural
sources, as well as hydrocarbon sources, will continue to be a significant
source of eutrophication. Coastal and freshwater ecosystems are expected to be
increasingly affected by eutrophication in the future.
Eutrophication is most likely to increase in developing countries, where
population, agricultural activities, and use of energy are expected to grow more
rapidly than in developed countries. Eutrophication is caused by unsustainable
agricultural production and energy use. To address eutrophication, policies
cannot be limited to traditional environmental regulations but policymakers and
administrators should draw broader and pragmatic policies to minimize nutrient
pollution in the environment.
9.13 KEY WORDS

Eutrophication: Eutrophication may be defined as an enrichment of water by
nutrient salts that causes structural changes to the ecosystem such as increased
production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion of fish species, and general
deterioration of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude use.
Cultural Eutrophication: Cultural eutrophication is occurring in some areas
due to run-off of fertilizers, dumping of sewage, and other sources of water 187
Water-Related pollution. A common result of cultural eutrophication is a rapid increase in
Issues algae growth known as an algal bloom. The water becomes covered with mats
of green, brown, or red algae. As the algae die, microorganisms decompose
the remains, depleting oxygen in the water and killing fish and other aquatic
organisms sensitive to low oxygen levels.

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•• www.lescienze.it

1. Please refer to sections 9.8.1 and 9.8.2
190
UNIT 10 MARINE POLLUTION
Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.3 Definition of Marine Pollution
10.4 Sources and Causes of Marine Pollution
10.5 Effects of Marine Pollution
10.6 Extent of Marine Pollution
10.7 Intensity of Marine Pollution
10.8 Mechanism and Process of Marine Pollution
10.9 Ecological Impacts of Marine Pollution
10.10 Ecological Consequences of Deep-sea Mining
10.11.1 Oil Pollution Control Measures
10.11.2 Measures to Control Heavy Metal Pollution
10.11.3 Measures to Reduce Ship Pollution
10.11.4 Suggestions and Prospects
10.12 Let Us Sum Up
10.13 Key Words
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The continued degradation of the human environment has become a major topic
in every corner of the globe. Air, water and soil are the three main components
of the environment. Seawater makes up around two-thirds of the world’s surface
and is essential for biological and ecological balance. People are drawn to
the water for a variety of reasons, including adventure, nutrition, commerce,
industry, and enjoyment. Humans have used the ocean in this fashion many
times before, but it is projected that they will exploit it on a larger scale in the
future. However, the greatest detrimental use of the ocean by humans has been
the disposal of various sizes of waste.
Mankind is polluting the maritime environment with a rising amount and variety
of waste products resulting from evolving technology, without completely
knowing how these pollutants may interact with our surroundings and, as a
result, harm our health. Our culture has not progressed far enough to collect
tremendous amounts of material wealth or to handle and manage the enormous
volumes of waste it produces. The use of seas and oceans for dumping industrial
waste, human waste, and nuclear waste is based on the assumption that the sea
has an infinite capacity to receive and absorb anything. We have yet to recognize,
however, that we are choking our seas, killing our fish, deteriorating marine life,
and causing ecological imbalances.
Water-Related Ocean pollution or Marine pollution became increasingly apparent in the late
Issues 1960s. Due to the very vast volume of oceans, it was believed by most scientists
that they had unlimited ability to dilute ocean pollution and thus render pollution
harmless. At U. N. Conference on the Human Environment, in the year 1972, it
was a major area of discussion. In the present society, plenty of disposable and
single-use plastic is used on daily basis for many packaging and transportation
activities, from shopping bags to shipping packaging to plastic bottles. To
replace plastic with an environmental-friendly product will be a challenging
task and also one has to see its economic viability.
The marine word originates from the Latin word Marinus means about the sea or
the French word marin, marine, which means sea. Marine pollution results from
the mixing of chemicals/trash materials from various anthropogenic activities
that are washed, blown, or tossed into the ocean, causing harm to the ocean
environment, particularly the health of all marine species.
Chemical pollution, radioactivity, solid waste, human-induced sedimentation,
energy (i.e., heat and noise), oil spills, diseases, parasites, and invading species
(biological pollution) are only a few examples of marine pollution.
Marine pollution may be sub-categorized into four most common varieties
viz., plastic, light, noise and chemical pollution. Over 8 million tons of plastic
are being dumped into the sea every year. Marine trash consists of mainly
manufactured products. Shopping bags and drinking water bottles, as well as
cigarette butts, bottle caps, food wrappers and fishing gear are mostly plastic.
Plastic waste is extremely durable and takes hundreds of years to decompose.
Microplastics (less than 5 mm in diameter) are consumed by small organisms,
which absorb the chemicals in the plastic into their tissues. When larger animals
eat smaller species that consume microplastics, dangerous chemicals become
part of their tissues due to biosynthesis Man-made noise pollution poses a far
bigger hazard to marine animals than it does to those who live on land or in
the air. Noise pollution not only confuses animals that rely on sonar signals to
forage, mate, and navigate their way across the ocean, but it also shortens their
lifespan and puts entire species at risk.
Fertilizer use for agricultural purposes results in chemical spills into streams,
which eventually end up in the ocean. As a result, substances like nitrogen and
phosphorus accumulate in the coastal seas, promoting algal bloom growth.
These blossoms are potentially hazardous to wildlife and humans, as well as a
threat to the local fishing and tourism industries.
10.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define marine pollution and its types;
•• describe the mechanism and process of marine pollution and
192 •• explain the ecological impacts of marine pollution.

10.3 DEFINITION OF MARINE POLLUTION Marine pollution
Humans’ purposeful or without intention introduction of substances into the

marine environment causes damage to living resources and poses a health risk
to humans. People obstruct maritime activities like fishing, impair seawater
quality, and reduce recreational opportunities. When human-made pollutants
enter the water and cause harm, such as industrial, agricultural, and residential
waste, excess carbon dioxide, or invading species, this is known as marine
pollution (Glossary of Environment Statistics, 1997).
10.4 SOURCES AND CAUSES OF MARINE

POLLUTION
Everything that is carried by rivers eventually ends up in the seas, adding to
the salt content of the water. Rivers collect massive volumes of sewage, faeces,
waste, agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, biocides, and heavy metals as
they travel. Heterotrophic organisms’ digestion of organic matter is incomplete,
resulting in the buildup of acids, bases, alcohols, and different gases. Coliform
bacteria, Gram-negative non-spore producing bacilli commonly seen in the
colon, are the most common bacteria. E. coli and Enterobacter species are
included in this group. Lactose is fermented into acid and gas by these bacteria.
Streptococcus, Proteus, and Pseudomonas are among the non-coliform bacteria
found.Polluting organisms multiply quickly under certain conditions and use
the majority of available oxygen. Nutrients, for example, enter the water body
through sewage treatment plants or urban/suburban run-off. As a result, a high
nutrient concentration develops quickly, allowing algae to bloom quickly. Water
becomes oxygen-depleted as a result of this. Protozoa, tiny animals, fish, and
plants have very little oxygen accessible. Because of the lack of oxygen, a layer
of dead organisms, dirt, and silt accumulates at the bottom, allowing anaerobic
species such as Clostridium, Desulfovibrio, and others to thrive and create gases.
H2S, a gas, reacts with lead or iron to form a precipitate, turning the mud black
and making the water deadly. As a result of depletion in oxygen, the suspended
bacteria die because of their waste products.
Man-made pollution, such as discarded plastics and other household debris,
as well as pesticides and industrial chemicals, eventually find their way into
the sea, wreaking havoc on marine life and the environments on which they
rely. Accidents involving ships and oil spills add further pollutants to the mix.
According to estimates, 80 per cent of marine pollution originates on land.
Land-based pollutants like agricultural run-off and fertilizers from sewage
outflows are leading to ocean ‘dead zones,’ which have minimal or no oxygen
and can no longer sustain life. There are now over 500 of these “dead zones”
all around the globe. Furthermore, coastal ‘megacities’ have grown as a result
of increased urbanization along the world’s coastlines (cities with a population
of 10 million or more). Thirteen of the world’s twenty megacities were located
along coasts in 2012. Many of these people place a strain on infrastructure, which
193
includes poor waste and sewage management. Implementing effective waste
Water-Related reduction measures, recycling, and appropriate waste and sewage treatment in
Issues such locations is critical to ensure the health of our oceans’ lifetime. Marine
pollution is also caused by the discharge of oils and petroleum products, as well
as the dumping of radioactive waste into the sea. Turbulence and ocean currents
can distribute toxins in the water, or they might concentrate in the food chain.
Adsorption, precipitation, and accumulation processes may cause them to settle
at the bottom. Species diversity may be lost as a result of bioaccumulation in
the food chain. Changes in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of seawater are linked to marine pollution. Oceans span almost 71 per cent of
the Earth’s surface.
Some of the marine pollutants/ categories of marine pollutants are pathogens,
sediments, solid wastes, freshwater, brine, toxic inorganics/organics, petroleum
and oil, and oxygen demanding materials. These marine pollutants may come
from various sources. The marine pollution may also be the natural in origin.
Some of the sources of marine pollutants may be various commercial and
developmental activities.
Table 10.1: Sources of oil pollution in the sea
S. No. Sources Percentage (%)
1. Natural sources 10
2. Industrial wastes etc. 62
3. Refineries/ terminals 1
Non-tanker accidents, bilge and fuel oil, dry
4. 15
docking
5. Tanker operations 7
6. Tanker accidents 3
7. Offshore 2
Some of the sources of marine pollution (Table 10.1) along with their causes
and effects are discussed below in detail:
1. Oil Spills
There are several ways through which the oil can reach the sea:
•• Natural release such as oil seeps from the bottom of oceans and
enters the marine environment. Crude oil is formed during long
periods through natural processes involving organic matter from dead
organisms.
•• An oil tanker and other ship accidents
Major Oil spills
•• Gulf oil spill, Persian Gulf, January 23, 1991- During the fight
between Iraq and Kuwait, a large amount of oil was allowed to flow
194 into the sea, resulting in marine pollution and the destruction of sea
life. A significant amount of oil pours into the water as a result of oil Marine pollution
ship crashes.
•• Nowruz oil field, Persian Gulf, February 1983
•• Amoco Cadiz, Brittany, France, March 16, 1978- In March 1978 about
2, 30,000 tonnes of shipment through the English Channel spilled
from the hold of supertanker Amoco Cadiz resulting in the spreading
of an oil blanket of 120 km long and 6 km wide.
•• Torrey Canyon, South England, March 18, 1967
•• The Urquiola oil spill, La Coruna, Spain, May 12, 1976
•• Hawaiian Patriot, North Pacific February 26, 1977
•• On March 25, 2005, 110 tonnes of oil spilled in Goa port.
•• Such accidental oil spills in the sea seem to continue due to an increase
in commercial activities and the requirement for energy.
2. Tanker Operations
The sea transports half of the world’s crude oil production, which is close
to three billion tonnes per year. After unloading its oil cargo, a tanker
must take on seawater as ballast for the return journey. The ballast water
is stored in the cargo compartments where the oil was previously stored.
These compartments are cleansed with water before a new cargo of oil is
loaded, which discharges the unclean ballast along with the oil into the
sea. Because of its visibility, oil contamination in the water usually gets
the most attention. It is sea-based pollution that is perhaps the worst of the
marine environment’s pollutants. Some modern tankers feature separated
ballast, which prevents the ballast water from coming into contact with
the cargo. By adopting new techniques of ballast, oil spills can be reduced.
3. Dry Docking
All ships require dry-docking regularly for maintenance, repairs, and hull
cleaning, among other things. Residual oil finds its way into the sea during
the period when the cargo compartments need to be emptied.
4. Tanker Accidents
Every year, a considerable number of oil tanker accidents occur. This can
sometimes lead to huge disasters in the marine environment.
5. Off-shore Oil Pollution
Water is present in the oil that has been taken from the seabed. Even after
passing through oil separators, the discharged water includes some oil,
contributing to marine contamination. Drilling mud contains 70-80 per
cent oil and is injected down oil wells as they are being drilled. They’re
deposited on the seabed beneath the drilling platform, polluting the water
significantly.
10.5 EFFECTS OF MARINE POLLUTION

Oil spills on the water surface first generate slicks that float to the surface. The
oil may sink if it is absorbed by solid particles. Phytoplankton, a microscopic 195
Water-Related organism that acts as a biological blotter, absorbs floating and suspended oil.
Issues Because these species represent the foundation of the food chain, they are
consumed by higher kinds of marine life, which then transmit the oil pollution
onto even higher organisms.
As a result, predator concentrations among marine mammals, birds, and humans
grow, altering the food chain, and water birds frequently float to shore to die
with oil-soaked feathers. To summarize, oil has the potential to affect both
marine life and recreational options along the coast. Marine pollution from oil
spills has the following effects on the sea: Modifying physical and chemical
properties; Crude oil forming sticky layers-prevents free diffusion of gases and
decreasing the photosynthesis, Series of chemical and physical changes that
cause spilled oil to break down and become heavier than water, and Winds,
waves, and currents may result in natural dispersion, breaking a slick into
droplets.
Oxidation occurs when the lighter substances within the oil mixture become
vapours which leaves heavier components of the oil and may sink to the ocean
floor. Heavier oils leave a thicker, more viscous residue, which may have serious
physical and chemical impacts on the environment. Biodegradation occurs
when microorganisms feed on oil and to sustain biodegradation, nitrogen and
phosphorus are added to encourage the microorganisms to grow and reproduce.
Emulsions consist of a mixture of small droplets of oil and water and are formed
by wave action, and greatly hamper weathering and cleanup processes. Two
types of emulsions exist, water-in-oil and oil-in-water. Oil and water emulsions
cause oil to sink. Waves and turbulence at the sea surface cause dispersion of all
or part of a slick to break up into fragments and droplets of varying sizes. The
oil that remains suspended in the water has a greater surface area than before
dispersion occurred which encourages other natural processes like dissolution,
biodegradation and sedimentation to occur.
1. Define marine pollution.
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2. Discuss how oil spills affect the sea.
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196 10.6 EXTENT OF MARINE POLLUTION

In today’s globe, marine pollution is becoming more of an issue. Chemicals Marine pollution
and rubbish are the two main types of contamination in our oceans. Chemical
or nutrient contamination is a source of concern for health, the environment,
and the economy. When chemicals infiltrate waterways and eventually run into
the sea as a result of human activity, particularly the use of fertilizers on farms,
this form of pollution happens. The growth of blue-green algae is aided by
increasing the concentration of substances such as nitrogen and phosphorus in
coastal waters.
All produced objects that end up in the water, particularly plastics, are considered
marine garbage. Various plastic products, such as shopping bags and beverage
bottles, and fishing tackle, are common types of marine garbage. Due to its
tremendous durability, plastic trash is particularly hazardous as a contaminant.
Decomposition of plastic items might take hundreds of years. Humans and
animals are at risk from this waste. Microplastics are minute particles of
degraded plastic that are eaten by small organisms and absorb chemicals from
the plastic into their tissues. Microplastics, which have a diameter of fewer than
5 millimetres, are detected in a variety of marine species, including plankton and
whales. Toxic substances become part of the tissue when giant animals devour
microscopic organisms that absorb microplastics. This is how microplastic
contamination works its way up the food chain until it reaches the food we eat.
Disposable and single-use plastic is widely employed in today’s culture.
Changing society’s attitude toward plastic use will be a long and costly process.
Cleaning up some items may be impossible because many types of trash do not
float but end up in the water. In ocean gyres, plastics that do float tend to gather
in enormous “patches.” These spots are more like specks of microplastic pepper
whirling throughout an ocean soup, according to the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration. Even some promising techniques for mitigating
marine pollution are insufficient. Biodegradable plastics often only degrade at
temperatures much higher than those found in the ocean. Many countries have
implemented legislation that prohibits the use of disposable plastic products.
Pollutants are dumped in the ocean and fish and other sea creatures are affected
by this trash daily.
Eighty per cent of non-biological marine pollution is due to terrestrial activity.
The most obvious entry is through a pipe that flows directly into seawater
(sewage, industrial, chemical, food waste). Rivers flow into the sea and carry
pollutants from the entire catchment area. Plastic debris kills 100,000 marine
mammals and 2 million sea birds die annually. In coastal waters, the type,
composition and density of floating debris vary greatly among locations. The
spatial distribution is influenced by anthropogenic activities, hydrographic
and geomorphologic factors, prevailing winds, and entry points (Barnes et al.,
2009; Derraik, 2002). Generally, the distribution and composition of marine
debris floating at sea depend largely on near-shore circulation patterns (Aliani
et al., 2003; Lattin et al., 2004; Ribic et al., 2010; Thiel et al., 2003). Prevailing
winds also affect the pattern of debris abundance. Greater quantities of plastics
were observed at downwind sites (Browne et al., 2010; Collignon et al., 2012).
Collignon et al. (2014) observed that the density of floating debris was five
times higher before a strong wind event than afterwards. This was explained by
the wind stress increasing the mixing and vertical redistribution of the plastic
particles in the upper layers of the water column. However, most land-based
litter is carried by water currents through rivers and stormwater (Ryan et al., 197
Water-Related 2009). The density of the debris in southern California, United States coast
Issues water, after the storm was seven times higher than before the storm (Moore et
al., 2002). The weight of plastic increased by more than 200 times after a storm
in Santa Monica Bay, California, United States (Lattin et al., 2004). Higher
densities of debris in coastal waters are also associated with human population
density (Lebreton et al., 2012; Thiel et al., 2003).
In the open ocean, spatial patterns of debris are influenced by the interaction of
large-scale atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, leading to particularly
high accumulations of floating debris in the subtropical gyres (Howell et al.,
2012; Goldstein et al., 2013; Martinez et al., 2009). Substantial accumulations
of debris are now in oceanic gyres far from land (Law et al., 2010). The models
developed by Martinez et al. (2009) suggest that marine debris deposited in
coastal zones tends to accumulate in the central oceanic gyres within two years
after deposition. The persistent floating debris will accumulate in mid-ocean
sub-tropical gyres, forming so-called garbage patches (Kaiser, 2010; Lebreton
et al., 2012).
Although the type of litter found in the world’s oceans is highly diverse, plastics
are by far the most abundant material recorded. Plastic debris was first reported
in the oceans in the early 1970s (Carpenter and Smith, 1972; Colton and Knapp.,
1974). Plastics are estimated to represent between 60 per cent and 80 per cent
of the total marine debris (Derraik, 2002; Gregory and Ryan, 1997). Almost
all aspects of daily life involve plastics, and consequently, the production of
plastics has increased substantially in the last 60 years and this trend continues.
The fragmentation of plastics generates microplastics. For example, in sampling
the South Pacific subtropical gyre, 1.0-4.7mm particles accounted for 55 per
cent of the total count and 72 per cent of the total weight (Eriksen et al., 2013).
Research on the amount, distribution, composition and potential impact of
microparticles has received increasing attention.
Plastic debris continues to accumulate in the marine environment. Goldstein
et al. (2013) show that the density of microplastics within the North Pacific
Central Gyre has increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades.
In contrast, there is no significant trend in the density of surface water plastics
in the North Atlantic from 1986 to 2008, despite increases in plastic production
during this time (Law et al., 2010). Some form of loss must be taking place
to offset the presumed increase in the input of plastics to the ocean. Possible
sinks for floating plastic debris include fragmentation, sedimentation, shore
deposition, and ingestion by marine organisms (Law et al., 2011).
Beach Debris
Millions of volunteers in more than 150 countries are involved in beach-cleanup
activities on International Coastal Cleanup Day every year (Ocean Conservancy,
2011). The volunteers’ participation contributes to extensive sampling and helps
to obtain more information from a wider range of sites (Rees and Pond, 1995).
For most beaches, the major debris is plastic. The spatial distribution of plastic
debris is affected by multiple factors, including land, uses, human population,
fishing activity, and oceanic current systems (Ribic et al., 2010).
Beach debris density may be linked to the number of tourists and the cleaning
frequency (Bravo et al., 2009; Kuo and Huang, 2014). For example, beach debris
densities in central Chile were lower than in northern and southern Chile, which
198 could be due to different attitudes of beach users or intensive beach cleaning in
central regions (Bravo et al., 2009). Santos et al. (2005) found that the quantity of Marine pollution
litter depends on beach visitor density. Ocean current patterns, sand types, wave
action, and wind exposure have further effects on litter abundance. For example,
in Monterey Bay, California, the United States, the seasonal variability in debris
abundance may be a function of oceanic winds, as well as the possibility that
seasonal current patterns may drive debris deposition (Rosevelt et al., 2013).
Although marine debris density is usually associated with population density,
a few studies contradict this. Ribic et al. (2010) shows no trends over several
decades in beach-debris densities along the Eastern Atlantic seaboard of the
United States, although large percentage increases in coastal population occurred
in the south-east Atlantic region and a smaller percentage increase in coastal
population occurred in the north-east region.
Benthic Marine Debris
The occurrence of litter on the seafloor has been far less investigated than in
surface waters or on beaches, principally because of the high cost and the technical
difficulties involved in sampling the seafloor. Nevertheless, a few investigations
of benthic debris have been recorded, including on the continental shelves, on
raised seabed features, such as seamounts, ridges and banks, in canyons and
polar regions. The surveying methods for the density and composition of
benthic marine debris include bottom trawling, coring, scuba diving, the use of
submersibles, snorkelling, manta tows and sonar (Spengler and Costa, 2008) and
more recently, towed camera systems and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs).
Abundances of benthic debris range from dozens to more than hundreds of
thousands of items per square kilometre. As more areas of Europe’s seafloor
are being explored, benthic litter is progressively being revealed to be more
widespread than previously assumed. Pham et al. (2014) reported data on litter
distribution and density collected during 588 videos and trawl surveys across
32 sites in European waters (35-4500 m depth). Debris was found to be present
in the deepest areas and at locations as remote from land as the Charlie-Gibbs
Fracture Zone across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The highest litter density occurred
in submarine canyons, and the lowest density was found on continental shelves
and ocean ridges. As for most other marine environments studied, plastic
was the most prevalent litter item found on the seafloor. Woodall et al (2015)
showed that the litter was ubiquitous on deep-sea raised benthic features, such
as seamounts, banks and ridges, A total of 56 items were found in the Atlantic
Ocean over a survey area of 11.6 ha, and 31 items in the Indian Ocean over 5.6
ha, with a significant difference in the type of litter between areas sampled in
the Indian Ocean (where the dominant litter type was fishing gear) and sites in
the Atlantic Ocean (which had mixed refuse).
Litter from fishing activities (derelict fishing lines and nets) was particularly
common on seamounts, banks, mounds and ocean ridges. A significant source of
benthic debris is lost and discarded fishing gear, which is of particular concern
due to ghost fishing effects that can kill both commercial and non-commercial
species. Laist (1996) reports annual gear loss rates of about one per cent for
gillnet fisheries and between 5 and 30 per cent for trap fisheries in United States
199
Water-Related fisheries. Whereas trap loss rates in the American lobster fishery are relatively
Issues low (5-10 per cent) because the fishery involves more than 3 million deployed
traps, the lobster fishery alone may account for the loss of more than 150,000
traps per year.
Hydrography, geomorphology, and anthropogenic activities all affect the
abundance, type, and location of debris reaching the seafloor (Barnes et al.,
2009; Galgani et al., 2000; Schlining et al., 2013). Because they facilitate
the transport and deposition of debris, submarine canyons act as conduits for
debris, transporting it from the coast to the deep sea (Ramirez-Llodra et al.,
2013; Schlining et al., 2013). Ramirez-Llodra et al. (2013) suggests that debris
in a canyon mainly originates from coastal areas, and that plastic debris can
be transported easily by canyon-enhanced currents, whereas heavy debris is
usually discarded from ships. Wei et al. (2012) indicate that the debris density
was higher in the eastern than that in the western Gulf of Mexico, primarily
because of shipping lanes, offshore oil- and gas installation platforms, as well
as fishing activities. The litter density and diversity were independent of the
depth of water and distance from land. Galgani et al. (2000) report that only
small amounts of debris were collected on the continental shelf, mostly in
canyons descending from the continental slope. Ramirez-Llodra et al. (2013)
report accumulation of litter with increasing depth, but the mean weight at
different depths, or between the open slope and canyons, showed no significant
variation. Schlining et al. (2013) found debris clustered just below the edge of
canyon walls or on the outside of canyon meanders. Wei et al. (2012) indicated
that the total density of anthropogenic waste was significantly different between
parallel depth transects. Woodall et al (2015) concluded that the pattern of
accumulation and composition of the litter was determined by a complex range
of factors both environmental and anthropogenic.
Debris continuously accumulates on the deep seabed; some research shows a
significant increasing trend. Watters et al. (2010) reported a significant increase
in the amount of litter at some shelf locations in California, United States,
between 1993 and 2007. The debris density has continued increasing and has
doubled during the last decade in the Arctic deep-sea (Bergmann and Klages,
2012). The density of microplastics in sediments has been increasing along the
Belgian coast (Claessens et al., 2011). However, some studies did not observe
significant temporal increases, for example, in litter abundance between 1989
and 2010 in Monterey Canyon, central California, United States (Schlining et
al., 2013).
10.7 INTENSITY OF MARINE POLLUTION

The sea absorbs a variety of chemicals that flow into it, but the sea itself remains
relatively unchanged. However, with the expansion of the world’s industries
in recent decades, marine pollution has become increasingly serious, and the
marine environment in the region has altered dramatically. As a result, oceans,
as a vital part of human development, are now confronting various adverse
issues. The marine ecology is then gradually impacted by pollution from land,
ships, and maritime accidents. In the face of escalating marine pollution, we can
no longer remain silent. The preservation of the marine environment should be
200 considered one of humanity’s most critical issues today. To protect the maritime
ecosystem, everyone must take action. The bay near the mainland is where Marine pollution
the majority of marine pollution occurs. Temperature, pH, salt, transparency
and species are all influenced by the ecological balance of the ocean, which is
threatened by the concentration of population and industry, large amounts of
sewage and solid waste discharged into seawater. Oil pollution, toxic build-
up, plastic pollution, and nuclear contamination are all examples of marine
pollution. Worldwide, the most polluted areas are the Mediterranean Sea, New
York Bay Baltic Sea, Tokyo Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Coastal pollution is
found serious in Japan, the United States, the East and the South China Sea.
As a result of human production and lifestyle, the majority of the massive
volumes of pollutants formed in the water enter the ocean through a variety of
routes. Damage to marine biological resources, maritime development, and the
quality of the marine environment endangers humanity. As a result, protecting
the ecosystem in the sea is crucial.
The UNESCO Intergovernmental Ocean Commission on the Status of the
Global Large-Scale Marine Ecosystem Research Report, released on July 14,
2016, indicated that over 50% of fishing resources are overfished, and seawater
warming affects 64 key marine ecosystems. Furthermore, more than half of
the world’s coral reefs are threatened, with the number rising to 90% by 2030.
There are currently 66 main marine ecosystems on the planet, each covering
over 200,000 square kilometres. In the ocean, these zones are often incredibly
productive, but they are also extremely sensitive to human activity. The report
points out that between 1957 and 2012, the temperature of 64 major marine
ecosystems rose. And three of them are the East China Sea, the Scotia Sea, and
the waters of the northeastern continental shelf of the United States, where the
seawater temperature rises fastest; the maximum temperature rise is 1.6 °. In
addition to seawater temperature, this publication also looked at productivity,
fisheries, pollution and environmental protection, marine health and socio-
economic development, and integrated management of large-scale marine
ecosystems. The world’s largest marine ecosystems, on the whole, get low
marks. In the case of plastic pollution, the East and Southeast Asian waterways,
the Mediterranean Sea, and the Black Sea are all in higher danger. According to
the estimate, the ocean contains between 5 and 50 trillion tonnes of plastic trash.
The actual figure is unknown, but it is undoubtedly large and does not include
plastic debris that has accumulated on the ocean floor or beaches. Some garbage
decomposes in six months, while others might last hundreds of years in the sea.
In maritime habitats, plastic garbage decomposes more slowly than on land,
which can have significant consequences. These plastic containers emit harmful
compounds and do not contribute to the natural nutrition cycle in the ocean. By
2050, eutrophication of saltwater will have put 21 per cent of the world’s major
marine ecosystems at risk, primarily in Southeast Asia and Africa. Huge marine
ecosystems, particularly large bodies of water near developing countries, are
often next to densely populated areas and are thus most affected by human
activities. The most important issues harming marine ecosystems include ocean
acidification, rising seawater temperature and commercial transportation. 201
Water-Related Seawater turbidity, which is generated by marine pollution, has a significant
Issues impact on the photosynthesis of marine plants like phytoplankton, lowering
ocean production and putting fish at risk. Heavy metals, hazardous natural
chemicals, and other poisonous contaminants build on the bottom, poisoning
marine animals and other species. Oil is being dumped into the ocean, causing
a large amount of dissolved oxygen to be absorbed by the oil; the oil film
concealing the water has caused a split between seawater and air, which may
be the cause of ocean hypoxia. Hypoxia in seawater can lead to the demise of
marine life. Algal plankton can proliferate in seawater quickly due to nitrogen
and phosphorus pollution.
Most of the world’s coastal areas are reportedly degraded by pollution, which
has a significant impact on commercial coastal and marine fisheries. Therefore,
the management of water pollution is recognized as an urgent need for the
sustainable management and conservation of existing fisheries and water
resources. Unfortunately, as Williams (1996) explains, pollution problems are
characterized by interconnections, complex interactions, uncertainties, conflicts,
and limitations that make problem management difficult. Furthermore, one of
the key problems in implementing efficient management methods to address
marine pollution has been recognized as the information gap, which is related
to poor scientific knowledge of marine pollution.
10.8 MECHANISM AND PROCESS OF MARINE

POLLUTION
Disposal into waterways is a very ancient practice of dealing with waste and
the open waterways have been used by people for dumping all kinds of waste
produced. Consequently, most of the aquatic environments are now polluted
to some extent; situations are even critical near intensive human settlements.
Pollution of water bodies from a large variety of sources and their various
impacts has been reported from different ecosystems for a long. Progressive
increases in nutrient concentration and altered nutrient ratio have been reported
from the Baltic Sea, Wadden Sea, North Sea, Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, Dutch
Sea, Japan Sea, the Gulf of Thailand, the Indian Ocean and the bays and coasts
of many countries (HELCOM, 1996; Sheppard, 2000a, Sheppard, 2000b).
As a result of human intervention and mobilization of nutrients, surface
waters and groundwaters throughout the developed world now have elevated
concentrations of N and P compared to concentrations in the middle of the 20th
century (Cloern, 2001). For example, concentrations of nitrate have increased
five times and phosphate 20 times in the Black Sea from the 1960s to the 1980s
(Gomoiu, 1992). Cloern (2001) reported a decadal-scale of increasing N and P
in the Northwest Black Sea, central Baltic Sea, Archipelago Sea and the Irish
Sea and three rivers in North America and Europe including the Mississippi
River; increasing phytoplankton productivity in the Adriatic Sea, Belt Sea and
the Wadden Sea decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations and Secchi depths
202 in different coastal seas from the 1960s to 1990. Likewise, levels of N and P
in the Dutch Seas have increased four and two times respectively from 1930 to Marine pollution
1980 (GESAMP, 1990). Three to five times increases in N and P export have
been reported in Queensland, Australia, in the last 65 years (Moss et al., 1992).
Progressive increases in primary productivity and decreases in dissolved oxygen
due to eutrophication have been reported in the Baltic Sea from 1958 to 1989
(HELCOM, 1996). A decrease in bottom oxygen was found in the northern
Adriatic Sea during the period 1911 to 1984 (Justic et al., 1995). The long-
term increase in nutrients in the Baltic has caused an increase in phytoplankton
biomass, a decrease in water transparency, proliferation of filamentous algae,
and also large-scale changes in species diversity of benthic and fish communities
(Bonsdorff et al., 1997). Globally, increases in frequency and severity of hypoxia
are evident, especially in coastal and estuarine areas; many ecosystems are now
near the verge of hypoxia-induced catastrophe (Diaz and Rosenberg, 1995).
In the last two decades, there has been an increased frequency and scale of
toxic algal blooms including red tides in coastal waters of Brunei, Malaysia,
South Africa, Hong Kong, Japan and Thailand and an increase in PSP frequency
has been found in both temperate and tropical regions (Viviani, 1992). Long-
term monitoring programs show a general decrease in environmental levels
of DDT and PCB in many coastal waters. For example, the annual geometric
means of DDT, PCBs and PAHs in mussels at 154 sites in coastal waters of
the USA showed a general decrease from 1986 to 1993 (Beliaeff et al., 1997).
Likewise, Blomkvist et al. (1992) showed a significant decrease in RDDT
and PCB in the blubber of 109 specimens of ringed seals (Phoca hispida
botica), grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) in
Swedish waters since the early 1970s. Analysis of sediment core samples in
Clyde estuary, UK showed a significant decrease in PAH deposition over time
(Hursthouse et al., 1994). The decreased concentration of xenobiotics in the
marine environment reflects the general reduction in the use and discharge of
these compounds in the northern hemisphere. Unfortunately, very few long-
term studies have been carried out in tropical and subtropical coastal waters.
The decreasing trend observed in temperate regions may not apply to tropical
and sub-tropical waters, since a reduction in use and disposal of toxic organic
chemicals in the latter regions may not be the same.
At present, some 65% of existing large cities (with more than 2.5 million people)
are located along the coast. The world population has exceeded 6 billion, of
whom 60% (3.6 billion) is living within 100 km of the coast (UNEP, 1991).
A substantial proportion of wastewater generated from this population will
likely be directly discharged into the coastal marine environment with little or
no treatment, thereby adding to the already high nutrient input. Various studies
have attempted to estimate the anthropogenic input of nutrients into the marine
environment (Cornell et al., 1995; Sheppard, 2000a, Sheppard, 2000b, Sheppard,
2000c). The present anthropogenic emissions and deposition of nitrogen to the
North Atlantic Ocean are about five times greater than in pre-industrial time
(Prospero et al., 1996). At present, atmospheric deposition of N contributes some
10–50% of the total anthropogenic N input (2-10 × 104 μmol N m−2 year−1), and 203
Water-Related a further increase is expected in the coming years (Paerl, 1993).
Issues There is a worldwide increase in irrigation in arid areas, large scale clearing of
land vegetation, and deforestation, which contribute enormously to terrestrial
runoff. Intensive farming results in overgrazing, ammonia emission, and farm
waste disposal problems. Nutrient export from crop and pasture lands is typically
an order of magnitude greater than those from the pristine forest (Gabric and
Bell, 1993). Mariculture activities have increased dramatically in many coastal
areas in the last decade, and such a trend will continue (FAO, 1992). This will
further augment the nutrient input into coastal environments since some 80% of
N input into a mariculture system will be lost in the marine environment (Wu,
1995). The volume of wastewater generated by human populations is typically
large, and the removal of nutrients from such huge amounts of wastewater is
expensive. The cost of secondary treatment (which only removes some 30-40%
of N and P) for example, is some 3-4 times more expensive than that of primary
treatment. Due to the high construction and recurrent costs, it is unlikely that
the building of sewage treatment facilities can match population growth and
GNP in developing countries.
PCBs are frequently found in fish liver, seal blubber, bird eggs and human fat
in the North Sea. Octachlorostyrenes (OCSs) were found in benthic organisms
from the international North Sea (Dethlefsen et al., 1996). Concentrations of
HCHs, PCBs, and triazines have been determined in the German Bight within
the water column and rainwater, and HCHs and PCBs in sediment samples
(Huhnerfuss et al., 1997). Concentrations of insecticides and PCBs in sediment
from the Thames estuary have been associated with sewage sludge dumping.
Disposal of dredged material into the North Sea amounted to approximately
70 million tons per year in the 1990s. Litter and garbage disposal from ships
overboard and tourism is estimated at 600,000 m3 per year. Organic inputs will
likely continue, especially in those waters deemed to have sufficient carrying
capacity to degrade, disperse and assimilate the materials (Elliott et al., 1998).
Shipping in the North Sea is the most intense in the world and the area is a major
navigation route for some of the world’s most developed and highly populated
economies. The effects of TBT, the active constituent of antifouling paints, on
marine fauna have been extensively demonstrated with work done in this region
and adjacent coasts.
Globally, sewage remains the largest source of contamination, by volume, of
the marine and coastal environment (GESAMP, 2001), and coastal sewage
discharges have increased dramatically in the past three decades. In addition,
because of the high demand for water in urban neighbourhoods, water supply
tends to outstrip the provision of sewerage, increasing the volume of wastewater.
Public health problems from the contamination of coastal waters with sewage-
borne pathogens are well known, and in many developed countries improved
sewage treatment and reduction of the disposal of industrial and some domestic
contaminants into municipal systems have significantly improved water quality.
In the developing world, however, the provision of basic sanitation, as well
204 as urban sewer systems and sewage treatment, cannot keep pace. High capital
costs, explosive pace of urbanization and in many cases, limited technical, Marine pollution
administrative and financial capacities for urban planning and management and
ongoing operation of sewage treatment systems are barriers to efficient sewage
treatment (GESAMP, 2001). Recent evidence suggests that bathing in waters
well within current microbiological standards still poses a significant risk of
gastrointestinal disease, and that sewage contamination of marine waters is a
health problem of global proportions.
Human activities now account for more than half of global nitrogen fixation
(Vitousek et al., 1997), and the supply of fixed nitrogen to the oceans has greatly
increased. Sewage discharges are often the dominant local source near urban
areas but global inputs are dominated by agricultural run-off and atmospheric
deposition. The highest rates of riverine transport of dissolved inorganic nitrogen
to estuaries from all sources occur in Europe and South and East Asia (Seitzinger
and Kroeze, 1998). Nitrogen levels are exacerbated by the widespread loss of
natural interceptors such as coastal wetlands, coral reefs and mangrove forests.
Fertilizer use has stabilized in developed countries but is increasing in developing
ones (Socolow, 1999), a trend expected to continue because of the enhancement
of fertilizer use through widespread subsidies, which reflect the high political
priority of increasing food production and reducing food costs.
Another important feature of marine pollution is the existence of increased
pollution levels in the enclosed seas and coastal waters as compared with the
open ocean. Contamination levels also increase during the transition from the
southern parts of all oceans to the north, where the main industrial centres and
main pollution sources are concentrated. The presence of excessive quantities
of pollutants in high bio-productivity zones is particularly concerning from an
ecological standpoint. These zones include the water layer up to 100 metres
below the ocean surface, natural environment boundaries i.e., water-atmosphere
and water-bottom sediment, enclosed seas, estuaries, and shelf waters. The most
intense activities of bio-production, including the self-reproduction of the sea’s
main living resources, take place in shelf and coastal zones, which account
for only 10% of the World Ocean’s surface. Progress in protecting the marine
and coastal environment over the past 30 years has generally been confined to
relatively few, mostly developed countries, and relatively few environmental
issues. Overall, coastal and marine environmental degradation not only
continues but has intensified. There have, however, been significant changes in
perspective, and new concerns have emerged. Marine and coastal degradation is
caused by increasing pressure on both terrestrial and marine natural resources,
and on the use of the oceans to deposit wastes. Population growth and increasing
urbanization, industrialization and tourism in coastal areas are the root causes of
this increased pressure.
10.9 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF MARINE

POLLUTION
Marine ecosystems around the world provide a wealth of ecosystem services 205
Water-Related (the benefits people obtain from nature), including food provision for billions
Issues of people, carbon storage, waste detoxification, and cultural benefits including
recreational opportunities and spiritual enhancement (Worm et al., 2006; Liquete
et al., 2013). Any threat to the continued supply of these ecosystem services has
the potential to significantly impact the well-being of humans across the globe,
owing to the loss of food security, livelihoods, income and good health (Naeem
et al., 2016).
There are substantial and increasing quantities of plastic pollution in the marine
environment, (Geyer et al., 2017). An estimated 4.8-12.7 million metric tons of
plastic entered the world’s oceans from land-based sources in 2010 alone, and
the flux of plastics to the oceans is predicted to increase by an order of magnitude
within the next decade (Jambeck et al., 2015). While, over time, this plastic
may fragment into small pieces, referred to as ‘microplastics’ (0.1 μm-5 mm),
the vast majority is expected to persist in the environment in some form over
geological timescales (Andrady, 2015). Though removing some marine plastic
is possible, it is time-intensive, expensive, and inefficient.
It is now well evidenced that this plastic negatively impacts marine life
(Galloway et al., 2017). While research on plastic pollution has been growing
exponentially over the past decade, there is a poor understanding of the holistic
effects of marine plastic and the resultant impact on ecosystem services, and
in turn, its bearing on human wellbeing, society and the economy. What is
known tends to be based on a small scale, local research that cannot be readily
transferred or scaled up (Ten Brink et al., 2016). The impact of marine plastic is
however a global issue, and a synthesis of the currently available but disparate
information is required, ideally detailing global ecological impacts, but also
translating them into societal and economic terms.
A solid understanding of the ecological, social and economic impact of marine
plastic is necessary to inform a global transition in the way we make, use and
reuse plastic, in such a way as to eliminate negative impacts, with implications
for public behaviour, legislation and governance, industry and commerce (Pahl
et al., 2017). This knowledge is critical in laying the groundwork for effective
and efficient worldwide negotiations on the long-term use, management,
and disposal of plastic, a material with numerous advantages and extensive
applications.
Globally, seafood is the principal source of animal protein and makes up more
than 20% of food intake (by weight) for 1.4 billion people (19% of the global
population) (Golden et al., 2016). Marine plastic has the potential to reduce the
efficiency and productivity of commercial fisheries and aquaculture through
physical entanglement and damage (Mouat et al., 2010), but also by posing
a direct risk to fish stocks. Plastic is frequently ingested by a wide range of
marine species, including those directly vital to food provision such as
shellfish and fish (Rochman et al., 2015) at all stages of their lifecycle (Steer
et al., 2017; Lusher et al., 2012). This plastic can be ingested directly from the
environment, or indirectly consumed via plastic contaminated prey (Setala et
206 al., 2014). Polymers are typically rich in additives (e.g. plasticizers, biocides,
flame retardants), and once in the marine environment can readily concentrate Marine pollution
microbial pathogens (Kirstein et al., 2016) and toxic persistent organic
pollutants (POPS), e.g. dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Rios et al., 2007); POPs can accumulate in the
tissues of marine animals and biomagnify in higher predators including humans
(Teuten et al., 2009). The contamination of the food chain with plastic and
associated contaminants puts fish and shellfish stocks, and their prey, at risk of
lethal and sub-lethal harm (i.e. diminished reproductive success and growth),
with capacity for population-level impacts (Galloway et al., 2017; Sussarellu et
al., 2016).
The consumption of marine plastic by humans will occur when the entirety of a
contaminated organism, including the gut, is eaten (e.g. mussels, oysters, sprats,
anchovies). Marine plastic may also exacerbate the concentrations of POPs in
the flesh of shellfish and fish, posing additional risk to consumers (Rochman
et al., 2015; Rios et al., 2007). While further controlled studies are required
to better understand the risk to humans, the existing literature concludes the
health risks of marine plastic are minimal (Galloway, 2015; Lusher et al.,
2017). Nevertheless, the ‘perceived risk’ of the contamination of seafood with
microplastic may be detrimental to fisheries.
Overall, evidence suggests that the productivity, viability, profitability and safety
of the fishing and aquaculture industry are highly vulnerable to the impact of
marine plastic, particularly when coupled with broader factors including climate
change and over-fishing. The high dependency on seafood for nutrition leaves
the well-being of a significant proportion of the world’s population highly
vulnerable to any changes in the quantity, quality and safety of this food source
(Golden et al., 2016).
Recreational users of coastlines are exposed more frequently to plastic and
experience a range of well-being impacts. Litter on the shore is disliked (Hartley
et al., 2013), and is often stated as a key reason why visitors will spend less time
in these environments or will avoid certain sites if they anticipate they will be
littered (Anderson and Brown, 1984; Ballance et al., 2000; Tudor and Williams,
2006; WHO, 2003). This has a range of economic costs, from clean-up expenses
to loss of tourism revenue.
As well as having economic costs, the presence of litter can also have direct
consequences on individuals’ physical and mental health. Visitors and maritime
workers are susceptible to a range of injuries, such as cutting themselves on sharp
debris, getting entangled in nets, and being exposed to unsanitary items (Santos
et al., 2005). Spending time on littered coastlines has also been demonstrated
to be detrimental to their mood and mental wellbeing (Wyles et al., 2016). In
turn, refraining from going to the coast due to these risks, can also have health
implications, inhibiting the opportunity to reap the benefits coastlines typically
offer, e.g. promoting physical activity, facilitating important social interactions
such as strengthening family bonds, and improving physical and mental health
(Ashbullby et al., 2013; Papathanasopoulou et al., 2016).
Beyond the immediate ecological impacts mentioned here, the presence of plastic 207
Water-Related has the potential to dramatically shift the ecology of marine systems (Galloway
Issues et al., 2017). An altered environment and shifts in biodiversity can have
potentially wide-reaching and unpredictable secondary societal consequences
(Worm et al., 2006), not least by impairing the ecosystem resilience and
recovery potential in a time of global change. Plastics are a stressor, which can
act in concert with other environmental stressors such as those arising from
other pollutants, changing ocean temperatures, ocean acidification, and the
overexploitation of marine resources. The cumulative impacts of these stressors
may result in marine plastic causing far greater damage than expected.
In addition, although the results show increased bacterial and algal colonisation
and abundance, this might harm the wider ecosystem. Marine plastic is an
attractive substrate that is quickly and intensively colonized by a wide range of
opportunistic species (Kirstein et al., 2016). Natural flotsam such as kelp and
wood tend to degrade and sink within a matter of months; conversely, plastic can
withstand prolonged exposure to UV radiation and wave action and can remain
buoyant for longer periods (decades or even longer) and travel distances of
more than 3000 km from source (Barnes and Milner, 2005). The colonization of
plastic provides a mechanism for the movement of organisms between biomes,
thus potentially increasing their biogeographical range and risking the spread
of invasive species and diseases (Lamb et al., 2018). Indeed, marine plastic
has been linked to increased rates of invasive species and unprecedented rates
of species dispersal using man-made flotsam have been documented, including
an estimate that marine plastic has doubled organisms’ opportunities for
dispersal in the tropics (Barnes, 2002). This additional impact is not included
in this analysis but has clear potential for causing substantial ecological, social,
and economic consequences. The negative ecological, social and economic
impacts of plastic pollution will continue to increase into the future.
The ecological effects of pesticides are diverse and often complex. Impacts
at the biological or environmental level are usually considered early warning
indicators of potential human health effects. Importantly, many of these effects
are chronic and often unnoticed by casual observers, but affect the entire food
chain. The main effects are the death of organisms, cancer, tumours and lesions of
fish and animals, inhibition or disorder of reproduction, suppression of immune
system, destruction of the endocrine system, damage of cells and molecules,
teratogenic effects, health condition of fish. These effects are not necessarily
caused solely by exposure to pesticides and other organic pollutants but may
be related to a combination of environmental pressures such as eutrophication
and pathogens.
10.10 ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF

DEEP-SEA MINING
So far, with deep-sea mining being a rather new technology, the ecological
consequences are unknown (Glasby, 2000, Yamazuki, 2011). However, many
concerns have already been raised:
208
Marine pollution
•• Digging up parts of the seafloor disturbs the benthic ecosystems close to the
hydrothermal vents. These ecosystems are often teeming with life, containing
many species that are unique to the vents and with high primary production.
The ecosystems surrounding hydrothermal vents combine superheated
and highly mineralized vent fluids with microbes that are capable of using
chemicals as a nutritional source. In recent years, such ecosystems have been
found to host over 500 species previously unknown to science. In addition,
damage to those ecosystems may impact large regions of the benthic zone
in the oceans.
•• Mining these deposits may result in leakage of the toxic sulfides, altering the
composition of the water column.
•• Deep-sea mining can have the biggest influence on sediment plumes. When
mining tailings are discharged into the sea, a cloud of particles floats on the
surface by forming plumes. There are two distinct sorts of plumes:
(1) Seafloor plumes, which will affect the local turbidity and clog the
feeding apparatus of the benthic organisms down below, and
(2) Surface plumes, which could affect light penetration in the water near the
ocean surface, threatening primary production by the phytoplankton,
and alter the chemical composition near the surface, affecting all
planktonic life forms.
Most marine pollution is simply by accident when it comes to the amount of
pollution that goes into the water, it needs to be said that most of it are simply
by accident. As there are a good number of international regulations that forbid
the express dumping of all different kinds of waste above certain levels. For
example, garbage has to be either delivered to shore or burnt in incinerators
onboard. Incineration is prohibited in special areas. The quantitatively largest
aquatic form of accidental pollution caused by the maritime sector is also the
one that has been highlighted the most, oil spills. As crude oil consists of a wide
range of different hydrocarbon molecules with different molecular weights and
properties, it is not easy to give a concise view of the total damage that is done
by an accidental spill. Apart from the highly visible heavy oil that covers the
water, the animals and the shores, a large number of lighter components are
present as well. These lighter components are likely to do even more damage in
the long run, as they are stored in the adipose tissue of different animals in the
food chain. Examples of these lighter components comprise the monocyclic and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are difficult to clean up, and bound to
cause cancer and other health problems after a few years of continuous exposure.
1. Discuss beach debris and benthic marine debris.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….…………………………………………………………… 209
Water-Related …………………………….……………………………………………
Issues …………………………………………….……………………………
2. What are the ecological consequences of deep-sea mining?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………

Several international conventions, treaties, and agreements have been
established by the United Nations to regulate the use and exploitation of the
oceans, especially coastal seas. The United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, which governed all uses of the oceans and their resources from 1973
to 1982, established a global framework of law and order in the world’s oceans
and seas. It establishes the idea that all marine issues are intertwined and must
be addressed as a whole.
In 1972, the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Waste and Other
Substances Disposal (London Disposal Convention) was signed. It aimed to
avoid marine pollution caused by the intentional dumping of rubbish or other
chemicals at sea, including in places beyond the country’s jurisdiction. The
1996 Protocol accepted the changes and included stricter terms. The United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) is committed to protecting the oceans
and promoting the environmentally sound use of marine resources, especially
through its regional ocean programs. The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) develops and/or manages various treaties with a particular focus on the
prevention of sea and sea pollution.
Apart from this, every country, including India, has its own marine environmental
monitoring program to understand and assess the status of the marine
environment. For this purpose, seawater, sediments and fish tissue samples
are being regularly collected and analyzed to estimate the concentrations of
pollutants.
At present, the disposal or dumping of land-derived effluent, sewage and waste
into the marine environment is controlled and regulated. Each country has its
environmental standards and guidelines for controlling the discharge or dumping
of pollutants into the sea. It is also mandatory to conduct an Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) before starting construction and/or operation of any
industrial activities in the coastal areas. In India, the Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB), a statutory organization under the Ministry of Environment and
Forest, formulates environmental standards and guidelines for protecting the
marine environment. Every industry must treat their effluent to comply with the
standards before discharging it into the coastal waters.
The ocean’s self-cleaning capacity is finite, and if human pollution exceeds
the limitations of the ocean’s self-cleaning capacity, marine pollution will
210
undoubtedly have a catastrophic effect on the entire globe. The following Marine pollution
methods and guidelines must be considered to regulate and manage marine
pollution.
10.11.1 Oil Pollution Control Measures
1. To improve legislative oversight and increase law enforcement actions
All countries should accelerate the formulation and implementation of
special laws on offshore oil pollution as per their national conditions, ratify
the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response,
and Cooperation as soon as possible, pollution control, strengthen the
management of oil tankers, and crew training as per the UN Convention
on the Law of the Sea and other international laws and regulations.
2. Controlling industrial contaminants in the environment that pollute
coastal waterways
To begin with, bring changes in the economic growth mechanism by
altering the industrial structure and product mix, culminating in the
formation of a circular economy. Steps to improve the management of
major industrial pollution sources, as well as the production process
as a whole, should be implemented. Professional treatment and in situ
treatment limit industrial pollution sources of toxic and hazardous material
emissions, in accordance with the “who is contaminated, who bears the”
concept. Lastly, implementation of environmental impact assessments
and the creation of a comprehensive pollution control and sewage permit
system must be made compulsory.
3. Controlling pollution of coastal cities
Coastal wetlands conservation, urban coastal sewage collecting pipe
network and sewage treatment plant construction, urban sewage collection
and treatment capacity improvement, and urban wastewater treatment
facilities are all examples of irrational city planning coordination.
Denitrification and dephosphorylation improvements have to be
introduced.
4. Controlling the pollution of marine pollutants
Construction of large-scale port wastewater, waste oil, waste recycling
and treatment systems, as well as transportation and fishing vessels, to
meet pollutant discharge criteria that prioritize recycling, shore treatment,
and discharge regulations.
5. Reducing the occurrence of pollution accidents
The preparation of contingency plans for maritime oil spills and toxic
chemical spills, as well as disaster contingency plans and an emergency
response system for port environmental pollution disasters, should be in
place.
10.11.2 Measures to Reduce Heavy Metal Pollution

Heavy metal pollution is difficult to regulate, which is closely tied to its
characteristics, but there is also an increasing focus on the causes, so its
characteristics must be properly studied for the prevention of heavy metal 211
Water-Related pollution as heavy metal pollutants are persistent pollutants that can’t be
Issues
completely removed from the environment, only their position or form can be
altered.
1. Source Governance
Heavy metal pollution incident information should be submitted in the
event of a problem; it is necessary to report and properly handle and
assist the local government in doing a good job of information disclosure,
publicity, and education, and earnestly safeguarding the environmental
rights and interests of the masses. Strict checks must be carried out
regularly to ensure that the heavy metal emissions laws are not violated.
Improve the enterprise waste treatment system so that it may reduce
pollution and improve working conditions to protect worker health.
2. Cleaner Production
Heavy metal emissions from new and enlarged large-scale smelting
projects should be closely regulated. A fair deployment of enterprise
production water is essential to encourage the cascade usage of water
technologies. Improve industrial wastewater treatment technology
and reintroduce wastewater into the processing system. To accelerate
the industry’s technological advancement and improve the quality and
efficiency of its development, strengthen research on key technologies
related to clean production, as well as disseminate and implement existing
advanced technologies.
3. Improved Technology
Reduce the amount of heavy metal pollution via improving industrial
technology and equipment, automation, and mechanization. Strengthen
resource use across the board and encourage industrial upgrading.
Improve the industrial structure, and promote the development of energy-
saving emission-reduction technologies vigorously. Improve industrial
technology and equipment, automation and mechanization to reduce
heavy metal pollution.
10.11.3 Measures to Reduce Ship Pollution

Increasing the effectiveness of ship pollution prevention and control legislation,
establishing and improving the global marine environmental law system,
adhering to ship pollution prevention and control legislation and the uniformity
of the environmental legal system, particularly the marine environmental
legal system, and properly handling ship pollution prevention and control are
all important goals. A comprehensive and systematic review of existing ship
pollution control legislation based on necessary amendments and additions
should be carried out. Make national norms and regulations for the prevention
and control of inland water pollution. Modern international law relies heavily
on international treaties. The state has an international obligation under
international treaties in international relations. It has a responsibility to align
its domestic laws with its international obligations. As a result, the maritime
environmental protection law is based on the relevant international treaties. To
212 increase awareness of maritime environmental protection and limit or eradicate
pollution-causing human activities and raise anti-pollution consciousness, Marine pollution
increase public awareness and education. Increase the penalty for unlawful
operations and pollution of re-incorruptible vessels, as well as those who fail to
take steps to improve the industry.
10.11.4 Suggestions and Prospects
Human life is greatly influenced by the sea environment. Global warming as well
as rising sea levels pose a serious threat to humanity. Marine oil contamination,
which is caused by a biological chain breakdown, as well as environmental
degradation and other issues, are all major concerns. Heavy metal contamination
of the water is a direct result of human activity; heavy metals move through the
natural cycle and into the biological chain, finally reaching the human body and
having a substantial impact on human health.
Each of us has a responsibility and obligation to protect the marine environment,
and the marine ecosystem is now being put to the test, and the results are not
encouraging. However, as people’s environmental awareness has grown in
recent years, maritime environmental preservation has received increased
attention. There is optimism for maritime environmental protection as newer
environmentally friendly energy is employed, and environmental monitoring
efforts to improve the discharge of industrial wastewater discharge requirements
are made.
With the advancement of humans, it is reasonable to expect that marine
environmental issues will be addressed in the future.

1. Differentiate between natural and anthropogenic marine pollution.
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….………………………................
2. What are the effects of marine pollution?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….………………………................
10.12 LET US SUM UP

Aquatic pollution is expected to worsen in the coming years, providing a
significant ecological and public health threat, especially in developing countries. 213
Water-Related Coastal and marine pollution has already changed the structure and function of
Issues phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic, and fish communities across large areas,
posing a health risk to humans. The impact of pollution on fisheries and other
commercial uses of coastal and marine environments is of special relevance.
The majority of the world’s main fisheries have now been harmed to varying
degrees; the situation is considerably graver in those fisheries that are already
overexploited or otherwise susceptible, and hence require rapid intervention.
Effective and long-term management of the coastal and marine environment
should begin at the local level and work its way up to the international and
global levels to ensure the most efficient and effective use of resources for the
greater good of humanity. Ocean pollution is a worldwide issue. It comes from
a variety of places and crosses national borders. It’s getting worse, and most
countries don’t have a good handle on it. Land-based sources account for more
than 80% of the total.
Plastic trash is the most visible kind of water pollution, and it has deservedly
earned a lot of attention. It kills seabirds, fish, whales, and dolphins, among
others. It breaks down into plastic micro-and nanoparticles, as well as fibres, all
of which include a variety of dangerous and carcinogenic chemicals.
Fish and shellfish consume these chemical-laden particles, which then enter the
marine food chain and eventually reach people. It is only now that the dangers
they bring to human health are being assessed. The gross domestic product and
never-ending economic expansion are the obsessions of this linear economic
worldview. Natural resources and human capital are viewed as plentiful and
disposable, with little regard for the consequences of their indiscriminate
exploitation. It goes against the norms of environmental stewardship. It isn’t
going to last long. Controlling ocean pollution and preventing pollution-related
illness would necessitate leaders at all levels of government as well as continual
international and civil society engagement.
10.13 KEY WORDS

Marine Pollution: Marine pollution is defined as the intentional or unintentional
introduction of substances or energy into the marine environment (including
estuaries) by humans, causing damage to living resources and risks to human
health. People, interfere with marine activities such as fishing, degrade
seawater quality, and reduce amenities. When substances used by humans, such
as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon
dioxide or invasive organisms, reach the water and cause harm, it is called
marine pollution.
Marine Debris: Marine debris, is defined as any persistent, manufactured or
processed solid material made or used by humans and either deliberately or
accidentally discarded, disposed of, or abandoned in the marine and coastal
environment. Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created waste
that has deliberately or accidentally been released into a sea or ocean. Floating
214
oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and on coastlines, Marine pollution
frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach debris or litter.

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222
UNIT 11 INLAND WATER POLLUTION
Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Classification of Inland Water Bodies
11.4 Water Quality
11.5 Causes of Inland Water Pollution
11.6 Extent and Intensity of Inland Water Pollution
11.6.1 Water Quality Criteria
11.7 Impacts of Inland Water Pollution
11.7.1 Human Health
11.7.2 Plants
11.8 Mechanism of Inland Water Pollution
11.9 Let Us Sum Up
11.10 Key Words
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Limnology is the scientific study of inland waters (both saline and fresh),
specifically lakes, ponds and rivers (both natural and manmade), including their
biological, physical, chemical, and hydrological aspects. The word limnology
is derived from the Greek word “limne” - marsh, pond and Latin limnaea -
thing about a marsh. Stated simply, limnology is the study of the structural and
functional interrelationships of organisms of inland waters as their dynamic
physical, chemical, and biotic environments affect them.
Limnology encompasses the integration of physical, chemical, and biological
components of inland aquatic ecosystems with the drainage basin, movements
of water through the drainage basin, and biogeochemical changes that occur en
route, and within standing (lentic) waters and exchanges with the atmosphere.
The lake ecosystem is intimately coupled with its drainage area and atmosphere,
and with its running (lotic) waters and groundwaters that flow, and metabolize
en route, components of the land being transported to the lake.
Water is uniquely vulnerable to pollution. Known as a “universal solvent,” water
can dissolve more substances than any other liquid on earth. Water (H2O) being
the “universal solvent”, has a unique capability to dissolve more substances
than any other liquid. The water molecule is a polar one, composed of one
oxygen atom having a slightly negative charge and two hydrogen atoms having
a slightly positive charge on it.
Before going into the inland water pollution, let’s quickly recap the water
availability of planet Earth! Due to human expansion over the landscape
worldwide, the biogeochemical cycle’s acceleration, the high load of pollutants
Water-Related in water resources, rampant deforestation, increase in the greenhouse gas
Issues emissions to the atmosphere, eutrophication and biodiversity losses are some
indications that reflect human pressure over several ecosystems, especially
aquatic ones.
Alteration in water quality of underground, surface water bodies like the lake,
ponds, rivers, wetlands etc., by changing the composition or its natural state
can be stated as pollution. Water quality is affected by a wide range of natural
and human influences. The most important natural influences are geological,
hydrological and climatic since these affect the quantity and the quality of water
available. Their influence is generally greatest when available water quantities
are low and maximum use must be made of the limited resource; for example,
high salinity is a frequent problem in arid and coastal areas. If the financial
and technical resources are available, seawater or saline groundwater can be
desalinated but, in many circumstances, this is not feasible. Thus, although
water may be available in adequate quantities, its unsuitable quality limits the
uses that can be made of it. Although the natural ecosystem is in harmony with
natural water quality, any significant changes to water quality will usually be
disruptive to the ecosystem.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define inland water pollution;
•• explain the extent and intensity of inland water pollution and
•• explain the mechanism and impacts of inland water pollution.
11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF INLAND WATER

BODIES
Before defining inland water pollution, let us study the classification of inland
water bodies.
1. Surface Water
Based upon the rate of flow of water on the surface of the land, it can be lotic or
lentic. The lotic water system is those which you could see running or flowing
ie., rivers, streams etc., whereas lentic are standing-water bodies including
lakes, ponds, and marshes.
Continental water bodies are of various types including flowing water, lakes,
reservoirs and groundwater. All are interconnected by the hydrological cycle
with many intermediate water bodies, both natural and artificial. Wetlands,
such as floodplains, marshes and alluvial aquifers, have characteristics that are
hydrologically intermediate between those of rivers, lakes and groundwater.
Wetlands and marshes are of special biological importance.
Rivers
River flow is unidirectional, often with good lateral and vertical mixing, but
224 may vary widely with meteorological and climatic conditions and drainage
patterns. Still surface waters, such as deep lakes and reservoirs, are characterised Inland Water
by alternating periods of stratification and vertical mixing. In addition, water Pollution
currents may be multi-directional and are much slower than in rivers. Moreover,
the wind has an important effect on the movement of the upper layers of lake
and reservoir water. The residence time of water in lakes is often more than six
months and maybe as much as several hundred years. By contrast, residence
times in reservoirs are usually less than one year.
An understanding of the discharge regime of a river is extremely important to
the interpretation of water quality measurements, especially those including
suspended sediment or intended to determine the flux of sediment or
contaminants. The discharge of a river is related to the nature of its catchment,
particularly the geological, geographical and climatological influences.
The regime of a tropical river is largely determined by the annual cycle of wet
and dry seasons. Most of the large rivers of Asia that flow generally southward
have their sources in the mountains and flow through varied climatic conditions
before discharging to the sea. Peak flows generally occur when run-off from
melting snow is supplemented by monsoon rains. The Ganges receive snowmelt
from the Himalayas from April to June, and the flow rate is just beginning
to decline when the July monsoon begins. Erosion rates are thus extremely
variable, with the highest rates occurring usually in mountain streams where
human intervention has resulted in extensive damage to vegetation. Erosion is
primarily responsible for the amount of sediment transported to the sea.
Lakes and Reservoirs
An important factor influencing water quality in relatively still, deep waters, such
as lakes and reservoirs, is stratification. Stratification occurs when the water in a
lake or reservoir acts as two different bodies with different densities, one floating
on the other. It is most commonly caused by temperature differences, leading
to differences in density (water has maximum density at 4°C), but occasionally
by differences in solute concentrations. Water quality in the two bodies of water
is also subject to different influences. Thus, for example, the surface layer
receives more sunlight while the lower layer is physically separated from the
atmosphere (which is a source of gases such as oxygen) and may be in contact
with decomposing sediments which exert an oxygen demand. As a result of these
influences, it is common for the lower layer to have a significantly decreased
oxygen concentration compared with the upper layer. When anoxic conditions
occur in bottom sediments, various compounds may increase in interstitial
waters (through dissolution or reduction) and diffuse from the sediments into the
lower water layer. Substances produced in this way include ammonia, nitrate,
phosphate, sulphide, silicate, iron and manganese compounds.
Thermal stratification does not usually occur in lakes less than about 10 m deep
because wind across the lake surface and water flow through the lake tend to
encourage mixing. Shallow tropical lakes may be mixed completely several
times a year. In very deep lakes, however, stratification may persist all year, 225
Water-Related even in tropical and equatorial regions.
Issues
Tropical Lakes
A common physical characteristic of tropical lakes is that seasonal variations
in water temperature are small, as a result of relatively constant solar radiation.
Water temperatures are generally high but decrease with increasing altitude.
The annual water temperature range is only 2-3 °C at the surface and even less
at depths greater than 30 m. Density differences are minimal because the water
temperature is almost constant. Winds and precipitation, both of which tend
to be seasonal, play an important role in mixing. The very limited seasonal
temperature variation also results in a correspondingly low annual heat budget in
tropical lakes. However, the relative variation in the heat budget in consecutive
years may be considerable, because the peak value of heat storage may result
from a single meteorological event.
2. Sub-surface Water (Groundwater)
Sub-surface water (Groundwater) is held in the pore space of permeable rock
strata (sediments) such as sands or gravels or the fissures of fractured rock such
as crystalline rock and limestone. Subsurface inland waters also are important
in the global hydrologic cycle, and some are of biological interest. Typically,
groundwaters have a steady flow pattern. Velocity is governed mainly by the
porosity and permeability of the material through which the water flows, and
is often up to several orders of magnitude less than that of surface waters.
As a result, mixing is poor. The media (rock or sediment) in an aquifer are
characterised by porosity and permeability.
Types of Aquifers
Underground formations are of three basic types: hard crystalline rocks,
consolidated sedimentary formations and unconsolidated sediments. The hard
crystalline rocks include granites, gneisses, schists and quartzites and certain
types of volcanic rocks such as basalts and dolerites. These formations generally
have little or no original porosity, and the existence of aquifers depends on
fractures and fissures in the rock mass providing porosity and pathways
for groundwater movement. Although these are often further enhanced by
weathering, aquifers in hard rocks are usually small and localised and not very
productive.
Consolidated sedimentary formations are often thick and extensive, and
sometimes artesian. Limestone and sandstone formations may be highly porous
and permeable and form some of the largest, most important and highest-
yielding aquifers in the world.
The permeability of these formations is largely due to fissures (fractures, faults,
bedding planes). Porosity is also significant for the movement and storage of
some pollutants. Dissolution of the rock can increase the permeability. The
dissolution of carbonates, in particular, is responsible for the formation of karst
aquifers, which can have large underground caverns and channels yielding
226 substantial quantities of water.
Unconsolidated sediments occur as thin, superficial deposits over other rock Inland Water
types or as thick sequences in the major river or lake basins. Porosity and Pollution
permeability are related to grain size. Sand and gravel deposits can provide
important and high-yielding aquifers, whereas silts and clays are less productive.
In the largest river basins, thick sedimentary deposits may contain many layers
of different materials built up over long periods, producing important multi-
aquifer sequences. Aquifers may be confined or unconfined.
A confined aquifer is overlain by an impermeable layer that prevents recharge
(and contamination) by rainfall or surface water. Recharge of confined aquifers
occurs where the permeable rock outcrops at or near the surface, which may be
some distance from the area of exploitation. This feature may take control of
quality and pollution more difficult. Some aquifers are not perfectly confined
and are termed semi-confined or leaky.
Unconfined aquifers are overlain by a permeable, unsaturated zone that allows
surface water to percolate down to the water table. Consequently, they are
generally recharged over a wide area and are often shallow with a tendency for
interaction with surface water.
Confined aquifers are less vulnerable than unconfined aquifers to pollution
outside their recharge zone because surface water and contaminants cannot
percolate to the water table. If contamination does occur, however, it is often
difficult to remedy because confined aquifers are usually deep and the number
of points where contaminated water may be pumped out is limited. Given the
limited outflow, contaminants may also be increasingly concentrated in confined
aquifers and this may restrict the abstraction of water.
The greater vulnerability of unconfined aquifers to contamination is a result of
the wider area over which they are recharged and in which contamination may
enter, and the greater interaction with polluted surface water bodies which may
lead to contaminant movement into groundwater. The risk of contamination will
depend on the depth of the overlying unsaturated layer, the rate of infiltration to
the water table and the land use in areas surrounding groundwater sources.
11.4 WATER QUALITY

The quality of groundwater depends on the composition of the recharge water,
the interactions between the water and the soil, soil gas and rocks with which it
comes into contact in the unsaturated zone, and the residence time and reactions
that take place within the aquifer. Therefore, considerable variation can be found,
even in the same general area, especially where rocks of different compositions
and solubility occur. The principal processes influencing water quality in aquifers
are physical (dispersion/dilution, filtration and gas movement), geochemical
(complexation, acid-base reactions, oxidation-reduction, precipitation-solution,
and adsorption-desorption) and biochemical (microbial respiration and decay,
cell synthesis). Groundwater quality is influenced by the effects of human
activities which cause pollution at the land surface because most groundwater 227
Water-Related originates from the recharge of rainwater infiltrating from the surface. The
Issues rainwater itself may also have an increased acidity due to human activity. The
unsaturated zone can help reduce the concentrations of some pollutants entering
groundwater (especially micro-organisms), but it can also act as a store for
significant quantities of pollutants such as nitrates, which may eventually be
released. Some contaminants enter groundwaters directly from abandoned
wells, mines, quarries and buried sewerage pipes which bypass the unsaturated
zone (and, therefore, the possibility of some natural decontamination processes).
Inland water pollution can be defined as changes in the physical, chemical and
biological properties of the surface and subsurface water which renders such
waters harmful to public health and limits its usage in domestic, commercial,
industrial, and agricultural sectors including fisheries and aquaculture. Physical
changes can be changes in turbidity, colour, temperature etc. whereas chemical
changes could be changes in pH, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), heavy metals etc. In addition to physical and chemical
factors presence of harmful biota further limits its usage in all sectors especially
its direct consumption and usage in the agriculture sector especially livestock
rearing.
Types of inland water pollution can be broadly sub-divided into-

1. Surface Water Pollution
There are various sources which pollute surface water which can broadly
be classified as point sources and non-point sources.
Point Source
A point source is defined as a network of pipes that are conveyed to a
single point of discharge. Examples are untreated industrial effluents or
municipal sewage. At the local scale, each septic tank may be considered
a point source of contamination to shallow groundwater. Since it has a
well-defined source so it can be better regulated and the polluter can be
held responsible to treat the effluent before dumping it.
Non-point source
Nonpoint source of pollution is also called diffuse sources, which means
there are numerous sources. Example: Runoff from agricultural fields
including pesticides and fertilizers reaches ponds, or into the river systems
through a watershed and drainage basin. Unlike point sources, non-
point sources are relatively difficult to regulate because it is hard to pose
responsibility to the polluter as there’s no single, identifiable culprit. At
the regional scale, however, the combined contamination of groundwater
from all the septic tanks in a suburban area may be considered a non-point
source of contamination to a surface-water body.
Note also that though India has defined wastewater discharge standards
for the domestic and industrial sectors, there are no discharge standards
for the pollution emanating from agriculture. Agriculture is the source
of non-point water pollution and agricultural water pollution is linked,
228 among other things, to the use of fertilizers and pesticides.
2. Sub-surface Water Pollution Inland Water
Pollution
Sub-surface water too gets polluted as a result of seepage through run-
off of agricultural fields and percolation of precipitation through cracks,
crevices etc. which is finally reaching porous aquifers and contaminating
groundwater. Seepage through waste dumping grounds is contributing to
groundwater with micro-plastics and heavy metals like Pb, Hg etc. We
are heavily dependent upon groundwater for household usage including
drinking. Contamination of aquifers is making it unfit to drink. Polluted
underground water is unfit to use for decades or more. Contamination
of groundwater cross contaminates streams, lakes etc. as underground
aquifers beneath are interconnected.
11.5 CAUSES OF INLAND WATER POLLUTION
There are various factors which cause the pollution of inland water. Some of the
important causes are discussed below.
1. Urbanisation
Urbanisation changes land use by removing vegetation cover and making
it a concrete jungle. Cities need to have a sewer system, septic tanks and
more wells to sustain the ever-growing population. Lack of vegetation
further makes erosion faster and so more and more sediments reach
streams and siltation of river beds makes them further vulnerable to floods.
Run-off from agricultural fields is loaded with pesticides and fertilizers,
nitrogenous and phosphate. We will know more about the impacts of
fertilizers in enhancing algal bloom through eutrophication and how
the decay of chemicals and organic matter enhances the overall oxygen
demand. Further, the litter of the inland water system not only make the
place look anaesthetic but also impacts the flora and fauna of that water
system.
2. Deforestation
Slashing forest cover for agriculture and urbanization, directly and
indirectly, causes water pollution. Enhanced run-off cause siltation which
further impacts the faunal population especially fishes by blocking their
gills. Even, algal blooms deprive the benthic flora by cutting down the
sun-rays which are essential for photosynthesis. Water bodies especially
lentic bodies i.e., lakes and ponds became stinking as a result anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter. In 2010, India had 31.3Mha of natural
forest, extending over 11% of its land area. In 2020, it lost 132kha of
natural forest. Studies say that a 1.0% increase in deforestation decreases
access to clean drinking water by 0.93 %.
3. Damming of Rivers
Dams built for irrigation purposes cause waterlogging in two ways.
Firstly, canals intersect drainage lines and thus cause rain or floodwater
to be held up and secondly, reservoirs and canals cause their water to seep
until the water reaches the root zone level. If the sub-soil outflow is not
enough to balance the inflow, the root zone level rises, and all the salt of
the soil comes to the surface and makes the land unfit for cultivation and
aquaculture.
229
Water-Related 4. Destruction of Wetlands
Issues A wetland is an area with marsh or water, whether artificial or naturally
occurring, where the water is either flowing or stagnant, either salty or
fresh and can also include marine areas where the depth of the water
during low tide reaches a minimum of six meters. The wetlands include
surrounding areas of the shores, riverbanks, and entire watercourses.
Wetlands are nature’s way of water purification, flood protection, shoreline
stabilization, groundwater recharge and streamflow maintenance and do
important ecological functions.
India has 27,403 wetlands in total, and close to 4000 of them are coastal
wetlands. We are losing wetlands at the rate of 2-3% each year. The drivers
of this decline are overfishing, agriculture, deforestation, introduced
species, climate change, water drainage, land encroachment and urban
development. About 30 % of the natural wetlands in India have been lost
in the last three decades mainly to illegal construction, unsustainable
urbanisation, agricultural expansion and pollution, according to estimates
by Wetlands International South Asia. Losing wetlands means loss of
habitat of much aquatic flora and fauna
5. Industries
Point sources of contamination to surface water bodies are an expected
side effect of urban development. Examples of point sources include
direct discharges from sewage-treatment plants, industrial facilities, and
stormwater drains. Contaminants in streams can easily affect ground-water
quality. Point sources of contamination to groundwater can include septic
tanks, fluid storage tanks, landfills, and industrial lagoons. Contaminant
soluble in water reaches the water table and so contaminates groundwater
as well. Depending upon the type of contaminant it can modify the pH,
enhances the nutrient load, suspended solid and pathogens etc.
Industrial production has grown in India by more than 50-fold over the past
century. The Central Pollution Board (CPCB) has identified 17 categories
of most polluting industries which contribute to the environment in terms
of suspended particulate matter, gases and effluents. About 77% of the
industries contribute to water pollution while 15% to air pollution and
the remaining eight per cent to both air and water pollution. Different
industries have different pollutant signatures in the effluents.
6. Mining
Mining of coal and minerals involves perturbation of land use and so causes
erosion and produces a large quantity of waste in the form of slag. Erosion
and run-off cause an increase in suspended solids and sedimentation of
water bodies. Acid mine drainage is the process of formation of sulphuric
acid as a result of exposure to sulphide minerals with water and oxygen
(air). As a result, sulphide mines decline the pH, this may make conditions
conducive for bacteria like Thiobacillus ferrooxidans to turn on the
process of acidification which means the formation of more acids and
leaching of it from the waste.
Heavy metals like Arsenic, Lead, Mercury, Cadmium etc. are present
230 naturally and are geo-genic in origin. When rocks get exposed to water,
they leached out and reach down the stream. Acid mine accelerates the Inland Water
process of leaching heavy metal and adds to the heavy metal load. Pollution
7. Agriculture
Clearing forest cover for agricultural purposes and processes like
ploughing, and overgrazing makes soil further prone to erosion. Thus, it
adds a load of silt to water bodies and increases turbidity. The flooding
method of irrigation consumes more and more groundwater and causes
depletion of groundwater. Further, the use of inorganic fertilizers like urea
(nitrogenous) and phosphatic fertilizer causes eutrophication and hence
algal bloom and so on. Although both nitrogen and phosphorus contribute
to eutrophication, in the majority of cases, phosphorus is the limiting
nutrient.
Pesticide contamination of groundwater and in the food chain has a
devastating effect. Pesticides can remain in the environment for 100s of
years being persistent and non-biodegradable. At the same time being
lipophilic such pesticides get biomagnified as we go up in the trophic level.
Agriculture, which accounts for 70 % of water withdrawals worldwide,
plays a major role in water pollution. Farms discharge large quantities
of agrochemicals, organic matter, drug residues, sediments and saline
drainage into water bodies.
8. Energy Use
The majority of our energy in India comes from the burning of coal at
power stations. The burning of fossil fuels results in emissions of sulphur
(SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), fly ashes and heavy
metals like Mercury (Hg) etc. into the atmosphere. SOx and NOx are
important contributors to acid rain. Also, the release of carbon dioxide,
from the burning of coal, increases global warming.
Water withdrawal for thermo-electric power generation is the highest
among all industries. Most of this water is used for cooling processes.
These power plants boil water to generate steam which is then used to run
the turbines used for generating electricity. The government of India has
already made the norm in the year 2015, revised in 2018 that limits the
usage of water in thermal power plants. plants installed before January
1, 2017, were required to meet a specific water consumption limit of 3.5
cubic metres of water per MWh; plants installed after January 1, 2017,
had to meet the norms of 3 cubic metres of water per MWh along-with
adopting zero liquid. About 48 per cent of the existing coal power fleet
is located in water-scarce districts. Due to water scarcity, between
2013-17, 61 coal plants were already shut down in India.
9. Accidental Water Pollution
Accidental water pollution can arise from many sources (such as burst
pipes and tanks, major leaks, fires and oil spills) and can cause varying
degrees of damage, depending on the quantity, toxicity and persistence of
the pollutant, and the size and adaptability of the water body.
10. Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is any deviation from the natural temperature in the 231
Water-Related habitat and can range from elevated temperatures associated with industrial
Issues cooling activities to discharges of cold water into streams below large
impoundments. A sudden increase in the temperature of water declines
oxygen availability and so has an impact on ecosystem composition and
functioning. Fishes get killed because of the unavailability of oxygen and
invites invasion of temperature resistant species. Thus, the overall food
chain gets perturbed. For most fish, a 10°C increase in water temperature
will approximately double the rate of physiological function. This
increase in metabolic rate can be handled by some species better than
others. The increased metabolic function can be noticed in respiration
rates and digestive responses in most species. Increased respiration rates
at higher temperatures lead to increased oxygen consumption, which can
be detrimental if rates remain rose for an extended period. Furthermore,
temperatures above 35°C can begin to denature, or break down enzymes,
reducing metabolic function.
11. Microbes
Coliforms are a group of bacteria that are normal inhabitants of the
intestinal tract which include Escherichia (E. coli), Klebsiella, Enterobacter
etc. Untreated sewage and wastewater contain these bacteria along with
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths etc.
12. Introduction of Invasive Alien Species
Invasive Alien Species refers to an alien species whose introduction and/
or spread threaten the biological diversity of the region/habitat. These
species are a major problem of water pollution in a few parts of the
world including India. Examples: Water hyacinth, Water cabbage, Giant
Salvinia, etc.
Among invasive fish species, Red Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
members of the Family Cichlidae, is native to the Nile River, a frequently
farmed aquatic species and has a rapid reproduction rate. As a result, it
became highly invasive in the tropics. African catfish (Clarias gariepinus),
is indigenous to the inland waters of much of Africa and they are also
endemic in Asia Minor in countries such as Israel, Syria and the south
of Turkey. African catfish was introduced all over the world in the early
1980s for aquaculture purposes and as a result, has destroyed the aquatic
ecosystem of the tropics. Thai pangus (Pangasiandon hypophthalmus),
a species of shark catfish (family Pangasiidae) and common carp
(Cyprinus carpio), native to Eurasia, the native wild populations are
considered vulnerable to extinction by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has emerged as a great threat to Indian
aquatic diversity which playing a disastrous role into the regional and
local economy.
13. Climate Change
Climate change is impacting all walks of our life and disrupting weather
patterns is no exception. Global warming has also an impact on water
resources through enhanced evaporation, spatio-temporal variation in
precipitation, retention of soil moisture, and the frequency and severity of
droughts and floods.
232
India, with a population of more than 1.2 billion, with only 4% of the Inland Water
world’s water resources has experienced tremendous economic growth Pollution
in the last two decades. We have noticed extreme weather events and
exacerbating water scarcity etc. There has been a significant change in
precipitation and temperature during 2000-2015 in India in comparison to
the last 100 years. Direct and indirect effects of climate change will harm
water resources, regional agriculture, and food security.
Future projections using climate models pointed out that there will be
an increase in monsoon rainfall in most parts of India, with increasing
greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. Relatively small climatic changes
can have a huge impact on water resources, particularly in arid and semi-
arid regions such as North-West India.
11.6 EXTENT AND INTENSITY OF INLAND

WATER POLLUTION
As India grows and urbanizes, its water bodies are getting toxic. It’s estimated
that around 70% of surface water in India is unfit for consumption. Every day,
almost 40 million litres of wastewater enter rivers and other water bodies with
only a tiny fraction adequately treated.
In India wastewater treatment, especially in booming urban centres, continues
to be a big challenge. While the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2017)
reported that out of 18.6% of total treatment capacity, only 13.5% of sewage is
effectively treated.
At the current time, more than 2 billion people are living with the risk of reduced
access to freshwater resources and by 2050, at least one in four people is likely
to live in a country affected by chronic or recurring shortages of freshwater.
Drought in specific afflicts some of the world’s poorest countries, worsening
hunger and malnutrition. Fortunately, there has been great progress made in the
past decade regarding drinking sources and sanitation, whereby over 90% of the
world’s population now has access to improved sources of drinking water.
To improve sanitation and access to drinking water, there needs to be increased
investment in the management of freshwater ecosystems and sanitation facilities
on a local level in several developing countries within Sub-Saharan Africa,
Central Asia, Southern Asia, Eastern Asia and South-Eastern Asia.
Although the impact of diarrhoea has decreased over the last years, it still
belongs among the five major health burdens in India. The disease burden rate
for diarrheal diseases, iron-deficiency anaemia and tuberculosis was 2.5 to 3.5
times higher compared to global rates and countries with similar geographies.
The cost of environmental degradation in India is estimated to be INR 3.75
trillion a year. The health costs relating to water pollution are alone estimated
at INR 470-610 billion per year – most associated with diarrheal mortality and
morbidity of children under five and other population morbidities. Apart from
the economic cost, lack of water, sanitation and hygiene results in the loss of
400,000 lives per year in India. Globally, 1.5 million children under five die 233
Water-Related and 200 million days of work are lost each year as a result of water-related
Issues diseases. In recent years, the widespread reports of pollutants in groundwater
have increased public concern about the quality of groundwater.
In India, five water quality classes have been designated (A-E) based on the
water quality requirements for a particular use:
•• Class A water can be used for drinking purposes but after disinfection.
•• Class B water can be used for organised outdoor bathing.
•• Class C water can be used for use as a drinking water source with conventional
treatment followed by disinfection.
•• Class D water can be used to maintain aquatic life (i.e., propagation of
wildlife and fisheries).
•• Class E waters can be used for irrigation, industrial cooling and controlled
waste disposal.
11.6.1 Water Quality Criteria

Water quality criteria have been widely established based on variables like pH,
dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand for periods of five or seven days
(BOD5 and BOD7), chemical oxygen demand (COD), Turbidity and nutrients.
1. pH change
The pH of water is a very important measurement concerning water
quality. The pH of Ganga water varies from 6.5 to 8.5. Algal blooms
generally cause water to be more basic. Lower pH levels increase the
risk of mobilized toxic metals that can be absorbed, even by humans, and
levels above 8.0 cannot be effectively disinfected with chlorine, causing
other indirect risks. In addition, pH levels outside of 6.5-9.5 can damage
and corrode pipes and other systems, further increasing heavy metal
toxicity. Many studies have confirmed that a pH range of 6.5 to 9 is most
appropriate for the maintenance of fish communities.
2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the level of free, non-compound oxygen
present in water or other liquids. Dissolved oxygen is an important factor
that determines the quality of water in surface waters like lakes and rivers.
The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen the better the water
quality. Dissolved oxygen is an important indicator of the ability of a
water body to support aquatic life. Oxygen enters the water by absorption
directly from the atmosphere or by aquatic plants and algal photosynthesis.
Oxygen is removed from the water by respiration and decomposition of
organic matter.
Low concentrations of DO, when combined with the presence of toxic
substances may lead to stress responses in aquatic ecosystems because
the toxicity of certain elements, such as zinc, lead and copper, is increased
by low concentrations of DO. High water temperature also increases the
adverse effects on biota associated with low concentrations of DO. The
water quality criterion for dissolved oxygen, therefore, takes these factors
234 into account. When sewage enters lakes or streams, microorganisms
begin to decompose the organic materials and oxygen is consumed. When Inland Water
the dissolved oxygen levels drop too low, many aquatic species perish. Pollution
When organic compounds decompose without oxygen, it gives rise to
undesirable odours. Dissolved oxygen can be determined by Winkler’s
iodometric method (APHA 1989).
According to Water Quality Standards in India, for Class A waters, DO
should be 6ppm (mg l-1) and for Class B and C waters it should not exceed
5 and 4 ppm (mg l-1) respectively.
Depending on the water temperature requirements for particular aquatic
species at various life stages, the criteria values range from 5 to 9.5 mg
l-1, i.e., a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of 5-6 mg l-1 for
warm-water biota and 6.5-9.5 mg l-1 for cold-water biota. Higher oxygen
concentrations are also relevant for early life stages.
3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen
(DO) needed (i.e., demanded) by aerobic biological organisms to break
down organic material present in a given water sample at a certain
temperature over a specific period. BOD is commonly reported as
BOD5, the amount of oxygen consumed over 5 days of incubation. BOD
can be measured by the 5day BOD test method (APHA 1989). Some
countries report BOD7, the amount of oxygen consumed over 7 days. For
comparability, the values of BOD7 are converted to BOD5 i.e., BOD7 is
1.16 times BOD5.
Large quantities of organic matter (microbes and decaying organic
waste) in water are a potential risk to aquatic ecosystems and human
health. The reduction in the amount of dissolved oxygen as a result of
the decomposition of organic matter can endanger aquatic life through
asphyxiation and disrupt the ecological balance of the water. Organic
matter can also pollute drinking water and bathing water. High levels of
BOD can indicate such organic pollution. BOD generally gets expressed
in ppm or mg/L (you can use, 1 mg/L = 1 ppm for inter-conversion).
Clean water has a BOD value of less than 5 ppm. Polluted water has
a BOD value higher than 10 ppm. In India, for the River Ganga, BOD
values are used to define water quality classes for designated uses and to
establish water quality objectives that will be achieved over a period of
time. For Class A waters, BOD should not exceed 2ppm or 2 mg O2 l-1 and
for Class B and C waters it should not exceed 3 mg O2 l-1.
4. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of water and wastewater
quality. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of dissolved
oxygen that must be present in water to oxidize chemical organic materials,
like petroleum. COD is used to gauge the short-term impact wastewater
effluents will have on the oxygen levels of receiving waters. The COD test
is often used to monitor water treatment plant efficiency. This test is based
on the fact that a strong oxidizing agent, under acidic conditions, can fully
oxidize almost any organic compound to carbon dioxide. The chemical
oxygen demand (COD) concentration in treated effluent, if observed to be 235
Water-Related persistently greater than 250 mg/l before disposal to any receiving body
Issues (public sewer, land for irrigation, inland surface water and marine coastal
areas), such industrial units are required to identify chemicals causing the
same.
5. Turbidity
Turbidity is an important optical property of water, where suspended
sediments scatter the light rather than transmit it along the water column.
Among all the water quality parameters suspended solids are the most
common problem in inland waters such as rivers, lakes etc. The turbidity
increases with an increase in the concentration of suspended solids or
sediments in the water. These suspended particles attenuate the light
required for aquatic life. It is also considered an indicator of eutrophication.
Turbidity enhances the opacity of water, which hampers aquatic life. The
most common causes of high turbidity are phytoplankton, erosion, urban
runoff, wastewater discharge, algae and sediment disruption. Traditionally,
the concentration of these sediments is assessed optically or through
gravimetric methods or laboratory analysis. Nowadays, it is measured
visually through Secchi disk depth or directly using the light turbidimeters
in the field.
6. Nutrient Content
The quantity of biologically useful nutrients like phosphorus, nitrogen,
etc., dissolved in the waters of a water body determines the trophic
(nutritional) state of the water body. When these limiting nutrients
increase, it triggers higher plant growth in the body of water and a
subsequent increase in its trophic level. The most widely used trophic
indices are Carlson’s indexes. Here, the trophic state of a body of water
is defined as the total weight of biomass contained within it. Thus, inland
waters in India are highly eutrophic Phosphate is added to inland and
marine waters from run-offs from agricultural fields receiving phosphate
fertilizers. Phosphate is also added to the waters from untreated human
solid waste and sewage in the river and lake waters from nearby towns
and cities. An N:P ratio of less than 10:1 is reported to encourage bloomer
phytoplankton. Causes other than hypoxia, responsible for the mortality
of fish and other aquatic animals include the production of neurotoxins
and methanol by phytoplankton, heavy metals from industrial effluents
and residues of pesticides from agricultural fields.
Algal blooms lead to hypoxia resulting in the mortality of fish and other
aquatic animals in inland as well as marine waters. Several reports on fish
mortality in lakes and river waters due to hypoxia are available in India.
The main cause of algal blooms is reported to be the eutrophication of
inland and marine waters with plant nutrients, of which phosphate is the
most important.
Based on nutrient load and productivity, lakes can be divided into the
following:
•• Oligotrophic: An oligotrophic lake or water body has relatively low
productivity due to the low nutrient content in the lake. The waters of
these lakes are usually quite clear due to the limited growth of algae
236 in the lake. The waters of such lakes are of high-drinking quality.
•• Mesotrophic: Lakes with an intermediate level of productivity are Inland Water
called mesotrophic lakes. These lakes have medium-level nutrients Pollution
and are usually clear water with submerged aquatic plants.
•• Eutrophic: Eutrophic Lakes have high levels of biological productivity.
An abundance of plants is supported by such lakes due to the rich
nutrient constitution, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. Initially,
eutrophic lakes accelerate the multiplication and growth of lake fauna
due to the high levels of oxygen provided by a large number of plants
growing in the lake.
•• Hypereutrophic: These lakes suffer from problems arising due
to excessive plant and algal growth due to a high supply of growth
nutrients. These lakes usually have visibility limited to lower than
3 feet. These lakes also have more than 100 micrograms/litre of
phosphorus and more than 40 micrograms/litre of total chlorophyll.
The overgrowth of algae often suffocates the fauna below the water
depths and this might create dead zones beneath the water surface.
11.7 IMPACTS OF INLAND WATER POLLUTION

11.7.1 Human Health
Inland water pollution caused 1.8 million deaths in 2015, according to a study
published in The Lancet. Contaminated water can also make you ill. Every year,
unsafe water sickens about 1 billion people. The problem involves much more
than lead, as a wide range of chemical pollutants—from heavy metals such as
arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg) to pesticides and nitrate fertilizers—are getting
into our water supplies. Arsenic is a natural component of the earth’s crust and
is widely distributed throughout the environment in the air, water and land.
Exposure to high levels of arsenic may cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhoea
and impaired nerve function. The major source of mercury is from natural
degassing of the earth’s crust. The U.S. EPA has found mercury in water has the
potential to cause kidney damage.
1. Methemoglobinemia
Consuming too much nitrate can affect how blood carries oxygen and
can cause methemoglobinemia (also known as a blue baby syndrome).
Methaemoglobin is a form of haemoglobin that has been oxidized,
changing its heme iron configuration from the ferrous (Fe2+) to the ferric
(Fe3+) form and so too little oxygen is delivered to the cells of the body.
2. Minamata Disease
Minamata disease is methylmercury poisoning that occurred in humans
who ingested fish and shellfish contaminated by methylmercury
discharged in wastewater from a chemical plant (Chisso Co. Ltd.). It
was in May 1956, that this disease was first officially “discovered” in
Minamata City, the southwest region of Japan’s Kyushu Island. It causes
chromosomal aberrations and neurological damage to humans. Mercury
shows biological magnification in aquatic ecosystems.
237
Water-Related 3. Itai-Itai disease
Issues Cadmium (Cd) reaches the human body through food crops from soil
irrigated by affected effluents. Long term consumption of rice from
affected fields by the people living in areas contaminated by cadmium in
regions of Japan, resulted in many renal diseases like “Itai-Itai disease”,
nephritis and nephrosis.
4. Fluorosis
Fluoride in water is essential for protection against dental caries and the
weakening of the bones. Concentration below 0.5 mg/l causes dental
carries and mottling of teeth but exposure to higher levels above 0.5 mg/l
for 5-6 years may lead to an adverse effect on human health leading to a
condition called fluorosis. Fluorosis is a crippling disease resulting from
the deposition of fluorides in the hard and soft tissues of the body.
5. Arsenic (As) Poisoning
Arsenic is a very toxic chemical that reaches the water naturally or from
wastewater of tanneries, ceramic industry, chemical factories and from
insecticides such as lead arsenate, effluents from fertilizers factories and
from fumes coming out from burning of coal and petroleum. Arsenic is
highly dangerous for human health causing respiratory cancer, and arsenic
skin lesions from contaminated drinking water in some districts of West
Bengal. Arsenic poisoning symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhoea,
vomiting, dark urine, dehydration, vertigo, delirium, shock, and death.
6. Lead Poisoning (plumbism and saturnism)
Lead (Pb) is contaminated in the drinking water source from pipes, fitting,
solder, and household plumbing systems. In human beings, it affects the
blood, central nervous system and kidneys. Child and pregnant women
are most prone to lead exposure.
7. Water-borne Disease
For pathogens transmitted by the faecal-oral route, drinking water is only
one vehicle of transmission. Contamination of food, hands, utensils and
clothing can also play a role, particularly when domestic sanitation and
hygiene are poor. Improvements in the quality and availability of water
and general hygiene are all important in reducing faecal-oral disease
transmission.
8. Bacterial Diseases
Some of the diseases caused by unsafe food and drink could be through
bacteria like, Salmonella typhi which causes Typhoid fever, is contracted
by the ingestion of contaminated food or drink. Bacteria, Shigella
dysenteriae causes bacillary dysentery, is the most common type of
dysentery. Vibrio cholerae is comma-shaped bacteria that cause cholera;
Escherichia coli, most types of E. coli are harmless and even help keep
your digestive tract healthy. But some strains can cause diarrhoea if
one eats contaminated food or drink fouled water. Listeria is found in
unpasteurised dairy products and various ready-to-eat foods and can grow
at refrigeration temperatures. Listeria infection leads to miscarriage in
238 pregnant women or the death of newborn babies.
9. Viral Diseases Inland Water
Pollution
Enteric viruses are transmitted and spread by the faecal-oral route. They
come in the gastrointestinal tract, survive the acidity of the stomach, and
initiate their infectious cycle. Waterborne transmission of enteric viruses,
two of the most studied groups of enteric viruses as potential water
quality indicators is the enteroviruses and adenoviruses. Hepatitis is an
inflammation of the liver. There are 5 main hepatitis viruses, referred to as
types A, B, C, D and E. Hepatitis A and E are typically caused by ingestion
of contaminated food or water. Hepatitis B, C and D usually occur as a
result of parenteral contact with infected body fluids.
10. Protozoan Diseases
Effluent water may contain protozoans like Giardia intestinalis (previously
known as G. lamblia or G. duodenalis), the most common protozoal
intestinal parasite isolated worldwide. G intestinalis can cause
asymptomatic colonization or acute or chronic diarrheal illness.
Cryptosporidium parvum, causes Cryptosporidiasis, diarrheal disease is
characterized by watery diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting, dehydration,
abdominal cramps and fever.
11. Helminthiases
Helminths are among the larger parasites. The word “helminth” comes
from the Greek word for worm. If these parasites or their eggs enter the
body, they take up residence in the intestinal tract, lungs, liver, skin or
brain, where they live off your body’s nutrients. Few important helminth
species may include hookworm, roundworms (Ascaris) and Schistosoma.
Hookworms are intestinal, blood-feeding, parasitic roundworms that
cause types of infection known as helminthiases. Necator
americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale are important species causing it.
Hookworms infect about one-fifth of the entire human population.
Roundworm, Ascaris causes Ascariasis, which is the most common human
worm infection. Parasitic flatworms, Schistosoma causes Schistosomiasis,
also known as snail fever. It may infect the urinary tract or the intestines.
Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, bloody stool, or blood in
the urine
11.7.2 Plants
The following are some of the effects of water pollution on plants.
1. Acidification: Diatoms and green algae disappear at pH below 5.8.
2. Organic matter deposition: It proliferates the growth of planktonic green
and blue-green algal bloom. Many of the macrophytes like Salvinia,
Azolla, Eichhornia etc., grow rapidly and decline in penetration of light
into the deeper layer of the water body.
3. Detergent: Detergents contain phosphates. It enters the plants through
roots or surface absorption causing retarded growth of plants, pollen
germination and destruction of chlorophylls and denaturation of proteins
causing enzyme inhibition in various metabolic processes.
239
4. Agri-chemicals: Chemicals from fertilizers result in eutrophication.
Water-Related Ammonium from fertilizers is acidic causing acidification of water.
Issues Similarly, pesticides, herbicides and insecticides also cause changes in
the pH of the water bodies. The uptake and bioaccumulation capacities of
these substances are great in macrophytic plants due to their low solubility
in water.
5. Silt deposition: Silt deposition reduces the surface exchange of gases and
nutrients. It favours the growth of plants like Polygonum, Sagittaria etc.
6. Thermal pollution: Aquatic plants show reduced photosynthesis rate due
to inhibition of enzyme activity with increased temperature. Primary
productivity and diversity of aquatic plant species decline because of the
increased temperature of water bodies as a result of thermal pollution.
11.8 MECHANISM OF INLAND WATER

POLLUTION
Pollution immediately or eventually involves the hydrological cycle of the
earth, because even pollutants emitted into the air and those present in the soil
are washed out by precipitation. Water circulates naturally and is constantly
recharged. It evaporates off the oceans, transpires from the plants, falls in the
form of precipitation back onto oceans and land, percolates into the ground and
returns to the ocean through rivers and lakes. In this process, water transports
large amounts of sediments and nutrients and alters the earth’s surface through
erosion and deposition. Pollutants can also be broken down or transformed
by chemical, physical, abiotic, and/or biologically induced processes. The
most important processes are microbial reactions (e.g., biodegradation,
the transformation of contaminants), chemical reactions (e.g., hydrolysis,
reduction and oxidation, isomerization, photochemical transformation), and
bioaccumulation.
The transport of pollutants in water can occur under particulate or dissolved

forms, either on surface or groundwaters. In surface waters, soil particles can be
introduced in streams and move under particulate form downstream by rolling,
sliding etc. and further gets deposited downstream. This transport depends
on flow velocity, turbulence, grain size, shape, and density. In groundwaters,
particulate transport is not so expressive and occurs for very small grain size
particles.
Processes Affecting Water Quality:
1. Hydrological Processes: Hydrological processes like dilution,

evaporation, percolation and leaching, suspension and settling affect the
water quality.
2. Physical Processes: Physical processes like gas exchange with the
atmosphere, volatilization, adsorption/desorption, heating and cooling,
and diffusion contributes substantially to the water quality.
3. Chemical Processes: Chemical processes like photodegradation, acid-
240 base reactions, redox reactions, dissolution of particles, precipitation of
particles, and ion exchange defines the water quality. Inland Water
Pollution
4. Biological Processes: Biological processes like primary production,
microbial die-off and growth, decomposition of organic matter,
bioaccumulation, and biomagnification decides the water quality.
Mechanisms
We can list out some of the important mechanisms that are involved in the inland
water pollution are-
1. Leaching
Leaching is a process by which pollutants are released from the solid
phase into the aqueous phase under the influence of the dissolution and
desorption of pollutants from their support phases. It is dependent on
several factors, such as soil pH, redox conditions, biotic action, and the
amount of water percolating the soil, which will carry out the pollutants
to surface or groundwater repositories. The aerobic conditions of surface
waters and the anaerobic conditions of groundwaters may have a great
influence on dissolved transport, which may result in the precipitation of
pollutants by changes in the redox state.
2. Infiltration
Infiltration is defined as the flow of water from aboveground into the
subsurface. Groundwater recharge originates as infiltration at the land
surface (terrestrial infiltration) or as infiltration beneath a surface water
body or water that is temporarily ponded on the land surface (ponded
infiltration). This is important with respect to irrigation, contaminant
transport, groundwater recharge, and ecosystem viability.
3. Run-off
If precipitation is greater than infiltration capacity, surface runoff occurs.
Runoff water generated from the precipitation may reach a stream by
overland flow, subsurface flow, or both and move toward the oceans in a
channelized form and is called streamflow or river flow.
4. Acidification
Acidification of inland waters by acidifying compounds of sulfur and
nitrogen affects the quality of water and causes damage to aquatic
ecosystems, especially to fish.
5. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Regarding bioaccumulation, some contaminants are assimilated by
organisms to a greater extent than others, depending mainly on the rate
of uptake and excretion. For example, Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs), heavy metals like mercury and especially methylmercury tend to
bioaccumulate in the organism and biomagnify as we move higher in the
food web because they have an affinity with lipids (lipophilic) so do not
easily metabolize.
The main source of organic pollution of rivers is the organic matter derived
from diverse human activities such as domestic and industrial sewage,
wastes from the agriculture sector etc. 241
Water-Related 6. Bioavailability
Issues The fraction of contaminants that can be uptaken or transformed by
organisms (bioaccessible or bioavailable) or even leached to groundwater is
referred to as available. Bioavailability depends on the physical, chemical,
and biological properties of contaminants, soil, and receptors. Therefore,
three distinct processes are involved: physicochemical, physiological
uptake, and toxicological. Pb complexed by Ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid (EDTA) is available for transport, and it can be uptaken by organisms,
but if it is strongly complexed, it will be not absorbed or metabolized and
thus it is not bioavailable. Similarly, Cr (VI) is toxic, carcinogenic, and
very mobile in soils whereas Cr (III) is not toxic to plants and is necessary
for animal nutrition.
1. What are the causes of inland water pollution?
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2. Discuss the extent and intensity of inland water pollution.
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3. Discuss the impacts of inland water pollution.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
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11.9 LET US SUM UP

We have discussed in this unit the causes of inland water pollution, the extent
and intensity of inland water pollution and the mechanism and impacts of inland
water pollution.
11.10 KEY WORDS

Porosity: Porosity is the ratio of pore and fissure volume to the total volume of
242
the media. It is measured as percentage voids and denotes the storage or water Inland Water
volume of the media. Pollution
Permeability: Permeability is a measure of the ease with which fluids, in

general, may pass through the media under a potential gradient and indicates the
relative rate of travel of water or fluids through media under given conditions.
For water, it is termed hydraulic conductivity.

REFERENCES
•• Bartram, Jamie, Ballance, Richard, World Health Organization & United
Nations Environment Programme. (‎1996)‎. Water quality monitoring:
a practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality
studies and monitoring programs / edited by Jamie Bartram and Richard
Ballance. E & FN Spon. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/41851
•• Berry W. K. (2017). Water Pollution. CBS Publishers and Distributors.
•• Canter L.W. and Knox R.C. (2020). Ground Water Pollution Control. CRC
Press.
•• Cole G.A. (2015). Textbook of Limnology. CBS Publishers and Distributors.

•• Devlin, A., & Pan, J., & Shah, M. M., (Eds.). (2021). Inland Waters - Dynamics
and Ecology. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87463
•• Viessman Jr. W., Hammer M.J., Perez E.M. and Chadik P.A. (2009). Water
supply and Pollution Control. 8th Edition. Pearson.
•• Web Links
•• https :// www . who . int / water _ sanitation _ health / resourcesquality /
wqmchap2.pdf (accessed on 14.02.2022)

243
Unit 12 Arsenic and Fluoride Pollution
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Arsenic Pollution
12.3.1 Sources of Arsenic pollution
12.3.2 Status of Arsenic pollution
12.3.3 Impacts of Arsenic Pollution
12.3.4 Management of Arsenic Pollution
12.4 Fluoride Pollution
12.4.1 Sources of Fluoride Pollution
12.4.2 Status of Fluoride Pollution
12.4.3 Impacts of Fluoride Pollution
12.4.4 Management of Fluoride Pollution
12.5 Let Us Sum Up
12.6 Key Words
12.1 Introduction
Water is the most essential component of life on earth as we can hardly live
without water. Water for human consumption should be free from germs and
toxic matters although should contain essential minerals. However, a clear
and colourless water sample without a taste or odour does not guarantee the
purity and safety of drinking. Chemical contamination of drinking water, either
naturally or by anthropogenic sources, is a matter of serious concern as the
toxic chemicals do not show acute health effects unless they enter the body
in appreciable amounts, but they behave as cumulative poisons showing the
adverse health effects after a long period of exposure (Plant et al., 2005). High
rates of mortality and morbidity due to water-borne diseases are well known
in India. Access to safe drinking water remains an urgent necessity, as 30% of
urban and 90% of rural households still depend completely on untreated surface
or groundwater (Kumar et al. 2005).
Safe drinking water is a fundamental need of every human being, despite any
socioeconomic status. The health and happiness of the human race are closely
tied up with the quality of the water used for consumption where the per capita
consumption of water is an index of the quality of life of the people as well as
their economic and social condition. There is a clear correlation between access
to safe drinking water and GDP per capita (Kulshreshtha 1998). Groundwater is
the most significant source of drinking water throughout the world though surface
water plays a vital role in the supply of water for drinking. It was estimated that
only 0.9% of the total water resources on earth is supplied from groundwater,
though it is the major and the preferred source of drinking water in rural as well
as urban areas. It covers 80% of the total drinking water requirement and 50% Arsenic and
of the agricultural requirement in rural India. Fluoride Pollution
Arsenic contamination is a worldwide health problem due to its toxicity and
the fact that it occurs at unhealthful levels in water supplies, particularly
groundwater, in more than 70 countries on six continents (Ravenscroft et al.,
2009). Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a worldwide problem due
to its damaging effects on health (Kumar 2015). These effects range from skin
ailments to serious and dangerous diseases such as cancer. Continuing exposure
to arsenic can cause damage to the human cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,
dermal, hepatic, pulmonary, renal, neurological (ATSDR, 2000), reproductive
system and respiratory systems (ATSDR, 2000; Mandal and Suzuki, 2002;
Kumar 2015).
Like Arsenic (As) contamination, Fluoride (F) as a groundwater contaminant
is also a worldwide problem. The source of this contamination is natural,
depending on climate, rock type and geochemical conditions that are favourable
to the release of fluoride from aquifer rocks.
It is estimated that up to 60 million people are reported to be affected with
dental, skeletal and/or non-skeletal fluorosis in India, the extent of fluoride
contamination varying between 1.0 to 48.0 mg/l. Fluoride in groundwater is
increasing in India at an alarming rate as groundwater is increasingly exploited.
This unit emphasizes the sources, status, impacts and management of arsenic
and fluoride pollution.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
•• explain the sources of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• discuss the status of arsenic and fluoride pollution;
•• explain the impacts of arsenic and fluoride pollution and
•• explain the management of arsenic and fluoride pollution.
12.3 ARSENIC POLLUTION

Arsenic is widely distributed in nature and principally occurs in the form
of inorganic or organic compounds. In soils, arsine gases may be generated
by fungi and other related micro-organisms. Different forms of arsenic have
different toxicities, with arsine gas being the most toxic form of the inorganic
oxyanions, arsenites being the most toxic form and arsenate, the less toxic form.
The organic (methylated) arsenic forms are considered the least toxic (Kumar
2015). Exposure to inorganic compounds may occur in many ways through
certain industrial effluents, pesticides, chemical alloys, combustion of fossil
fuels, wood preservative agents, occupational hazards in mining and dissolution
in drinking water. The most commonly found arsenic compounds in drinking
water are arsenate or arsenite. However, groundwater is very prone to chemical
245
Water-Related and other types of contamination from natural sources or by anthropogenic
Issues activities (Kumar 2015).
12.3.1 Sources of Arsenic Pollution

Arsenic is a natural constituent of the earth’s crust and is the 20th most abundant
element. The average concentration of arsenic in the continental crust is 1–2
mg/kg (Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Arsenic is released into the environment
through natural processes such as weathering and volcanic eruptions and may be
transported over long distances as suspended particulates and aerosols through
water or air (Kumar 2015). A range of arsenic compounds, both organic and
inorganic, are introduced into the environment through geological (geogenic)
and anthropogenic (human activities) sources (Kumar 2015) (Fig. 12.1). Small
amounts of arsenic also enter the soil and water through various biological
sources (biogenic) that are rich in arsenic. Although the anthropogenic source of
arsenic contamination is increasingly becoming important, it should be pointed
out that the recent episode of extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater
in Bangladesh and West Bengal is of geological origin, transported by rivers
from sedimentary rocks in the Himalayas over tens of thousands of years, rather
than anthropogenic (Kumar 2015).
Fig. 12.1 Major Sources of Arsenic Pollution (Source: Kumar 2015).

1. Geogenic Sources
Arsenic is extensively distributed in geological materials, but with
variable concentrations. Arsenic ranks 52nd in crustal abundance and is
a major constituent in more than 245 minerals (O’Neill, 1995). Arsenic
is introduced into soil and water during the weathering of rocks and
minerals followed by subsequent leaching and runoff. Therefore, the
primary source of arsenic in soil is the parent (or rock) materials from
which it is derived (Yan-Chu, 1994; Kumar 2015)).
2. Anthropogenic Sources
Arsenic released from anthropogenic sources differs in chemical nature
and bioavailability. The sources include commercial wastes (40%),
coal ash (22%), the mining industry (16%), and the atmospheric fallout
from the steel industry (13%) (Eisler, 2004). Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) is
used extensively in the manufacturing of ceramic and glass, electronics,
pigments and antifouling agents, cosmetics, fireworks, and Cu-based
alloys (Leonard, 1991). Arsenic-containing pesticides and herbicides
release arsenic-containing liquid and solid wastes that, upon disposal, are
likely to contaminate water bodies and soil (Kumar 2015).
3. Biogenic Sources
Though the biogenic sources contribute small amounts of arsenic into soil
246 and water ecosystems, plants and micro-and macro-organisms affect the
redistribution of arsenic through their bioaccumulation (e.g., biosorption), Arsenic and
biotransformation (e.g., bio-methylation), and transfer (e.g., volatilization) Fluoride Pollution
(Kumar 2015).
12.3.2 Status of Arsenic Pollution

The presence of arsenic in groundwater in India is the most serious health hazard.
Arsenic pollution is observed in West Bengal, Bihar and the North-eastern
region. Many areas within the north-eastern states with an arsenic concentration
greater than 0.05 mg/l imply that millions of people are at serious risk of arsenic
poisoning. It was reported that the concentration of arsenic generally varies
from 0.02 to 0.9 mg/l (exceeding the WHO standard of 0.01 mg/l and Bureau of
Indian Standard (BIS) of 0.05 mg/l) (Kumar 2015). The North Eastern Regional
Institute of Water and Land Management (NERIWALM) report (Chakraborty,
2007) indicated that arsenic levels in Assam, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal
Pradesh were above 300 parts per billion (ppb). World Health Organisation
(WHO) reported that the consumption of water contaminated with arsenic levels
of over 50 ppb can cause skin lesions and even cancer (Kumar 2015).
12.3.3 Impacts of Arsenic Pollution
Arsenic contamination is a worldwide health problem due to its toxicity and
the fact that it occurs at unhealthful levels in water supplies, particularly
groundwater, in more than 70 countries on six continents (Ravenscroft et al.,
2009). Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a worldwide problem due
to its damaging effects on health (Kumar 2015). These effects range from skin
ailments to serious and dangerous diseases such as cancer. Continuing exposure
to arsenic can cause damage to the human cardiovascular, gastrointestinal,
dermal, hepatic, pulmonary, renal, neurological (ATSDR, 2000), reproductive
system and respiratory systems (ATSDR, 2000; Mandal and Suzuki, 2002;
Kumar 2015).
Clinical symptoms occurring in the early stage of human arsenic poisoning were
unspecific. The clinical manifestations of arsenic poisoning are myriad, and the
correct diagnosis depends largely on awareness of the problem. Among the
people who were taking high-arsenic water, early symptoms include palpitations,
fatigue, headache, dizziness, insomnia, weakness, nightmare and numbness in
the extremities and anaemia.
Long term intake of drinking water having arsenic concentration beyond the
permissible limit of 0.05 mg/lit has deleterious effects on human health namely
respiratory effects, cardiovascular effects, gastrointestinal effects, haematological
effects, hepatic effects, renal effects, dermal effects, neurological effects,
developmental effects, reproductive effects, genotoxicity effects, mutagenic
effects, immunologic effects, carcinogenic effects and biochemical effects.
The above effects are mainly producing the following diseases:
i) Tumor in lungs, skin, kidney and urinary bladder
ii) Cancer and skin problems
247
Water-Related iii) Cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and reproductive disorders
Issues
iv) Hypertension, erectile dysfunction, diabetes, depression, obesity and
other conditions leading to alteration of intercellular potassium volume
v) Mining workers often accumulate a high level of arsenic in their respiratory
systems leading to liver cancer and lung cancer.
In many countries, arsenic in drinking water has been observed at concentrations
greater than the WHO guideline value i.e., 10 μg/l (0.01 mg/l) or the prevailing
national standards. The major issue of arsenic-contaminated water is to find
out the level of contamination and it is not so easy because of no colour, no
odour and no taste even in the highly contaminated water. Arsenite is more
toxic (approximately ten times) than the arsenate due to the former’s ability to
react with sulfhydryl groups thereby increasing the residence time (Nagarnaik
et al., 2002). Although there is no widely accepted mechanism for the release
of arsenic in groundwater, it has been accepted that the majority including
the North-Eastern states of India is of natural, geological origin. Arsenic is
considered to be closely linked with the oxidation-reduction process of pyrite
and iron oxide (Kumar 2015).
12.3.4 Management of Arsenic Pollution
Conventional Arsenic Removal Technologies and Remedial Options
Many technologies have been developed for the removal of high concentrations
of arsenic from drinking water. The most common arsenic removal
technologies use oxidation, coagulation, precipitation, adsorption and ion
exchange and membrane techniques. Other potential approaches would include
phytoremediation or the use of bacteria, which can play an important role in
catalyzing biological arsenic removal processes. All the arsenic treatment
technologies ultimately concentrate arsenic in the sorption media, the residual
sludge or in a liquid media. To avoid indiscriminate disposal and environmental
pollution, these wastes need to be treated or disposed of properly.
1. Oxidation and Filtration: Oxidation of As (III) to As (V) by adding
a suitable oxidizing agent followed by coagulation, sedimentation and
filtration. Oxidation and filtration normally refer to the processes that
are designed to remove naturally occurring iron and manganese from
water. If arsenic is present in the water, it is removed via two primary
mechanisms: adsorption and co-precipitation. First, soluble iron and
As (III) are oxidized. The As (V) then adsorbs onto the iron hydroxide
precipitation that is ultimately filtered from the solution. In general, the
Fe: As mass ratio should be at least 20:1. These conditions customarily
result in an arsenic removal efficiency of 80-95% (Haldar and Ray 2014).
2. Coagulation/Filtration: It removes arsenic by co-precipitation and
adsorption using iron coagulants. Coagulation/filtration using alum is
already used by some utilities to remove suspended solids and may be
adjusted to remove arsenic. But the problem with this type of filtration
system is that it gets clogged very easily, mostly within two to three
months. The toxic arsenic sludge is disposed of by concrete stabilization,
but there is no guarantee that it won’t leach out in future.
248
3. Co-precipitation: The effectiveness of arsenic co-precipitation, with Arsenic and
iron, is relatively independent of source water pH, in the range of 5.5 to Fluoride Pollution
8.5. This technology can typically reduce arsenic concentrations to less
than 50 μg/L and in some cases below 10 μg/L. To remove arsenic by co-
precipitation, a coagulant is to be added. Water treatment with coagulants,
such as alum, ferric chloride and ferric sulfate is effective in removing
arsenic from water. Ferric salts are more effective in removing arsenic
than alum on a weight basis and affect a wider range of pH. In both cases,
pentavalent arsenic can be more effectively removed than trivalent arsenic
(Haldar and Ray 2014).
4. Iron oxide adsorption filters the water through a granular medium
containing ferric oxide. Ferric oxide has a high affinity for adsorbing
dissolved metals such as arsenic. The iron oxide medium eventually
becomes saturated and must be replaced. Sludge disposal is a problem
here too.
5. Adsorption: Activated alumina is an adsorbent that effectively removes
arsenic. The technology can reduce arsenic concentrations to less than 50
μg/L in general and in some cases even below 10 μg/L. Its effectiveness is
sensitive to a variety of untreated water contaminants and characteristics.
Activated alumina columns connected to shallow tube wells in India and
Bangladesh have removed both As(III) and As(V) from groundwater
for decades. Long-term column performance has been possible through
the efforts of community-elected water committees that collect a local
water tax for funding operations and maintenance. It has also been used to
remove undesirably high concentrations of fluoride.
6. Ion Exchange has long been used as a water-softening process, although
usually on a single-home basis. Traditional anion exchange resins are
effective in removing As(V), but not As(III), or arsenic trioxide, which
doesn’t have a net charge. Effective long-term ion exchange removal of
arsenic requires a trained operator to maintain the column.
Both Reverse osmosis and electrodialysis (also called electrodialysis reversal)
can remove arsenic with a net ionic charge. (Note that arsenic oxide, As2O3, is a
common form of arsenic in groundwater that is soluble, but has no net charge.)
Some utilities presently use one of these methods to reduce total dissolved solids
and therefore improve the taste. A problem with both methods is the production
of high-salinity wastewater called brine, or concentrate, which then must be
disposed of.
In some places, all the water supplied to residences by utilities must meet
primary (health-based) drinking water standards. Regulations may necessitate
large-scale treatment systems to remove arsenic from the water supply. The
effectiveness of any method depends on the chemical makeup of a particular
water supply. The aqueous chemistry of arsenic is complex and may affect the
removal rate that can be achieved by a particular process.
Some utilities with multiple water supply wells could shut down those wells
with high arsenic concentrations, and produce only from wells or surface water
sources that meet the arsenic standard. Other utilities, however, especially small
249
Water-Related utilities with only a few wells, may have no available water supply that meets
Issues the arsenic standard (Haldar and Ray 2014). Thus, the remedial options are as
follows:
i. Use of surface water sources
ii. Exploring and harnessing alternate arsenic-free aquifer
iii. Removal of arsenic from groundwater using arsenic treatment plants/
filters
iv. Adopting rainwater harvesting/watershed management practices.
Surface water sources and deep aquifers are practised in places wherever they are
found feasible in terms of technical and financial aspects, and as such schemes
are few. Different types of arsenic removal schemes have been devised. These
devices vary in size, filtering mechanisms, and mechanisms of operation. Based
on the size, the schemes can be categorized as ‘Arsenic Removal Unit (ARU)’
and ‘Arsenic Removal Plant (ARP)’. ARUs are those, whose inlets are directly
connected to a hand pump or tube well. They are complete units. The “Arsenic
Removal Unit” is normally a small assembly which can meet the requirement of
water for a smaller section of people. ARPs, on the other hand, are those units,
which can treat a large quantity of water and can cover a large section of the
populace. Nearly, 77 ARUs, each having coverage of 15000 populations, have
been installed with the existing piped water supply scheme. And 2396 ARUs,
each having coverage of 600-800 population, have been fitted with the existing
hand pumps. Nearly 1900 ARPs have been put in operation in many places.
Mitigation Measures
Elevated arsenic content in groundwater is one of the most serious concerns as
it affects large unconsolidated aquifers along many alluvial and deltaic plains
of the world, particularly in southern, south-eastern and eastern parts of Asia.
The problem is compounded because the drinking water supply of these thickly
populated regions is dependent on shallow aquifers which are found to be
contaminated. In India, approximately 40 million people are residing within the
risk zone of arsenic contamination (Acharyya, 2005; Saha 2009; Kumar 2015).
A major source of arsenic in groundwater is of geogenic origin and is intricately
linked to the aquifer geometry and groundwater flow regime. Its effective
mitigation warrants understanding of physicochemical processes in groundwater
and aquifer framework, lithology and groundwater flow regime of the area.
The mitigation measures include a variety of options, ranging from removing
arsenic from groundwater after it is extracted, searching for alternative aquifers,
reducing the level within the aquifer itself, diluting the contaminants by artificial
recharge, and blending it with potable water etc. (Kumar 2015).
EMERGING METHODS
Besides the conventional methods mentioned above, several new methods have
been studied recently. The methods are listed below (Haldar and Ray 2014):
1. Fe-Mn Oxidation
250 2. Greensand Filtration
3. Coagulation assisted Microfiltration Arsenic and
Fluoride Pollution
4. In situ (sub-surface) Arsenic Immobilization
5. Enhanced Coagulation
6. Biological Arsenic Removal
7. Phytoremediation
Ex-Situ Arsenic Removal
This method primarily targets lowering the concentration of arsenic after the
water is extracted from aquifers. The following processes are adopted for arsenic
removal.
1. Precipitation Processes
2. Adsorptive Processes
3. Ion-exchange Processes
4. Membrane Processes
In-Situ (Sub-surface) Arsenic Treatment
In-situ remediation refers to all such techniques that make arsenic immobilization
possible within the aquifer itself. As arsenic is mobilized in groundwater under
reducing conditions, it is also possible to immobilize the arsenic by creating
oxidized conditions in the subsurface (Kumar 2015).
1. Use of Atmospheric O2 for Iron and Arsenic Rich Water
2. Use of Atmospheric O2 and Ferrous Chloride for Low Iron and Arsenic
Rich Water
a. Sub-Terranean Arsenic Removal (SAR)
In this technique, the aerated water is stored in feed water tanks and
released back into the aquifers through the tube well by opening a valve in
a pipe connecting the water tank to the tubewell pipe under the pump head.
Many different physical, chemical and biological processes are intensified
in the surrounding area of the well screen section, the so-called oxidation
zone. Because of the input of oxygen, the redox potential of the water
is increased. The dissolved oxygen in aerated water oxidizes arsenite to
less-mobile arsenate, the ferrous iron to ferric iron and Manganese (II)
to Manganese (III), followed by adsorption of arsenate on iron (III) and
Manganese (III) resulting in a reduction of the arsenic content in tube well
water (Kumar 2015).
b. Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) Technology
In this in-situ technique, walls containing reactive media are installed
across the path of a contaminated groundwater plume to intercept the
plume. The barrier allows water to pass through the media which removes
the components by precipitation, degradation, adsorption, or ion exchange.
Four types of materials have been used in the construction of permeable
reactive barriers (PRB) used in the treatment of arsenic-contaminated
groundwater - zero-valent iron (ZVI), furnace slag, and sorbents and
composite materials (organic + ZVI or a sorbent). It has been observed
that iron-based sorbents (IBS) can remove efficiently both the As (III), 251
Water-Related As(V) and their mixtures. Iron oxide bearing minerals (iron-oxide coated
Issues sand) have long been recognized as an effective reactive media for arsenic-
contaminated groundwater remediation (Kumar 2015).
c. Electrokinetic Treatment
Electrokinetic treatment is an emerging in-situ remediation method
designed to remove heavy metal contaminants from soil and groundwater.
The method is most applicable to soils with small particle sizes, such
as clay. However, its applications for treating arsenic-contaminated
groundwater are not of practical interest as treatment is limited by the
depth to which the electrodes can be placed (Kumar 2015).
Of the various in-situ remediation techniques, in India, only the SAR
technology (as described above) has been demonstrated successfully in
parts of West Bengal.
12.4 FLUORIDE POLLUTION

Fluoride is the 13th most common element in the earth’s crust as a component of
the rocks and minerals. Fluoride is the lightest member of the halogen group of
elements. In some respects, its behaviour is quite different from other halogens
and it is reflected in natural water also. It is considered one of the minor
constituents of natural waters, but it is an important parameter in ascertaining the
suitability of water for potable purposes. Intake of 1mg/l per day is very much
essential for the healthy growth of teeth, but a level higher than the permissible
limit of 1.5mg/l is dangerous to health (ISI, 1991). Fluoride contamination of
groundwater has now become a major geo-environmental issue in many parts of
the world due to its toxic effects even if consumed in trace quantities. Fluoride
in groundwater poses a great problem in most the states of India. Fluoride
concentration in the groundwater of India varies widely ranging from 0.01ppm
to 48 ppm (Gupta et. al., 2006). High fluoride content in drinking water sources
has been observed in 15 states of India (Susheela 2001) and its manifestation in
the form of fluorosis has been reported. The deficiency of fluoride leads to dental
caries and a higher concentration leads to dental and skeletal fluorosis. Fluoride
also circulates in the blood and affects the foetus, nerves and heart. Fluoride
reduces the secretion of the thyroid gland by affecting iodine in the body which
may lead to mongolism. Apart from these, excess fluoride intake will also cause
gastro-intestinal problems like loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, pain in the
abdomen, intermittent diarrhoea, muscular weakness, excessive thirst, etc.
(Nemade et.al., 1996). High fluoride intake over a period of time can cripple
one for life (Dinesh Chand 1998).
12.4.1 Sources of Fluoride Pollution
Fluoride contamination in groundwater is mainly geogenic, wherein, during
weathering and circulation of water in rocks and soils, fluoride is leached
out and dissolved in groundwater and thermal gases. The fluoride content of
groundwater varies greatly depending on the geological settings and types
252 of rocks. Agricultural (use of phosphate fertilizers) and industrial activities
(clays used in ceramic industries or burning of coals) also contribute to fluoride Arsenic and
concentration in groundwater. Fluoride Pollution
The occurrence of fluoride in groundwater is mainly a natural phenomenon which
is dependent on local and regional geological settings, particularly concerning
the lithology of the aquifer and hydrological conditions. The parameters that
tend to concentrate fluoride in groundwater resources tend to be related to
soil characteristics with respect to their capacity for retention and leaching of
fluoride. Because of the likelihood of excess fluoride in groundwater, WHO
reduced the permissible limit in drinking water of fluoride in India from 1.5 to
1.0 ppm in the year 1998 (UNICEF, 1999).
A. Natural Sources
Fluoride enters the human body through a variety of sources viz. water,
food, air, medicaments and cosmetics. The chief natural source of fluoride
in the soil is the parent rock itself. Fluorite, the only principal mineral
of fluorine in nature, occurs mostly as an accessory mineral in granitic
rocks. The granite rocks contain fluoride concentrations of 20–3600 ppm.
Apatite, amphiboles, pegmatite, hornblende, muscovite, biotite, micas,
certain types of clays and villiaumite also contain fluorine.
It was observed in India that granites, minerals like sepiolite and
palygorskite, acid volcanic and basic dykes of Rajasthan, the dark mineral
fraction of gneisses of Tamil Nadu, fluoride-rich rocks in Karnataka and
hard rock terrains south of Ganges valley in the arid north-western part
are identified as rock sources. The varieties of soil sources include canal
irrigated black cotton soils of Karnataka, soils and clays of Gujarat, and
sodic soils in irrigated areas of Haryana and Andhra Pradesh.
1. Fluoride in Soil
The fluoride content in soil normally ranges from 200 to 300 ppm.
Since fluorides are retained by the soil through strong associations
with soil components, fluoride is not readily leached from soils. The
fluoride content in soil increases with depth, and only 5 to 10% of
the total fluoride in the soil is water-soluble. The fate of inorganic
fluorides released into the soil also depends on the chemical form, rate
of deposition, soil chemistry and climate. In acidic soils with pH below
6, most of the fluorides are in complexes with either aluminium or
iron. Fluoride binds to clay by displacing hydroxide from the surface
of the clay. The adsorption is strongly dependent upon pH and fluoride
concentration. It is most significant at pH 3 to 4 and decreases above
pH 6.5.
2. Fluoride in Food and Beverages
Virtually all foodstuffs contain at least trace amounts of fluoride as it
is ubiquitous in the environment. Fluoride is entering the human food-
and-beverage chain in increasing amounts through the consumption
of tea, wheat, spinach, cabbage, carrots and other Indian foods. The
fluoride in these items presumably results from the use of soil or
fertilizer-borne fluoridated water for food and beverage processing.
It has been observed that many agricultural products from Andhra
Pradesh in India were containing fluoride ranging from 0.20–11.0 253
Water-Related mg/kg. The tea plant is a hyperaccumulator of fluoride. Tea plants
Issues accumulate and store fluoride by absorbing it from the air and soil.
Tea plants are found to have high fluoride uptake and 97% of it gets
accumulated in leaves. The fluoride content of tea leaves is about
1,000 times the soluble fluoride content of soil and 2 to 7 times the
total fluoride content in the soil.
B. Other Sources
The sources of fluoride also include aluminium smelters, industrial plants
manufacturing hydrofluoric acid, phosphate fertilizer plants, enamel,
glass, brick and tile works, textile dyeing, plastics factories and industries
consuming high sulphur non-coking coal-like thermal power plants.
Presently, large amounts of an industrial effluent containing fluoride are
generated from high-tech industries manufacturing semiconductors and
integrated circuits. Teflon-lined cookware may also contribute to fluoride
uptake by humans. The concentration of fluoride was found to increase
to nearly 3 ppm in Teflon-coated cookware but in aluminium ware, it was
decreasing. In stainless steel and Pyrex ware also fluoride concentration
was found to increase but to a lesser degree. Fluoride in water may initiate
leaching of aluminium from cooking utensils and copper from pipe works
at normal and high concentrations respectively
C. Fluoride in Human Body
Fluoride as hydrofluoric acid is absorbed through the skin in humans
and animals. The absorbed fluoride is rapidly distributed throughout
the body via the blood, of which around 99% gets deposited in bones
and teeth. The absorption of fluoride from the stomach is by a passive
diffusion process inversely proportional to pH but is a rapid diffusion
from the small intestine after gastric emptying. The presence of a diet
rich in calcium, or co-exposure to calcium carbonate, reduces the fluoride
absorption. Fluoride does not accumulate in most soft tissue but may
enter the intracellular fluid of soft tissues as hydrogen fluoride.
The concentration of fluoride in soft tissues is reflected by that in blood.
Fluoride is concentrated in high levels within kidney tubules and has a
higher concentration than plasma. So, the kidney could be a potential site
and target of chronic fluoride toxicity because of its exposure to relatively
high fluoride concentrations. In humans, the placenta can regulate the
transfer of fluoride from maternal blood to fetal blood, but fluoride is only
poorly transported from plasma to milk.
It is reported that the average dietary intake of fluoride ranges between
0.02–0.048 mg/kg/day for adults living in areas with 1.0 ppm fluoride in
water and areas with less than 0.3 ppm fluoride in water, the adult dietary
intake ranges from 0.004–0.014 mg/kg/day. In children, the dietary intake
ranges from 0.03–0.06 mg/kg/day in areas with fluoridated water and is
0.01–0.04 mg/kg/day in areas without fluoridated water.
12.4.2 Status of Fluoride Pollution

The technological advances made in the irrigation and drinking water sector
developed almost simultaneously in India. While the technology has allowed
254
drinking water to be pumped from the ground through bore wells and hand Arsenic and
pumps, it also provided the irrigation sector with the means for unfettered Fluoride Pollution
pumping of groundwater through millions of irrigation bore wells (nearly 3.7
million
in 2004), leading to an imbalance in the natural ecological system resulting in
scarcity and pollution of groundwater. This unregulated groundwater tapping
intensified the failure of drinking water sources and mainly paved the way
for geogenic pollutants like fluoride in groundwater. In addition, geological
processes, and weathering of fluoride bearing minerals in soil under different
hydro-geological settings also contributed to higher groundwater fluoride levels
in endemic areas. Thus, the scarcity of groundwater and the presence of excess
fluoride can be treated as the two most crucial, critical and core issues in the
Indian system of sustainable drinking water supply. Fluorosis is reported in
20 states of India, indicating that endemic fluorosis has emerged as one of the
most alarming public health problems in the country. Among the affected states,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat are the most endemic. People in several
districts of Rajasthan and Assam are forced to consume water with fluoride
concentrations up to 44 ppm and 23 ppm, respectively. The Mega-City of Delhi
is endemic to fluorosis with a natural maximum fluoride concentration of 32
ppm.
12.4.3 Impacts of Fluoride Pollution
Health and Environmental Impacts
Fluorosis is a crippling disorder due to the entry of fluoride into the body, which
affects every organ, tissue, and cell in the body, and results in health complaints
having overlapping manifestations with several other diseases like gouts and
osteoporosis. In short, it causes dental fluorosis and musculoskeletal fluorosis.
Fluoride damages the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin hormone in the
brain. It also affects the reproductive systems and intelligence (Susheela, 2001).
The acuteness of symptoms depends on the individual metabolism, nutrition,
income, education, weather and socio-economic conditions of a locale.
12.4.4 Management of Fluoride Pollution

Defluoridation of drinking water is the only practicable solution to overcome
excessive fluoride, where an alternative source is not available. While several
technologies, based on industrial level processes such as adsorption and ion
exchange in filter systems, coagulation and precipitation and membrane filtration
have been developed and tested, sustainable implementation has rarely been
achieved in rural communities. There are few technologies available for fluoride
removal. The list of the technologies is as follows (Haldar and Ray 2014):
1. Nalgonda Technique
2. Precipitation Methods
3. Activated alumina
4. Electrocoagulation 255
Water-Related 5. Bone Char
Issues 6. Contact Precipitation
7. Degreased and alkali-treated bones
8. Activated Carbon and Lime
9. Ion Exchange Resins
1. Explain the sources of arsenic pollution.
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2. Explain the impacts of arsenic pollution.
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3. Explain the sources of fluoride pollution.
……………………………………………………………………………
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4. Explain the impacts of fluoride pollution.
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12.5 LET US SUM UP

Arsenic is widely distributed in nature and principally occurs in the form of
inorganic or organic compounds. Different forms of arsenic have different
toxicities, with arsine gas being the most toxic form of the inorganic oxyanions,
arsenites being the most toxic form and arsenate, the less toxic form. The
organic (methylated) arsenic forms are considered the least toxic. Arsenic and
fluoride contamination problems in groundwater are a major concern. In this
unit, we have discussed the sources, status, impacts and management of arsenic
and fluoride pollution.
256
12.6 KEY WORDS Arsenic and
Fluoride Pollution
Heavy Metals: It refers to a group of toxic metals including arsenic, chromium,
copper, lead, mercury, silver, and zinc.

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alluvium in Ganga plain and Bengal basin, Indian subcontinent: insights into
influences of stratigraphy. Gondwana Res. 8, pp. 55-66.
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& Human Services, Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry, pp. 428.
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in West Bengal and Available Technologies for Remediation, International
J. of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol.3
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Central Groundwater Board, Eastern Region Kolkata
•• CGWB & BARC (2009), Studies on arsenic pollution of groundwater using
isotopic and geochemical methods in arsenic. Bhojpur district of Bihar,
India, Central Groundwater Board, Mid-Eastern Region, Patna, pp 49.
•• Chakraborti, D. (2000), Current Science, 78, 1421-1423.
•• Dahi E, F Mtalo, B Njau, H Bregnhj, (2013) Defluoridation using the
Nalgonda Technique in Tanzania, Ecological Engineering Volume 52, March
2013, Pages 211–218.
•• Dinesh Chand (1998) Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission,
Ministry of Rural areas and employment, CGO Complex Lodhi Road, New
Delhi, Fluoride and Human Health cause for concern, Indian J. of Env. Prot.,
19(2), 81-89
•• D.M. Banerjee, et al., (2012), Contemporary Groundwater Pollution Studies
in India: A Review, Proc Indian Natn Sci Acad 78 No. 3 September 2012 pp.
333-342
•• Eisler, R. (2004). Arsenic hazards to humans, plants, and animals from gold
mining. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. Vol. 180, pp. 133–165.
•• Gupta, S., Banerjee, S., Saha, R., Dutta., J.K., Mondal, N. (2006), Fluoride
geochemistry of groundwater in Nalhati-1 Block of the Birbhum district,
West Bengal, India, Research Report Fluoride, 2006, 39(4), pp. 318-320.
•• Indian Standard Specification for Drinking Water, ISI. 1991.
257
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Issues Metals in the Ground Water of Tea Gardens Belt of Sonitpur District, Assam,
India; International Journal of ChemTech Research, Vol.9, No.02 pp 71-79.
•• Kulshreshtha, S. N., A Global Outlook for Water Resources to the Year
2025. Water Resources
•• Management 1998, 12 (3), pp. 167–184.
•• Kumar, C.P. (2015). Status and Mitigation of Arsenic Contamination in
Groundwater in India. The International Journal of Earth & Environmental
Sciences, 1(1).1-10.
•• Kumar, R., Singh, R.D., and Sharma, K.D. (2005) Water resources in India.
Current Science, 89, pp. 794–811.
•• Leonard, A. (1991). Arsenic. In “Metals and Their Compounds in the
Environments: Occurrence, Analysis, and Biological Relevance (E. Merian,
Ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 751–773. Weinheim, VCH.
•• Lomborg, B., The Skeptical Environmentalist, Cambridge University Press.
2001, pp. 22. ISBN
•• 0521010683, downloaded from http://www.lomborg.com on 10.12. 2009
•• Mandal, B.K., & Suzuki, K.T. (2002). Arsenic round the world: a Review.
Talanta, Vol. 58, pp. 201-235.
•• Nagarnaik P. B., Bhole A.G. and Natarajan G.S. (2002) Arsenic removal of
groundwater-a state of art. Water Resources Journal. pp. 51-66.
•• Nemade, P.N., Shrivastava, V.S. (1996) Radiological skeletal changes due to
chronic fluoride intoxication in Udaipur (dt). J. Environmental Protection.,
Vol. 16, No. 12m, 43- 46
•• O’Neill, P. (1995). Arsenic. In “Heavy Metals in Soil” (B. J. Alloway, Ed.).
Blackie Academic & Professional, Glasgow.
•• Petrusevski, B., Slokar, Y., Sharma, S., Kruis, F. & Schippers, J.C. (2007).
An Innovative Approach for Arsenic Removal. Power-point presentation
UNESCO-IHE, http://www.unesco-ihe.org/education.
•• Plant, J.A., Korre A., Reeder, S., Smith, B. Voulvoulis, N. (2005) Chemicals
in the environment: implications for global sustainability. Applied Earth
Science, 114, pp. 65-97
•• Ravenscroft, P., Brammer, H., & Richards, K. (2009) Arsenic Pollution: A
Global Synthesis. Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 588.
•• Saha, D., Sreehari, S.M.S., Dwivedi, S.N. & Bhartariya, K.G. (2009).
Evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in arsenic-contaminated alluvial
aquifers in parts of MidGanga Basin, Bihar, Eastern India. Environ. Earth
Sci. doi:10.1007/ s12665-009- 0392-y.
•• Shah, B.A. (2007). Role of Quaternary stratigraphy on arsenic-contaminated
groundwater from parts of Middle Ganga Plain, UP-Bihar, India. Environ.
Geol. doi:10.1007/s00254-007- 0766-y.
•• Saha, D. (2009). Arsenic groundwater contamination in parts of Middle
258 Ganga Plain, Bihar. Current Sci. Vol. 97, pp. 753-755.
•• Saha, D., Sahu, S. & Chandra, P.C. (2010) Arsenic safe alternate aquifers Arsenic and
and their hydraulic characteristics in contaminated areas of Middle Ganga Fluoride Pollution
Plain, Eastern India. Environ Assessment and Monitoring. doi:10.1007/
s10661-010-1535-z.
•• S. Ayoob & A. K. Gupta (2006) Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Review on
the Status and Stress Effects, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and
Technology, 36:6, 433-487. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643380600678112
•• Singh, A. K. (2004) Arsenic contamination in groundwater of North-Eastern
India. In Proceedings of 11th National Symposium on Hydrology with Focal
Theme on Water Quality, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, pp.
255–262.
•• Singh Bhupinder (2011) Assessment of Groundwater Quality With Respect
to Fluoride; Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology,
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, Vol. 1, 45-50
•• Singh, S. K. & Ghosh, A. K. (2012). Health risk assessment due to
groundwater arsenic contamination: Children are at high risk. Human and
Ecological Risk Assessment, An International Journal, 18 (4), 751-766
•• Smedley P.L., & Kinniburgh, D.G. (2002). A review of the source, behaviour
and distribution of arsenic in natural waters. Applied Geochemistry. Vol. 17,
pp. 517-568.
•• Smith, E., Naidu, R., & Alston, A. M. (1998). Arsenic in the soil environment.
A review. Adv. Agron. Vol. 64, pp. 149–195.
•• SOES (2012). School of Environmental Studies, Groundwater arsenic
contamination in middle Ganga plain, Bihar, India: A Future Danger? School
of Environmental Science, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.
•• Susheela, A. K. (2001) A Treatise on Fluorosis, Fluorosis Research and
Rural Development Foundation, Delhi, pp. 15
•• Talukdar, T. & Ghosh, A.K. (2009). Arsenic in Groundwater in North 24
Pargana district, West Bengal, Bhujal News. Vol. 24, pp. 95-106
•• Taylor, S. R. & McLennan, S. M., (1985). The Continental Crust: Its
Composition and Evolution, Blackwell Scientific, London,
•• Wachinski A., Scharf, M. & Sellerberg, W. (2006). New Technologies for
the Effective Removal of Arsenic from Drinking Water, Techno-Focus,
Asian Water.
•• Water & Wastes (2003). Greensand Process Removes Iron, Manganese,
Arsenic from Groundwater. Water & Wastes Digest. Vol. 43, No. 3
•• Wegelin, M. Gechter, D., Hug, S., Mahmud, A., & Motalab, A. (2000).
SORAS - a simple arsenic removal process. EAWAG and SDC (Bangladesh).
•• Yan-Chu, H. (1994). Arsenic distribution in soils. In “Arsenic in the
Environment, Part I: Cycling and Characterization” (J. O. Nriagu, ed.), pp.
17–49. Wiley, New York.
259
Water-Related
Issues
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
260
MEVE 019
ENVIRONMENTAL

Block
4
SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
Unit 13
Environmental Changes and Nutritional Security 263
Unit 14
Urbanization and Consumerism 300
Unit 15
Multidrug-resistant Organisms 312
Unit 16
Sustainable Development Goals 325
BLOCK 4 SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT
ISSUES
Block 4 “Security and Development Issues” discusses issues like environmental
changes and nutritional security, urbanization and consumerism, multidrug-
resistant organisms and Sustainable Development Goals.
Unit 13 “Environmental Changes and Nutritional Security” deals with the
factors contributing to agricultural intensification; the effects of agricultural
intensification; the features of food security and the challenges faced by the
agriculture sector in the 21st century.
Unit 14 “Urbanization and Consumerism” discusses the pattern and causes
of urbanization, issues about urbanization and challenges to sustainable
urbanization.
Unit 15 “Multidrug-resistant Organisms” deals with the causes, extent and
impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms.
Unit 16 “Sustainable Development Goals” deals with the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development; the genesis of Sustainable Development Goals; SDG
13 which demands “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”;
and India’s progress and preparedness for achieving SDG 13.
Objectives
After studying this block, you should be able to:
•• identify factors contributing to agricultural intensification;
•• explain the features of food security;
•• explain the challenges faced by the agriculture sector in the 21st century;
•• discuss the issues about urbanization;
•• explain the urban sprawl and growth of slums;
•• explain the sustainable cities;
•• explain the causes, extent and impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms.
goals;
•• discuss the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Sustainable
Development Goals;
•• recognise SDG 13- take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts and
•• review India’s progress and preparedness on SDGs 13.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of the
security and development issues.
UNIT 13 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND
NUTRITIONAL SECURITY
Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Agricultural Intensification
13.3.1 History of Agriculture
13.3.2 Drivers of Agricultural Intensification in the 20th Century
13.3.2.1 Worldwide Plant Breeding Programmes
13.3.2.2 Use of Machines and Pesticides
13.3.2.3 Use of Chemical Fertilizers
13.3.2.4 Irrigation
13.4 Effects of Agricultural Intensification
13.4.1 Soil Degradation
13.4.1.1 Loss of Soil Organic Matter
13.4.1.2 Overuse of Chemical Fertilizers
13.4.1.3 Soil Erosion
13.4.1.4 Soil Contamination
13.4.1.5 Acidification
13.4.1.6 Salt-affected Soils
13.4.1.7 Soil Genetic Diversity
13.5 Landscape Change and Loss of Agrobiodiversity
13.5.1 Landscape Change
13.5.2 Loss of Agrobiodiversity
13.5.3 Challenges and Opportunities
13.6 Malnutrition
13.6.1 Challenges in Alleviating Malnutrition
13.7 Food Security
13.7.1 Hunger, Malnutrition and Poverty
13.7.2 Interdepartmental Approach to Alleviate Hunger
13.7.3 Agricultural intensification and Food Security
13.7.4 Public Distribution System in India
13.8 Agriculture in the 21st Century
13.8.1 Challenges to Yield Revolution in the 21st Century
13.9 Initiatives by the Government of India
13.10 Let Us Sum Up
13.11 Key Words
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is older than the existence of any civilization known to mankind
and its history is as old as about 11,500 years. Modern corn got domesticated
about 4000years back from a wild grass called Teosintes. Similarly, farmers
of various parts of the world had rich knowledge about good cultivars and
Security And they know the importance of preserving them much before the era of Mendel
Development Issues and Darwin. In the post-Mendelian era, scientists helped expand awareness of
the Laws of inheritance in the scientific world. The Machine got invented which
has decreased both time and effort of manpower to finish the same work. Liebig
invented macronutrients for plant growth in the 1840s followed by the invention
of inorganic fertilizers by Bosch-Haber. Haber’s breakthrough made mass
production of inorganic fertilizers and so the crop production. In the late 1860s,
mankind was using a chemical pesticide called Paris green against Colorado
potato beetles and in 1882 the Bordeaux mixture against downy mildew on grapes
in France. Later on, organo-pesticides have been manufactured and used in this
sector. Some part of the world was preparing to cope with the post-world war-II
crises in the first half of the nineteenth century whereas India was struggling
with British rulers and famine. War already made agricultural land infertile and
water stress condition was unable to support crop production. World leaders
were looking at plant breeders with great hope to feed their countryperson and
help developing nations with the surplus grain. Scientists across the world were
working to improve varieties of maize, wheat, rice etc. Dr Norman Borlaug
became successful in making a high yielding variety of wheat in Mexico called
“Mexican dwarf”. The Rockefeller Foundation played a very crucial role in
developing high yielding rice variety at International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI) in 1960 and in the early 1980s started a series of international projects.
The genetic diversity of rice (Oryza sativa) became the key to creating an ideal
type of tropical rice plant, a dream plant suitable for the agroclimatic condition
of Asia. Similarly, George Harrison Shull an eminent American plant geneticist
in the United States became successful in developing hybrid maize (corn) in
the year 1910. The world’s agricultural production became more than tripled
between 1960 and 2015. The period from 1960 to 2000 became marked as the
Green Revolution or agricultural intensification.
For the first time in the year 1974, The World Food Conference held in Rome
declared that “every man, woman and child have the right to be free from
hunger and malnutrition” and set the goal of eradicating hunger in the world
within a decade. As a result, in 1974 Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) first began reporting on the extent of hunger in the world.
‘Triple burden’ of malnutrition remains noticed as a global health emergency.
In the 20th Century, agricultural intensification was the only way to feed the
troubled people because of war and famine. Many nations were dependent upon
the “imported grains”. To make the nation self-sufficient to feed was the topmost
priority of the politicians and so this gain comes at the cost of environmental
degradation that could not foresee. We have enjoyed the optimum harvest in
the 20th Century by supplying the best hybrid seed, inorganic fertilizers, using
groundwater and converting forests into pasture and agricultural lands etc.
In the crop year 2016/2017, a total of about 2.2 billion metric tons of grain were
produced worldwide and corn shares about half of the total by producing 1.05
billion metric tons. Similarly, statistics from India show food grains produced
264 in 2016-17 was about 272 million tonnes and wheat and rice accounted for
Environmental
78% of the food grains production in the country. Worldwide, the total number
Changes and
of undernourished has been steadily declining, yet it is 821 million in 2017. In
Nutritional
India too 14% of the total population remains undernourished. Security
Yes, we have gained production but the time has come when you have to do
remedial measures for the wrong farm practices of the last century. Our soil has
been eroded and sick, depletion of groundwater, and loss of agrobiodiversity
are of key concern. Climate change is already at its peak and showing its impact
through phenomena like El Niño that inflict both drought and flood conditions.
No more soil has sufficient organic carbon and an inorganic fertilizer not only
has disturbed the soil structure but excessive irrigation has disturbed the soil
chemistry further. However, we expect more crop yield from agriculture in the 21st
Century. To increase farm yield, we have to revisit some of the socio-ecological
practices and appropriately modify them to feed the growing population. Each
one has to take a proactive role in tackling the crisis of mammoth size which we
have not yet thought of.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define agricultural intensification;
•• identify factors contributing to agricultural intensification;
•• explain the features of food security and
•• explain the challenges faced by the agriculture sector in the 21st century.
13.3 AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFICATION

Agricultural production more than tripled between 1960 and 2015, owing in
part to productivity-enhancing Green Revolution technologies and a significant
expansion in the use of land, water and other natural resources for agricultural
purposes. What new happened in the 20th century that supported agricultural
intensification in the 20th century? To list important few, the invention of the
machine for mechanized farming, chemical fertilizers Chemical pesticides and
the availability of high yield crop seeds. FAO Ethics Paper, technically defined
agricultural intensification as an increase in agricultural production per unit of
inputs (which may be labour, land, time, fertilizer, seed, feed or cash). On a
simpler note, it is characterised by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs like
capital and labour, and higher crop yields per unit of land area.
13.3.1 History of Agriculture
Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. The history
of agriculture goes back thousands of years. It is as old as any recorded
civilization. The early man survived by gathering grains from wild cultivars and
around 11,500 years ago they have learnt to grow them in the field. Similarly,
265
Security And animals like sheep, cattle etc. were domesticated over 10,000 years ago and
Development Issues
used as means of transportation, food and as help in plant cultivation. People
have gained knowledge about “cultivars” and varieties of food grains for more
than 10,000 years ago. This knowledge was transferred from generation to
generation through field observations in a more traditional way. Access to water
and means of transport created different civilizations like Indus Valley, Ancient
Egypt, Ancient Greece, Roman Empire, ancient china, Sumer etc. and people
were living in coherence with nature. People of the Indus valley civilization
(3000-1500 BC) were growing rice about 4000 years ago. Teosintes, the wild
grass of the Poaceae family were native to Mesoamerica and it was already
hybridized to become modern corn (Zea mays). Evidence of rice cultivation has
been found at Lothal and Rangpur and later during the Harappan period as well.
Later, different crop species were under cultivation on different continents of
the world but people were unaware of the existence of different continents and
innovations already happened in other parts. Means of transport were through
sea and land, Christopher Columbus in 1492, discovered a new world, America
and that’s how the world came to know about crops like maize, potatoes, sweet
potatoes etc. Improvement of cultivated crops and domestic animals kept
practised through hereditary influence but without knowing how it happens?
Scientists from across the globe have worked to improve plant and animal
cultivars. Science did progress in every arena of life.
To work upon a larger patch of land, the cultivators needed help from machines.
Machine decreased both the number of manpower to finish the same in much
less time. We came to know how macronutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potash) are important for plant growth and credit goes to German chemist
Justus von Liebig in the 1840s, and so scientists invented inorganic fertilizers.
Fritz Haber, the German chemist (1911) developed the high-pressure method of
extracting nitrogen from the atmosphere that is used today to produce nearly all
the nitrogen used in industry and agriculture. Carl Bosch, working for German
chemical company BASF, scaled up Haber’s laboratory experiment to industrial
production. Pests were a problem and managing a variety of them was getting
difficult and that’s how experiments with inorganic chemicals started followed
by the synthesis of organics.
13.3.2 Drivers of Agricultural Intensification in the 20th
Century
13.3.2.1 Worldwide Plant Breeding Programmes
By 1900, cells and chromosomes were sufficiently understood to give Mendel’s
abstract ideas a physical context (Roberts,1929). During the first half of the
20th century, there were two separate, but not distinct, areas of genetic studies:
1) more classical genetics to study segregation and gene expression for many
major genes, and 2) areas of genetics designated as quantitative genetics,
biometrical genetics, and population genetics to study allele frequencies and
their effects for the inheritance of complex traits.
266 The development of the world-famous “Marquis wheat” in Canada, released
to farmers in 1900, came about through sustained scientific effort. Sir Charles Environmental
Saunders (1867 – 1937), a Canadian agronomist discovered “Marquis” wheat. Changes and
He followed five principles of plant breeding: (1) the use of plant introductions; Nutritional
Security
(2) a planned crossbreeding program; (3) the rigid selection of material; (4)
evaluation of all characteristics in replicated trials; and (5) testing varieties for
local use. Marquis was the result of crossing wheat long grown in Canada with
a variety introduced from India. For 50 years, Marquis and varieties crossbred
from Marquis dominated hard red spring wheat growing in the high plains of
Canada and the United States and were used in other parts of the world. Early
plant improvers, such as England’s Thomas Knight, John LeCouteur, and Patrick
Shirreff for example, had some successes in selecting and breeding new wheat
varieties. Similarly, rice crop improvement work was intensively carried out at
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
The third grain type that contributed to the green revolution was maize.
Sturtevant (1899) reported that there were 189 distinct maize cultivars in the
United States at the end of the 19th century. Two scientists, Edward Murray East
and George Harrison Shull independently established a sound biological basis
for hybrid corn in the early 1900s. Donald F. Jones invented the double-cross
in 1917, a method of hybrid seed production that made possible the practical
application of the earlier discoveries of East and Shull.
So, far we have seen how plant breeders became active across the globe to
enhance the food grain production mainly wheat and rice to feed the exhausted
people of war and famine at the beginning of the mid-20th century.
13.3.2.2 Use of Machines and Pesticides
Intensification of land use and labour power were two important processes of
change during the 19th and 20th centuries. Yields quantify the effectiveness of
land intensification, which is denoted in kilograms of useful crop produced per
hectare of land used. Chemical fertilizers, irrigation techniques, application
of weedicides and pesticides and use of plant breeding for improved varieties
for improved seed grain production can be put in class “intensification of land
use”. The aspect of intensification of labour-power is usually quantified by crop
product produced per capita of human labour used. Mechanization provided the
greatest opportunity for intensification of human labour-power.
Before 1960, mankind invented machines which have reduced the work of
man in the field. Before 1840, herbal extracts like pyrethrum, nicotine etc.
were used as pesticides. In the late 1860’s Paris green, chemical name Copper
acetoarsenite became the first chemical that become successful to kill Colorado
potato beetles in the American Midwest. Later in the year 1882, the Bordeaux
mixture a mixture of calcium hydroxide and copper (II) sulphate came to act
against downy mildew on grapes in France and lead arsenate was used against
gypsy moths (1892) in the United States. In the year 1917, Calcium arsenate,
developed, was the first synthetic chemical extensively used on a field crop,
cotton. Paris green, Bordeaux mixture, lead arsenate, and calcium arsenate were
all based on inorganic materials and the toxicity of metals.
267
Security And The use of synthetic organic chemicals came into existence in the 1950s. Para-
Development Issues dichlorobenzene (1-4 Dichlorobenzene) became the first organo-chemical that
has acted against peachtree borer. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, having a
common name DDT became the most widely used product.
13.3.2.3 Use of Chemical Fertilizers
Plants generally require soil containing high amounts of available nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium, called macronutrients as well as other micronutrients.
Justus von Liebig emphasized the role of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potash
(K) on plant growth and also proposed the “Law of the minimum” in 1843, i.e.,
crop yields are proportional to the amount of the most limiting nutrient. Jean-
Baptiste Boussingault a French chemist, his works and experiments contributed
to an understanding of the critical role of nitrogen in plant growth and ecological
systems.
However, plant nutrients are classified into three sub-groups based on plant
growth needs.
•• Macro or primary nutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K)
•• Major or secondary nutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur
(S), and
•• Micronutrients or trace elements: Chlorine (Cl), Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn),
boron (B), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) etc.
Later, Fritz Haber (1911) developed the high-pressure method of extracting

nitrogen from the atmosphere and Carl Bosch scaled up Haber’s laboratory
experiment to industrial production. Fritz Haber’s synthesis of ammonia from its
elements, hydrogen and nitrogen, earned him the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Haber’s breakthrough made mass production of inorganic fertilizers possible
and led to a massive increase in the growth of crops and crop production for
human consumption. The formation of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer involves
the formation of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and the formation of urea
using ammonia. Many modifications have been done since the inception of
the Haber-Bosch process. Of the 150 million tonnes of ammonia synthesized
each year, approximately 83% goes to the manufacture of fertilizers needed
for the agriculture sector alone. This has contributed significantly to intensive
farming in the 20th century. Sir John Bennett Lawes, produced superphosphate
in England in 1842. A combination of synthetic and organic fertilizers can be
used to obtain nutrient balance and optimize plant growth.
Different macro-nutrients play a specific role in the plant’s growth and so

its amount in the soil gets depleted with each harvest. Intensive agriculture
so needed it more. The global demand for synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers
is increasing year after year. The need for N, P, K varies from plant-to-plant
species and nitrogen is the most important primary nutrient, accounting for
more than 50% of total consumption. About 50% of the nitrogen applied to
268 crops is absorbed while the remaining is lost to the soil.
13.3.2.5 Irrigation Environmental
Changes and
Water is a critical input for agricultural production and plays an important role Nutritional
in food security. Irrigated agriculture represents 20% of the total cultivated land Security
and contributes 40 per cent of the total food produced worldwide. Irrigated
agriculture is, on average, at least twice as productive per unit of land as
rainfed agriculture, thereby allowing for more production intensification and
crop diversification. The agriculture sector alone is using the world’s 70% of
groundwater. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
projects that the global population to reach between 8.4 and 8.6 billion people by
2030 and between 9.5 and 13.3 billion in 2100. FAO estimates that over the last
century the global water withdrawal grew 1.7 times faster than the population,
which aggravates the concern over the sustainability of water use as demand for
agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses continues to increase.
About 90 % of the global food production increase needed by 2050 is projected

to take place in developing countries, whose share of global food production
will rise to 74% in 2050 (from 67% in 2007). Agricultural output increase in
developing countries will be particularly strong for livestock production, with
their share in global production growing from 55 % in 2005/2007 to 68 % in
2050.
Global withdrawal of groundwater is estimated to have grown from a base level

of 100–150 km³ in 1950 to 950–1000 km³ in 2000. 40% of actually irrigated
areas in the world can be attributed to groundwater sources.
Intensive farming is credited, especially in Asia, with having jump-started
economies, alleviated rural poverty, and saved large areas of fragile land
from conversion to extensive farming. Over the past half-century, since the
advent of the Green Revolution, the world’s annual production of cereals,
coarse grains, roots and tubers, pulses and oil crops has grown from 1.8 billion
tonnes to 4.6 billion tonnes. Growth in cereal yields and lower cereal prices
significantly reduced food insecurity in the 1970s and 1980s, when the number
of undernourished fell, despite relatively rapid population growth. Overall,
the proportion of undernourished in the world population declined from 26%
to 14% between 1969-1971 and 2000-2002 (http://www.fao.org/ag/save-and-
grow/en/1/index.html)
Through this subsection, we understood the reasons behind the agricultural
intensification and some of the important processes followed to achieve it in the
20th century. Since chemical fertilizers were utilized in a big way, groundwater
also got exploited to achieve production many fold by growing hybrid crop
types mainly wheat, rice and maize. Surely, we have quantified the gain in terms
of crop productivity. South Asia alone has seen enhance in cereal production by
50% between 1975 and 2000 and poverty declined by 30%. But, the time has
come when we have to count the loss as well. As we forgot many thousands
of years old practices we were following to keep good health of the soil, the 269
Security And precious natural resources like water and especially groundwater and last but
Development Issues not the least the loss of many species and indigenous cultivars. Let’s discuss
how agricultural intensification has impacted soil health.
13.4 EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL INTENSIFIC

ATION
We all know that the basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter,
water and air. The typical soil consists of about 45% mineral, 5% organic matter,
20-30% water, and 20-30% air. The particle size in the range of 0.05 – 2.00
mm in diameter is called sand; 0.002 – 0.05 mm in diameter as silt and clay,
the finest one has a diameter less than 0.002 mm. The percentage of sand, silt,
and clay found in the soil give “texture” to the soil. Whereas, the arrangement
of the solid parts of the soil and the pore space located between them give
them structure”. Formation of soil from parent rock takes 200-400 years in a
mild climate whereas; to get soil all the virtues to sustain life may take a few
thousands of years.
Factors like population explosion, war, natural hazards, urbanization, land-use
change including intensive agriculture etc. have been a huge toll on soil health
and are on a constant rise. The agriculture sector will further need to increase its
production by 70% to feed people in 2050. So, the situation of soil can be well
imagined if we continue with the practices we are following. The irreparable
loss of soil already gets hit as a result of the intensification of agricultural
production is irreversible. With, this background, let us study how intensive
agriculture has affected soil health.
13.4.1 Soil Degradation

Soil degradation is the decline in physicochemical and biological properties of
soil. It can be the loss of organic matter and the release of greenhouse gases, the
over-application of fertilizers, soil erosion, soil contamination, change in pH
(soil acidification and salinization), and loss of soil microbial diversity. More
than 33% of global soil has already been degraded due to factors like erosion,
salinization, acidification, contamination, or compaction whereas, 52% of
agricultural land has been affected by soil degradation. Need not to say, both
land and soil degradation will further put in toll on the food price as a result of
decreased yield.
The impact of agricultural intensification on soils includes degradation by loss
of soil organic matter and the release of greenhouse gases, over-application of
fertilizers, erosion, soil contamination, acidification, salinization, and loss of
soil genetic diversity.
Soil degradation in India is estimated to be occurring on 147 million hectares
(Mha) of land, including 94 Mha from water erosion, 16 Mha from acidification,
14 Mha from flooding, 9 Mha from wind erosion, 6 Mha from salinity, and 7
Mha from a combination of factors. Estimates of the loss of nutrients, using
the annual soil specific erosion rates provided by the Central Soil and Water
Conservation Research and Training Institute, ICAR, show that nearly 74
million tons of major nutrients are lost due to erosion annually in India. On
average, every year, the country loses 0.8 million tons of nitrogen, 1.8 million
270 tons of phosphorus, and 26.3 million tons of potassium.
13.4.1.1 Loss of Soil Organic Matter Environmental
Soil organic matter (OM) includes both, the plant and animal material in any Changes and
form which returns to the soil through the process of decomposition. It not only Nutritional
provides the needed nutrients to plants but also provides shelters to a range of Security
microbes. It further acts as a binding material to the soil, enhances the cation
exchange capacity of the soil and so increases the water holding capacity of the
soil. Mineralization makes nutrients available in a soluble form to plants through
the process of oxidation. With each harvest organic matter gets extracted from
the soil and so organic carbon gets reduced to 30-60%.
Other factors responsible for the loss of organic soil are increased activity of soil
microbes, environmental conditions like increased temperature and humidity
etc. Depletion of organic carbon goes hand in hand with the water availability in
soil. Water stored in the soil is one of the crucial factors that decide agricultural
production.
Mineralization is directly proportional to the type and duration of harvest. More
number of crops per annum means more mineralization. Secondly, for intensive
farming, more forest cover has also been changed to agricultural land which
also led to the release of greenhouse gases.
Factors apart, global warming plays its catalytic role as well in unlocking soil
organic carbon.
Now, the time has come when we have to give back organic matter to the soil
through the methods of sustainable farming.
13.4.1.2 Overuse of Chemical Fertilizers
The application of nitrogenous followed by phosphatic and potash fertilizer
has changed global food production. In intensive farming, overuse of these
chemical fertilizers was commercially non-viable for farmers but also caused
soil acidification and contamination of groundwater. Contamination does not
get limited to the groundwater but it reaches farm ponds and streams, resulting
in the eutrophication of water bodies. The excess loading of inorganic fertilizers
perturbed the natural biogeochemical cycle and hence created contamination.
Plant uptake nitrogen-fertilizer in the form of Nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium ion
(NH4+).
Overuse of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high nitrate (NO3-)
leads to increased leaching into groundwater, so causing groundwater pollution.
Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause “blue baby
syndrome”. The most common form of phosphorus fertilizer used in agricultural
practices is phosphate (PO4+3). Excess use also resulted in the emission of
nitrous oxide (N2O) which has a global warming potential of 300 times that
of unit CO2 over 100 year of time scale. Loss through leaching of mineral-
nitrogen became higher when nitrate fertilizer was used as compared to urea or
ammonium fertilizer. So, leaching is influenced by the type of N-fertilizers and
crop type as well. Hence, farmers need to know more about the application as
per the soil and crop type to avoid such losses.
Practices to Enhance Fertilizer Use Efficiency
Following practices are in-use to enhance fertilizer use efficiency in India. 271
Security And 1. Precision Nutrient Application: Precision application of nutrients on a
Development Issues site-specific basis, is one of the key components of precision agriculture
and governs all the major issues of improving productivity, sustainability,
profitability and climate change-related turbulences.
2. Nano Fertilizers: Nanofertilizers are being prepared by encapsulating
plant nutrients into nanomaterials (iron and zinc etc.)
3. Soil Health Card Mission, India: The scheme was launched on 19th
February 2015. Under the scheme, the government plans to issue soil
cards to farmers which will carry crop-wise recommendations of nutrients
and fertilisers required for the individual farms to help farmers to improve
productivity through judicious use of inputs.
4. Neem Coated Urea (NCU): Coating urea with neem seed oil ensures
that all the urea applied is utilised by the plants.
5. Variable Rate of Technology (VRT): It allows fertiliser, chemicals,
lime, gypsum, irrigation water and other farm inputs to be applied at
different rates across a field, without manually changing rate settings on
equipment or having to make multiple passes over an area.
6. Placement of Nutrients: Placement of nutrients and fertilizer rates are
important factors to be considered to produce the maximum yield of crops.
Fertilizer placement leads to higher plant nutrient content than broadcast.
NH4+ + P or Urea + P placed at 10–20 cm soil depth shows the best plant
growth
7. Promotion of N Fixing Crops
8. Organic Farming: As per the definition of the USDA study team on organic
farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes
the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones,
feed additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral
grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and
plant protection”. In another definition, FAO suggested that “Organic
agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes
and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological
cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-
farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all
synthetic off-farm inputs”. Conventional farming is no longer sustainable
so India’s farmers have picked up again this farming towards food safety
and sustainability.
9. Integrated nutrient management (INM): It refers to the maintenance of
soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining
the desired crop productivity through optimisation of the benefits from all
possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. 500 million
tons of crop residue is available in India which can provide 200 million
tons of organic carbon. Per ton of crop residue provides Nitrogen 5.5
kg; Sulphur 1.2 kg; Phosphorus (approximately 40%) 2.3 kg; Potash
(approximately 10%) 25.0 kg; Organic Carbon 400 kg. So, integrating
crop residue not only reduces the cost of fertilizers and strengthens the
272 organic carbon along with other nutrients too.
13.4.1.3 Soil Erosion Environmental
Soil erosion is the removal of the most fertile top layer of soil by natural factors Changes and
like water and wind or through farming activities such as tillage or overgrazing. Nutritional
It can be caused by natural elements such as wind, water, and glacial ice. Security
•• Wind erosion- It is also called eolian i.e., the transport of loosened soil
particles by overland flow.
•• Water-
i. Gully erosion: When runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows
in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains is called
gully erosion.
ii. Sheet erosion: When water flows as a sheet down a slope and as a
result, the top part of the land is washed away is called sheet erosion.
iii. Ravine: Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies,
although smaller than valleys. It is a landform that is narrower than a
canyon and is often the product of stream bank erosion.
Intensive farming promoted monocropping, the practice of growing the same
crop on the piece of land, year after year. As a result, land lost nutrients and
usage of inorganic fertilizer and flooding mode of irrigation played a synergistic
role to degrade the soil through depletion of the binding material i.e., soil
organic carbon. These factors caused loosening of the soil and hence made
topsoil vulnerable.
Box 13.1 "Dust Bowl" experienced in the United States during the early
1930s!
As a result of dependence upon inorganic fertilizer and no application of
organic fertilizers led to a condition called the "Dust Bowl", in the section
of the Great Plains of the United States that extended over wheat fields of
Kansas, Texas, Oklahoma, and South-eastern Colorado in early 1930s. Experts
assured that “rain followed the plough." But between 1933 and 1935, drought
struck the area. As a result, over half a million people were left homeless
when their topsoil blew away. In a single storm, beginning on November 11,
1933, topsoil from Oklahoma was blown to Chicago, where over 12 million
pounds of it fell on the city like snow. Like alfalfa, guano, and nitrate in the
nineteenth century, America's topsoil was travelled from west to east. On
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, dust storms were reported from the Canadian
border to Texas. Visibility was less than five feet through the blowing dust.
The agricultural disaster that became known as the "Dust Bowl" caused a
mass departure of people from the high plains region that should never have
been put under the plough. When the farms blew away the whole region was
wiped out. This single incidence of soil erosion created more than 116,000
refugee families on their way into California. Only by 2012, the region was
once again producing 700 million bushels of wheat with the use of irrigation.
(Source:https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/americanenvironmentalhistory/
273
chapter/chapter-8-green-revolution/)
Security And Status of Soil Erosion in India
Development Issues •• It has been estimated that an area of over 80 million hectares or about one-
fourth of our total area is exposed to wind and water erosion out of which
40 million hectares have undergone serious erosion.
•• About 21 million hectares are subject to severe wind erosion in Rajasthan
and adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat. Wind erosion is a
serious problem in arid and semi-arid parts of North-West India.
•• 34 lakh tonnes of fertile soils are removed by the wind every year in the
districts of Jodhpur, Bikaner, Kota, Jaipur, Bharatpur, Kishangarh etc. in
Rajasthan. These areas receive scanty rainfall, devoid of vegetation cover
and have sandy soil.
•• According to estimates by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), the loss due to water erosion is 53.34 million hectares annually.
There are 39.75 lakh hectare ravines spread in 18 states, out of which 27.65
lakh hectares (or 69.55 per cent) are in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
•• Chambal Development Scheme has shown that the area covered by ravines
up to 4.5-6.0 metres in depth is about 50,600 hectares.
•• In Madhya Pradesh, about 4 to 8 lakh hectares are affected by deep gullies
and ravines along the banks of rivers Chambal and Kali Sindh. Out of this,
about 2.4 lakh hectares are in the districts of Gwalior, Morena and Bhind.
•• States like West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are affected by ravines.
The Ganga River alone is transporting about 30 million tonnes of eroded
material per annum from the Gangetic plain to the Bay of Bengal. Similarly,
the Brahmaputra is transporting about 10 million tonnes annually from the
Brahmaputra valley to the Bay of Bengal.
•• More than 15 lakh hectares of forest land are cleared for shifting agriculture
every year. The total area affected by shifting cultivation is estimated to
be 45 lakh hectares. This is causing soil erosion, especially in Assam,
Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh etc. It is reported that about 207,287 hectares
in Assam, 41,963 hectares in Tripura and 21,862 hectares in Manipur are
under shifting cultivation. In Orissa, about 33,08,502 hectares of land are
subjected to shifting cultivation.
Management of Soil Erosion
Buffer Strip: Buffer strips are similar to bioswales as both control running
water and contain loose sediment.
Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is growing a new type of crop in a field each year
to help fight soil erosion.
Mulching: Applying a layer of mulch like wheat straw, wood chips, plastic
sheet etc to the soil top prevent loss of water through evapotranspiration and
restores soil pH.
Reforestation: It is the simplest way to reduce soil erosion by doing plantation.
Terracing: Turning the hill into terraces running across the slope can reduce
274
soil erosion.
Bunding: It is a creation of obstruction on the path of erosion to slow down the Environmental
motion of run-off. Changes and
Nutritional
Windbreakers: On the margin of crop fields, the plantation of evergreen trees
Security
slows down the wind speed by acting as windbreakers and reducing wind
erosion.
Social Forestry: It can be best utilized to reduce erosion in the barren land.
Through the participation of local people, the best possible barren lands like the
side of rail tracks, river banks etc. can be reforested.
13.4.1.4 Soil Contamination
Soil gets contaminated because of factors like the use of pesticides and fertilizers,
improper disposal of livestock waste, livestock and agricultural deforestation.
Pesticides and herbicides used in the agricultural fields to control pests and
weeds respectively are persistent and it gets biomagnified as we move up in
the trophic levels. Contamination of food crops with arsenic (As) is widely
observed in the lower Gangetic plains of India and Bangladesh due to irrigation
with contaminated groundwater.
Main Sources of Contamination
1. Fertilizers
Plants must get not only macronutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg), but
also essential micronutrients (Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn). Large
amounts of inorganic fertilizers are regularly added to soils in intensive
agriculture systems to provide sufficient N, P, and K for plant growth. The
compounds contain trace amounts of heavy metals (e.g., Cd, Pb, Hg) as
impurities and as a result, gets accumulated over years in the soil. Metals,
such as Cd and Pb, have no known physiological activity. Application of
certain phosphatic fertilizers inadvertently adds Cd including F, Hg, and
Pb to the soil.
2. Pesticides
Several common pesticides used fairly extensively in agriculture and
horticulture in the past contained fair concentrations of heavy metals.
Many insecticides and fungicides such as Bordeaux mixture (copper
sulphate) and copper oxychloride contain Cu, Hg, Mn, Pb, or Zn as
well. There are copper-containing fungicidal sprays in practice whereas
lead arsenate was earlier used in fruit orchards to control some parasitic
insects. Arsenic-containing compounds were also used to control cattle
ticks and control pests in bananas and Cu, Cr, and As (CCA) are used to
preserve the timber. Leaching of these compounds has enhanced the soil
concentrations far more than the background concentration.
3. Biosolids and Manures
Biosolids (sewage sludge) are primarily organic solid products, produced
by wastewater treatment processes. Typical examples of biosolids are
livestock manures, composts, municipal sewage sludge etc. These are
added to land and inadvertently lead to the accumulation of toxic heavy
metals such as As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Ni, Se, Mo, Zn, Tl, and Sb. In
the pig and poultry industry, the Cu and Zn are added to diets as growth 275
Security And promoters and As are contained in poultry health products such as
Development Issues roxarsone (3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid). These heavy metals are
potentially toxic, even get biomagnified and get transferred from soil to
crops grown.
In the United States, more than half of approximately 5.6 million dry
tonnes of sewage sludge used or disposed of annually are land applied
whereas, in Europe, over 30% of the sewage sludge is used as fertilizer
in agriculture. Heavy metals most commonly found in biosolids are Pb,
Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, and Zn, and depend upon the intensity of the industrial
activity and processes involved in biosolids treatment. Applications of
biosolids can be leached downwards through the soil profile and can have
the potential to contaminate groundwater as well.
4. Wastewater
The use of municipal and industrial wastewater and other effluents is a
common practice in many parts of the world. Worldwide, it is estimated
that 20 million hectares of arable land are irrigated with wastewater. In
several Asian and African cities, studies suggest that agriculture based
on wastewater irrigation accounts for 50% of the vegetable supply to
urban areas. Effluent treatment is still done improperly in the developing
countries and these became a potential source of pollution to many rivers
including the Ganga River in North India.
5. Metal Mining, Milling Processes and Industrial Wastes
Mining and milling of metal ores along with the smelting process became
a potential source of metal contaminants in soil. During mining, heavier
and larger particles settled at the bottom of the flotation cell. Tailings
are directly discharged into wetlands and pits resulting in elevated
concentrations. Industries such as textile, tanning, petrochemicals from
accidental oil spills or utilization of petroleum-based products, pesticides,
and pharmaceutical facilities are also sources of soil contamination
6. Air-borne Sources
Airborne sources of metals include emissions of air, gas, vapour streams
etc. Metals such as As, Cd, and Pb can also volatilize during high-
temperature processing, will convert to oxides and condense as fine
particulates. Very high concentration of Cd, Pb, and Zn has been found in
plants and soils adjacent to smelting works. Another major source of soil
contamination is the aerial emission of Pb from the combustion of petrol
containing tetraethyl lead; this contributes substantially to the content of
Pb in soils in urban areas and those adjacent to major roads. Zn and Cd
may also be added to soils adjacent to roads, the sources being tyres and
lubricant oils.
Soil Remediation
Through various physical, chemical and biological processes, soil remediation
can be achieved. Hybrid approaches are mostly in practice to make the process
cost-effective.
A. Chemical Method
276
1. Solidification/Stabilization (S/S)
Solidification involves the addition of binding agents to a Environmental
contaminated material to impart physical or dimensional stability to Changes and
contain contaminants in a solid product by reducing access through Nutritional
a combination of chemical reaction, encapsulation, and reduced Security
permeability. Stabilization also termed fixation, involves the addition
of reagents to the contaminated soil to produce more chemically
stable constituents. Conventional S/S is an established remediation
technology for contaminated soils and treatment technology for
hazardous wastes in many countries in the world.
2. Immobilization Techniques
Ex-situ and in-situ immobilization techniques are practical approaches
to the remediation of metal-contaminated soils. The ex-situ technique
is applied in areas where highly contaminated soil must be removed
from its place of origin, and its storage is connected with a high
ecological risk (e.g., in the case of radionuclides).
3. Vitrification
It is a high-temperature treatment of the contaminated area that
results in the formation of vitreous material, usually an oxide solid.
The increased temperature may also volatilize metal species (such
as Hg) and destroy organic contaminants. It may be performed ex-
situ or in-situ but in-situ processes are preferred to reduce the overall
cost of energy and transport. This process can be easily applied for the
reclamation of heavily contaminated soils with Pb, Cd, Cr, asbestos,
and materials containing asbestos.
4. Biochar
Biochar (BC) is a charcoal-like substance that’s made by burning
organic material from agricultural wastes in a controlled process
called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis at high temperatures generally produces
hydrophobic biochars with higher surface area and micropore volume,
allowing them to be more suitable for organic contaminants sorption,
whereas biochars produced at low temperatures own smaller pore
size, lower surface area, and higher oxygen-containing functional
groups and are more suitable to remove inorganic contaminants.
Nowadays both alkali modified BC and nanomaterial impregnated
BC composites are highly favourable for enhancing the adsorption of
different contaminants from wastewater.
B. Physical Process
1. Soil Washing
Soil washing is mainly a volume reduction/waste minimization
treatment process. It is done on the excavated (physically removed)
soil (ex-situ) or on-site (in-situ).
C. Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is defined as an in-situ remediation method that uses
vegetation and associated microbiota, soil amendments, and agronomic
techniques to remove, contain, or render environmental contaminants
harmless. Phytoremediation is energy efficient, aesthetically pleasing way 277
Security And of remediating sites with low-to-moderate levels of contamination. It is
Development Issues more economically viable, and less disruptive to the environment using
the same tools and supplies as agriculture. No disposal sites are needed.
It avoids excavation and transport of polluted media thus reducing the
risk of spreading the contamination etc. There are more precise ways to
decontaminate soil or effluents.
a) Phytoextraction: It is the term given to the process where plant roots
uptake metal contaminants from the soil and translocate them to their
above soil tissues.
b) Phytostabilization: It is also referred to as in-place inactivation with
the use of certain plants to immobilize soil sediment and sludges.
Contaminants are absorbed and accumulated by roots, adsorbed onto
the roots, or precipitated in the rhizosphere.
c) Phytofiltration: It is the use of plant roots (rhizofiltration) or seedlings
(blastofiltration), is similar in concept to phytoextraction, but is used
to absorb or adsorb pollutants, mainly metals, from groundwater
rather than the remediation of contaminated soils.
13.4.1.5 Acidification
The optimal pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0. Soil acidification is
the build-up of hydrogen cations (H+) in the soil, which reduces the soil pH
typically below 5.5. Soil acidification is a major problem in crop production,
affecting 40% of the world’s arable land and about 30% of global land surfaces.
In India, out of 142 Mha of arable land, around 48 to 49 Mha is occupied by
acid soils, of which 25 Mha show pH below 5.5 and 23 Mha have pH between
5.6 to 6.5.
Causes of Soil Acidification
1. Soil Organic Matter: Organic matter optimal in content has positive
effects on the growth of plants but the increasing amount of organic
matter may make the soil more acid.
2. Over-application of N-fertilizers: Over-application of N-fertilizers
leads to the leaching of anions like nitrate ion (NO3-) and the addition of
lime (Ca2+) both these factors contributed to the reduction of the soil pH.
3. Excess of Rainfall: Weather condition where rainfall exceeds
evapotranspiration also makes the soil acidic.
4. Lack of perennial grass/forest: For intensive agriculture, perennial
grass, forest etc. got cleared to make crop fields as a result, roots which
were there to capture nitrate caused its leaching down the soil profile, thus
leading to faster rates of acidification.
Impact of Soil Acidity on Crop Growth
1. Poor plant growth and reduced productivity: Plants that are sensitive to
acidity will decline in growth and productivity allowing weeds to increase
or reduce soil cover which can lead to soil erosion. Plants sensitive to
acidity include canola, lucerne, barley, beans, peas, medics and wheat.
2. Nutrient loss: In strongly acid soils, potassium, calcium and magnesium
278 can be depleted by leaching or removed in products such as hay and grain.
A lack of calcium can also contribute to soil structural problems Environmental
Changes and
3. Nutrient tie-up: Nutrients such as phosphorus and manganese can
Nutritional
become unavailable as soil acidity increases
Security
4. Phosphorus inefficiency: Phosphorus combines with free aluminium
and iron released in acid soils and becomes less available to plants.
Molybdenum is also less available.
5. Reduced microbial activity: Microbes that fix nitrogen or decompose
organic matter are less active in moderately and strongly acidic soils.
6. Declining land values: Loss of productive capacity due to acidity can
reduce land values
Amendment/ Management of Acidic soil-
1. Liming: Lime (calcium carbonate) and other liming materials reduce
acidity by neutralising the acid reaction in the soil. Application of lime at
the rate of 2.5 t/ha of good quality lime, improves the pH of sandy loam
soils to around 5.2 to 5.4 pH. The finer liming material with higher purity
and higher neutralising value (NV) preferably >80% provides a quicker
response. Gypsum does not neutralise acidity.
2. Rates of N fertilisation: High rates of ammonium (NH4+) fertilisers
accelerate acidity.
3. Growing leguminous crops and pastures: Growing crops or pastures
with high nitrogen requirements to utilise nitrogen produced by legume
crops and pastures.
There are many crop varieties tolerant to soil acidity such as pineapple,
coffee, tea, rubber, sweet potato, cassava, potato, rice, pigeon pea, finger
millet, buckwheat, rice bean, Colocasia, ginger, turmeric etc. grown in
India. Acacia species are tolerant to soil acidity as well in India. Crop
species such as Lupinus, commonly known as lupin, wheat, triticale, oats
(Avena sativa) and legumes like sub clovers are commonly grown in such
soils in Europe and the Mediterranean.
13.4.1.6 Salt-affected Soils
Salt-affected soils can be grouped into two categories saline soils and sodic
soils.
•• Saline soil- Saline soil is a non-sodic soil containing sufficient soluble salt
like CaCl2, gypsum (CaSO4), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), and potassium
chloride (KCl) having an electrical conductivity of the saturated extract
(ECe) being 4 deciSiemens/meter (dS/m) at 25°C.
•• Sodic soils- Sodic soils have a pH between 8.5 and 10, having exchangeable
sodium (Na) percentage (ESP) of more than 15. Exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) is the amount of adsorbed sodium on the soil exchange
complex expressed in per cent (%) of the cation exchange capacity in
milliequivalents per 100 g of soil.
There are various factors responsible for increasing the extent and intensity of
sodic/saline soil. Use of improperly treated industrial effluents, over-irrigation
279
Security And by flooding method and cutting of native forest for making cultivable land etc.
Development Issues are few. Over irrigation has elevated the groundwater table and also transport
of salts to the rooting zone and cutting of deep-rooted vegetation has resulted
in an increased rate of groundwater recharge and so rise of the groundwater
table. Salt-affected soils which include both saline soils and sodic soils, impact
an estimated 1 billion ha of land, being most common in arid and semi-arid
zones. Globally, salinity has made 0.3 to 1.5 million ha of farmland unfit for
agriculture and also has reduced 20 to 46 million ha of cultivable land.
Management for saline soil involves “leaching” the soluble salts from the soil
profile. Leaching requires the application of irrigation water at rates above
and beyond the basic water needs of the crop. Leaching takes place with
the percolation of soil solutes (soluble salts) under saturated soil conditions.
Management of sodic soils involves replacing exchangeable sodium (Na)
with a more favourable ion such as Calcium (Ca) and/or Magnesium (Mg)
and leaching the soluble Na that has been replaced on the soil colloid by the
application of excess irrigation water. Therefore, saline soils do not require
amendments per se. The right choice of crops during the reclamation of sodic
soils is crucial. Growing crops tolerant to excess exchangeable sodium can
ensure reasonable crop yield during the initial phases of reclamation. Example:
Rice (Oryza sativa) and dhaincha are more tolerant whereas wheat and bajra are
only moderately tolerant. Legumes like black gram or Urd (Vigna mungo) and
lentil (Lens culinaris) are relatively sensitive to excess exchangeable sodium
(Na+).
13.4.1.7 Soil Genetic Diversity
Intensive agriculture certainly limited the genetic diversity of soil as a result
of using an excess of fertilizers, pesticides, excess of irrigation and mono-
cropping. Any ecosystem has its resilience and so the soil ecosystem does have.
To cope with these external drivers in crop production better soil management
practices need to be followed in intensive agriculture too.
Every microbe has an assigned and specific role to play whether it is in nutrient
cycling from breaking down of organic materials to nitrogen capture. Hence,
farmers are practising back green manuring to organic farming to enhance soil
biodiversity and the net yield.
13.5 LANDSCAPE CHANGE AND LOSS OF

AGROBIODIVERSITY
So far, we have seen how the second half of the 20th century has greatly
contributed to increased global food and fibre production, which has enabled
a rapidly growing world population to be fed. To gain manifold productivity,
agricultural intensification has taken the form of an increase in single-crop
cultivation i.e., monocropping and chemical pesticides, weedicides and
fertilizers and mechanical inputs. This has not only deteriorated the soil and
water quality, and biodiversity loss but has overall negative impacts on the
environment. In 9 of the 14 global biomes, 20 to 50% of the land has been
280
converted to croplands or grazed grassland. Tropical dry forests were impacted Environmental
the most by cultivation between 1950 and 1990. Temperate grasslands, Changes and
temperate broadleaf forests, and Mediterranean forests experienced 55% or Nutritional
more conversion before 1950 for intensive agriculture. Because of the ever- Security
increasing population, agricultural expansion is expected to be greatest in
developing countries and arid regions, while the agricultural area will decline in
the developed countries. (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Similarly,
intensive agriculture has declined thousands of plant species cultivated for food
to about 200 to contribute substantially to global food output and only 9 share
the 66% of total crop production (FAO, 2019). We can well imagine the situation
when our population will be 9 billion by 2050 if we continue Business as usual.
13.5.1 Landscape Change
By 2050, food consumption must double to meet human needs. To meet this
increasing demand for food, production systems are expected to become
increasingly dependent on inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, and water. Irrigated
lands will likely increase by 1.3-fold by 2020, and 1.9-fold by 2050. Pasture
lands are also increasing, with an expected doubling in the area by 2050. In
50 years, global agricultural land area is projected to increase by 18%, with a
loss of 109 hectares of natural, wildland ecosystems. These trends will further
increase the pressure on biodiversity in natural ecosystems, already under stress
from human disturbances such as climate change.
In the process of change from multi-cropping in the diversified landscape
to the monocropping pattern, we have lost the ecosystem services offered
like pollination, nutrient cycling, water purification etc. by those diversified
landscapes. Pollination is particularly important for the production of fruits
and vegetables. The role of ecosystem services for pollination is consistently
underestimated yet is of global importance. In addition, the roles of biodiversity
in nutrient and water cycling, climate regulation and other ecosystem benefit are
becoming increasingly regarded as key to agricultural production. The natural
resilience ie., the coping up mechanism against the external factor has declined.
Diverse landscapes that incorporate agrobiodiversity and fragments of wildlands
in an agroecological matrix are essential for the long-term sustainability of the
food system. Hence, diversity not only at the farm but also at landscape levels is
equally important to support and sustain food production.
13.5.1.1 Actions Responsible for Landscape Change in the 20th Century
1. Shift of agriculture from mixed farming/multi-cropping to monocropping
2. Converting perennial habitat (grassland) to arable fields
3. Destruction of edge habitats (hedges, field boundaries, buffer zones along
creeks)
4. Reallocating land to increase field size and make farms more compact
5. Increasing landscape homogeneity by simplifying landscapes with a
limited number of land-use types
6. Giving up traditional, low-intensity land-use management 281
Security And 7. Avoiding set-aside fallows and cultivating formerly abandoned areas (old
Development Issues fields, fallows)
7. Reducing resistance to the invasion of introduced species
8. Lowering landscape-wide water tables and
9. Fragmenting natural habitat
13.5.2 Loss of Agrobiodiversity

Agricultural biodiversity is the subset of biodiversity that contributes to crop
and food production. It includes all the flora, fauna and microbes that support
the production of food by maintaining nutrient cycling to keep the soil fertile,
pollinating agents, the natural process of scavenging to the purification of water
and air, and pests etc. There is some biota involved in the healthier functioning
of the agroecosystem. Many tribal societies have robust traditional ecological
knowledge about varieties of native plants species. It not only provided them
food security but fulfilled their nutritional need as well. Under, intensive
agriculture, only 9 crop species share 66% of total crop production (FAO,
2019). This worries ecologists, policymakers and other stakeholders including
informed citizens to do something.
Do you remember the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD), 1992? CBD is an international legal framework for the conservation
and sustainable use of biodiversity. The resulting “Aichi Biodiversity Targets”,
adopted in 2010, fully attest to the importance of mainstreaming biodiversity
into development policies. As a result, in 2015, the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goals provided a renewed impetus for a focus on using biodiversity
for food and nutrition and linking that to the sustainability of farming systems.
Hence, there is an urgent need to plan and implement a strategy to establish
the scientific basis needed to address the trade-offs between food production,
biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, and human well-being in
agricultural landscapes.
13.5.3 Challenges and Opportunities
On a landscape scale, we have created homogenized farmed landscapes with
the little non-crop area. Fragmentation of remaining natural habitats became
a major cause of extinction of fragmented, small and isolated populations.
Species losses are because of agricultural expansion and habitat fragmentation.
Farmland birds are indicators of the quality of the agricultural landscape and
constant decline means a lack of foraging and nesting habitat. Similar declines
in insects, spiders and arable weeds etc. have been noticed. Pristine ecosystems
play a central role in supporting biodiversity and so there is an urgent need to
have a holistic approach towards landscape management to support biodiversity
and agroecosystem functions. The percentage of pristine ecosystems is 7%
worldwide but is deteriorating at a much faster rate. Losing a pristine ecosystem
means the loss of habitat of most endangered species. As a result, we will force
to have man-made nature reserves like central Europe which have been caused
as a result of agricultural intensification and succession to forests. Overall, in
the middle of the 19th century, we had a mosaic of diverse habitats created by
282
low-intensity agriculture; this complex rural landscape was suiting the most to Environmental
sustain biodiversity. Changes and
Nutritional
There is a growing international awareness of threats to the sustainability of
Security
food and agriculture. The conservation efforts, both in-situ (e.g., protected
areas, on-farm management) and ex-situ (e.g., gene banks, botanical gardens)
are increasing across the globe, although levels of coverage and protection are
often not adequate. Saving biodiversity is not only the need of the hour to sustain
ecosystem services and enhance resilience but there are issues related to nutrition
as well. We shall cover in the next subsection how altered landscapes i.e., from
agroforestry to monocropping have forced many marginalized societies to be
devoid of a balanced diet.
A case from India- ATREE
But, before we move on, you must know initiatives taken up by “Ashoka
Trust for Research in Ecology, and the Environment” (ATREE), Bangalore,
India. They are working on three core projects of DIVERSITAS to promote
the conservation of biodiversity at multiple scales using a diverse array of
approaches. One of the programs focused on conservation and livelihoods in the
Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) Wildlife Sanctuary with a prime objective
to describe system parameters relating to both ecological and interacting social
systems (for example, genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity; land use and
land tenure; and household determinants of resource use). The second objective
is to examine the impact of human societies on ecosystem structure and function
(for example the effects of a collection of non-timber forest products, agricultural
production for local consumption, fire, and invasive species on biodiversity
at the population and ecosystem level, the impact of land-use change on
ecosystem services, and the effectiveness of protected area network as well as
current management practices and policies on the conservation of biological
diversity). The third objective is to design and implement management and
policy interventions to mitigate human impacts and promote sustainable use
of resources. The management interventions consist of enhancing biodiversity
and productivity in agroecosystems to reduce pressure on forest biodiversity,
provision of micro-credit, and promoting micro-enterprises based on biological
resources, initiating governance reforms for sustainable use of forest resources
in various organizations. The project uses a participatory approach for research
and action, combines principles and approaches of ecology and economics,
fosters social equity in sharing biodiversity benefits, and brings stakeholders
together to define and resolve conservation problems.
13.6 MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake
of energy and /or nutrients. It addresses three broad groups of conditions:
undernutrition, stunting and overweight. ‘Triple burden’ of malnutrition remains
a global health emergency. The ‘triple burden’ of malnutrition weighing on most
countries consists of undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overweight
and obesity. Undernutrition is declining globally. Childhood stunting is a
largely irreversible outcome of inadequate nutrition and repeated bouts of
infection during the first few years of a child’s life. Micronutrient deficiencies
like deficiency of micronutrients like iron, zinc etc. 283
Security And It has been estimated that about 2 billion people which is 29% of the world’s
Development Issues population, faced micronutrient deficiencies in 2010. Micronutrient deficiencies
are widely present in high-income countries as well. For example, in the Russian
Federation and Georgia childhood anaemia in 2010 was 26%, and 16%, on
average, across the European Union.
Anaemia caused due to lack of iron contributes to 20% of all maternal deaths,
with about 50 000 annually. Vitamin A (retinol) deficiency remains a public
health problem in more than 100 countries which causes blindness in 250 000
to 500 000 children every year. Similarly, Zinc deficiency affects about 30 %
of the world’s population. A similar number of children have insufficient iodine
intake, which significantly impairs their cognitive development. Vitamin B12
is only found in animal source food. These nutrients are essential for a healthy
immune system, which is needed to fight off infections.
Urbanization has created demand in the market to supply processed food that
is easy and quick to cook as a result, lifestyles have become more sedentary.
Meanwhile, changes in dietary patterns around the world have consequences
for public health and sustainable development. People from around the world
are now eating more meat, farmed chicken, processed red meat, processed dairy
products and less than ten crop varieties as a staple food.
In 2014, some 40 % of people aged 18 and over were overweight and, of
these, 13% were obese. Childhood obesity increases the threat of early onset
of obesity-related health complications. Obesity is conventionally associated
with the intake of food excess, but it is also associated with micronutrient
deficiencies. People with obesity can be prone to deficiencies of micronutrients,
such as zinc, iron, and vitamins A, C, D, and E. Caribbean islands and countries
in the Middle East and Central America have reached extremely high rates of
adult overweight and obesity. Some have a prevalence as high as 80%.
The economic price of malnutrition is billions of dollars in lost productivity
and health care costs. Annual GDP losses due to malnutrition average 11%
in Asia and Africa—greater than the loss experienced during the 2008–2010
financial crises. Though malnutrition is the outcome of many factors like food,
health, and care and it’s not merely only about food security but equally about
public health, water, sanitation and hygiene, and social protection. Intensive
agriculture was the answer to feeding people in the mid-20th century.
But, feeding safer food adequate in nutrient content has become the priority
now. Ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition are all
key steps toward sustainable development (UN, 2016). Food safety is also a
key concern, as unsafe food remains a major cause of disease and death (WHO,
2015).
Society has been transformed from a manual agrarian to a mechanised one.
Monocropping has taken the driving seat of the world’s economy. Without
giving a second thought we have converted the diversified ecosystem into a
homogenized one. Many native species and their sub-types have already been
lost. Overall changes in dietary patterns are affecting public health. Dietary
patterns are not only reflections of what people eat but reflect complex social
284 behaviours as well. The following feeding trends have been observed recently.
1. The consumption of more nutritious foods Environmental
Between 1990 and 2013, the consumption of more nutritious foods Changes and
increased worldwide. But the situation is not uniform. East Asia consumes Nutritional
a fair amount of fruits whereas wholegrain consumption is on the rise in Security
South Asia. As compared to global data, per capita fruit consumption in
sub-Saharan Africa, was 16 % below the global average level in 1990 and
has further gone down by 2013. Dairy product consumption is highest in
North America and Europe.
2. The daily intake of protein
In the last 50 years, the daily intake of protein has increased in developed
countries. Per capita consumption of meat, eggs, milk and dairy products
was merely 39 g per day in 1961 has improved to 52 g in 2011. Most of this
increase occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Since the 1980s, protein intake
from animal sources has remained almost constant. The daily per capita
availability of protein from animal products in low- and middle-income
countries has almost doubled from 9 to 20 g between 1961 and 2011.
Globally, fish contributes around 18% of the total animal protein intake,
but in some coastal communities and small island states the percentage
can reach as high as 60 % (FAO, 2009). Global per capita consumption
of seafood has been increasing and currently exceeds 20 kg per year. This
trend is expected to continue as incomes rise and consumers become more
aware of healthy food.
Sustainable Development Goals not only talk about healthy diets but
also raises the question of the carbon footprints these foods have on the
environment. Processed, packages food, dairy-based food or meat-based
food have much higher carbon footprints. It means the emission of various
greenhouse gases into the environment is much more in these cases as a
result of enteric fermentation, processing and transport etc.
13.6.1 Challenges in Alleviating Malnutrition

A total number of 925 million people was undernourished in 2010 and the
developing nations share 16%. About 75% of those worst affected live in rural
areas of developing countries, with livelihoods that depend directly or indirectly
on agriculture. They include many of the world’s half a billion low-income
smallholder farmers and their families who produce 80% of the food supply in
developing countries. Together, smallholders use and manage more than 80%
of farmland – and similar proportions of other natural resources – in Asia and
Africa.
Though various factors contribute to malnutrition, improved water, sanitation,
and hygiene (WASH) can enhance the nutritional benefits of agricultural
policies by reducing disease and enhancing nutrient absorption. There are
linkages between agriculture and nutrition and Gillespie and Bold, 2017 gave
six pathways-
1. Agriculture as a source of food for household consumption. Farmers who
grow will eat as well. It means monocropping forced them to consume
few crops and hence a reason for malnutrition.
285
2. Agriculture became market-driven and having sufficient money to buy
Security And other necessary items and services like health, education etc. depends
Development Issues upon the net yield and profit.
3. Agriculture is market-linked and various agricultural policies and food
prices decide the profitability of the producer if a buyer can afford it.
4. This sector has a strong linkage with the empowerment of women. An
empowered woman in the family controls the nutrition-relevant resources.
5. Intensive agriculture discouraged women’s employment in agriculture
because of heavy and prolonged workloads.
6. Intensive agriculture promoted heavy usage of fertilizers, pesticides etc.
and as result women working in this sector were much more exposed to
these chemicals. Many pesticides posed their risk as well.
Another reason behind malnutrition can be the consumption of unsafe food.
Some 40 % of the food-borne disease burden was among children under 5 years
of age, and the highest per capita burden was in Africa, followed by Southeast
Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Aflatoxins, produced by two species of
fungi are peanut allergens. Aflatoxins are poisonous carcinogens and mutagens
that are produced by mould that grows on stored grains, such as maize, as well
as on groundnuts, oilseeds and tree nuts. The burden of aflatoxins is especially
high in Africa, Southeast Asia and Western Pacific. Cyanide is released from
natural substances in some foods and certain plants such as cassava, lima
beans and almonds. Dioxin and related compounds (furans and polychlorinated
biphenyls) are lipophilic and persist in the food chain. Over 90 per cent of
human exposure to dioxins comes through food, mainly animal products, such
as dairy, meat, fish, and shellfish. Once consumed, dioxins can stay in the body
for a long time.
13.7 FOOD SECURITY

The World Food Conference, 1974 convened in Rome declared that “every
man, woman and child have the right to be free from hunger and malnutrition”
and set the goal of eradicating hunger in the world within a decade. As a result,
in 1974 FAO first began reporting on the extent of hunger in the world. World
Food Summit, 1996, defined food security as a condition when “all people, at
all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious
food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active
life”.
The above definition talks mainly about four dimensions of food security-
1. Availability of food (supply side): Food production, stock levels and net
trade
2. Economic and physical access to food: Policy focuses on incomes,
expenditure, markets and prices in achieving food security objectives
3. Food utilization: Nutritional status of individuals depends upon good care
and feeding practices, food preparation, diversity of the diet and intra-
household distribution of food
4. Stability of the other three dimensions over time.
286 It is important to know the duration of the problem but knowing the intensity
or severity of the food crisis is equally important. This gives insight into the Environmental
nature, extent and urgency of the assistance needed by the affected population. Changes and
Food security analysts devised different indicators and benchmarks to classify Nutritional
food security. FAO determined undernourishment in terms of dietary energy Security
consumption and defines it as “the proportion of the population whose dietary
energy consumption is less than a pre-determined threshold”. This threshold is
country-specific and is measured in terms of the number of kilocalories (Kcal)
required to conduct sedentary or light activities. The undernourished are also
referred to as suffering from food deprivation. The severity of undernourishment
indicates, for the food-deprived, the extent to which dietary energy consumption
falls below the pre-determined threshold.
In India, the number of people undernourished (million) in the year 2000 was
191.20 million whereas it became 194.40 million in 2017. In Asia, the number
of people undernourished (million) in the year 2000 was 634.70 million whereas
it became 512.90 million in 2017 (FAO, 2020). According to 2017 data, 14%
of India’s population is undernourished whereas in a country like Tanzania it is
30.7% of the total population.
The dynamic nature of food security is implicit when we talk about people who
are vulnerable to experiencing food insecurity in the future. There are three
critical dimensions to define vulnerability-
1. Vulnerability to an outcome;
2. Vulnerability to a variety of risk factors;
3. Vulnerability because of an inability to manage those risks.
Indeed, a person can be vulnerable to hunger even if he or she is not hungry
at a given point in time. Vulnerability analysis suggests two main intervention
options: 1. Reduce the degree of exposure to the hazard; and 2. Increase the
ability to cope.
13.7.1 Hunger, Malnutrition and Poverty

When someone is severely food insecure, they have run out of food and gone
a day or more without eating. Hunger is defined as a condition in which a
person cannot eat sufficient food to meet basic nutritional needs for a sustained
period. Hunger can manifest itself in different ways namely undernourishment,
malnutrition and wasting.
1. Undernourishment
According to the World Food Programme, undernourishment is defined as
a condition when people do not take in enough calories to meet minimum
physiological needs.
2. Malnutrition
Malnutrition is defined as a condition when people have an inadequate
intake of protein, energy and micronutrients. Malnutrition may be an
outcome of food insecurity, or it may relate to other factors, such as
inadequate care practices for children, lack of healthcare services; and
an unhealthy environment. This results in stunted growth in children.
Further, if starvation of the right nutrition continues for long, individuals
or populations can even die from common infections such as diarrhoea. 287
Security And 3. Wasting
Development Issues
Wasting, usually, the result of starvation or disease is an indicator of acute
malnutrition with substantial weight loss.
Children facing hunger, food insecurity and undernutrition, today may have
a higher risk of being overweight, obese and chronic diseases like diabetes
later in life. In many countries, undernutrition and obesity coexist and both
can be consequences of food insecurity.
The threshold for obesity is a BMI ≥30. Child obesity is of increasing concern and
was included in the latest global nutrition goals for 2030 (“no increase in child-
hood obesity”)
The threshold for obesity is a BMI ≥30. Child obesity is of increasing concern
and was included in the latest global nutrition goals for 2030 (“no increase in child-
hood obesity”) is characterised in many ways.
It encompasses individual sensations and household behavioural responses,
food scarcity (actual or feared) and national food balance sheets that focus on the
supply of energy (kilocalories) in any country in rela
tion to a minimum threshold of need. The food balance sheet approach is the only
standard of measurement used globally. It is based on data collated by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This organisation has replaced its
previous use of the word “hunger” in describing this metric with the phrase “chronic
undernourishment”. This today is dened as “a person’s inability to acquire enough
food to meet daily minimum dietary energy requirements during 1 year”
is characterised in many ways. It encompasses individual sensations and
household behavioural responses, food scarcity (actual or feared) and national food
balance sheets that focus on the supply of energy (kilocalories) in any country in rela
tion to a minimum threshold of need. The food balance sheet approach is the only
standard of measurement used globally. It is based on data collated by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This organisation has replaced its
previous use of the word “hunger” in describing this metric with the phrase “chronic
undernourishment”. This today is dened as “a person’s inability to acquire enough
food to meet daily minimum dietary energy requirements during 1 year.
The proportion of people defined as hungry over the long term (usually termed
“chronically undernourished”) fell from 18.6% globally in 1990-2002 to under
11% in 2014-16. That was a decline of 211 million people whiles the world’s
population increased by 2 billion. Of the roughly 800 million undernourished,
780 million are in low-income countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia. The continents of Africa and Asia have the greatest number of people
living in extreme poverty, and it is here that extreme hunger and poverty together
present the greatest risk of famine. Famine is the most acute face of hunger. Over
70 million people died in famines during the 20th century.
Deaths from famine fell from the mid-1980s onwards. However, as of 2017
four countries were again struggling to cope: Somalia, Yemen, South Sudan,
and Nigeria. In each case, instability induced by conflict, terrorism, drought
and decades of failed governance has left over 20 million people facing famine,
including 1.4 million children “at imminent risk of death.
A major cause of mortality in famines is children becoming severely wasted.
288 Around 52 million children were wasted in 2016, of which around 70% (36
million) resided in Asia. Roughly 12.6% of deaths among children under 5 are Environmental
attributed to wasting worldwide. Roughly 30% of stunting by a child’s 3rd year Changes and
can be attributed to being born small for gestational age, which is linked to Nutritional
nutrition before birth and health problems of the mother. Security
While poverty is undoubtedly a cause of hunger, lack of adequate and proper
nutrition itself is an underlying cause of poverty. Food security needs a
cohesive action plan by combining income growth supported by direct nutrition
interventions and investment in health, water and education. Marasmus and
Kwashiorkor are still prevalent in children of developing countries. Marasmus
is a form of severe malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency. It can occur
in anyone with severe malnutrition but usually occurs in children. On the other
hand, the main cause of kwashiorkor is not eating enough protein or other
essential vitamins and minerals. It’s most common in developing countries
with a limited food supply, poor hygiene, and a lack of education about the
importance of giving babies and children an adequate diet.
A holistic approach is needed to eradicate hunger and malnutrition. It will not be
just sufficient to only focus on the production end. As, in 2016, the world hit a
new record by producing over 2.5 billion metric tons of cereal grains—up from
1.8 billion tons 20 years earlier. But yet hunger persists. It’s good that we have
set “The sustainable development goals-2030” but to achieve it holistic action
of each nation and each one of us needed to make the world hunger-free and all
free from all forms of malnutrition by 2030.
13.7.2 Interdepartmental approach to alleviate hunger

A few important sectors that are playing a vital role to alleviate hunger are-
Agriculture: Promotion and support of smallholder horticulture production;
investments in research and extension supporting productivity gains in foods
rich in nutrients; promoting food market development to increase smallholder
farmer incomes and price accessibility to diets rich in nutrients.
Health: Establishment of high quality, high coverage health services, including
nutrition counselling and reproductive health; effective reduction of the burden
of infectious diseases; promotion of evidence-based dietary guidelines to the
population.
Education: Universal enrolment and retention of girls in schools; use of schools
to provide instruction on nutrition and health; promotion of awareness of a
healthy diet through school gardening; enhanced curricular initiatives on diet,
and physical activity.
Water and sanitation: National and local programmes that eliminate open
defecation; universal provision of clean water; promotion of good sanitation
and hygiene practices.
Market development: Micronutrient fortification of widely accessible foods,
including salt iodisation; quality and food safety regulation.
Resilience building: Implementing effective social safety nets that smooth
income flows and food consumption among vulnerable groups.
Food Saving: Loss of a kilogram of wheat and rice would mean wasting 1,500
and 3,500 litres of water respectively that goes into their production. According
289
to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), every year around 1.7 billion
Security And tonnes or almost one-third of food produced for human consumption are lost or
Development Issues wasted globally. The carbon value of this 1.7 billion tonne of food generation is
equivalent to 0.55 billion tonnes in the world.
13.7.3 Agricultural intensification and Food Security

FAO yet measures “food security” in terms of the sufficiency of national-level
food supplies relative to estimates of national-level calorie requirements, as
it has since the 1970s. While this is undoubtedly an important facet of food
security and useful because it is relatively easy to measure, its use has likely
perpetuated the idea that to improve food security, the focus should be on the
national production of more calories instead of producing a diverse range of
foods to encourage diversity in diets.
So, we have already discussed how rapid population growth puts pressure
on land-use change and the demand for food needs to be fulfilled. We have
limited natural resources like land and water, conversion of agricultural land to
housing etc. is on the rise and as a result, we are on the verge of clearing pristine
ecosystems, which currently cover about 7% of the total area. Forest cover is
being converted into pasture, plantations and agriculture. But, for how long and
to what extent we can continue clearing these forests for other use?
So, the way to meet the food demand was intensive agriculture. In agricultural
intensification, to increase agricultural production, we devised mechanisms
to save labour, land, time, fertilizer, seed, feed or cash. Most of the farmers
who were holding a small patch of land have increased inputs of hybrid seeds,
inorganic fertilizer, chemical pesticides, exploitation of groundwater etc. to
enhance the productivity i.e., output per unit area of land.
So, we have seen strategies made across the globe to meet food crises emerge
as a result of war, famine and an ever-growing population. While targeting
the output many lapses have been recorded and many lessons mankind have
learnt. We have disrespected nature by exploiting natural resources and had used
synthetic chemicals like DDT and so on without remembering the limitation
of ecosystem resilience. We never counted the ecosystem services biodiversity
offered us since our civilization. What we were worried about was the crop
productivity and to meet per capita per day kilocalorie of energy need, we
stopped counting the nutrients offered to mankind through agrobiodiversity.
Hence to continue providing food supplies to feed the growing population,
farmers have to intensify food production sustainably.
Forms of Agricultural Intensification
Adoption of high-yielding as well as drought, pest and disease tolerant seed
varieties.
Through the increased application of nitrogen fertiliser.
Farmers adopt agricultural technology and machinery to accelerate production.
Tractors for tilling the land, combine harvesters, seed planters, overhead
irrigation usually replaces or substitute human labour more efficiently and the
yield is higher, for instance, farm mechanization has led to increased production
of soybean, maize and dry-land rice in southwestern Brazilian Amazon
290 Farmers adopt irrigation technology.
Apart from that water harvesting techniques that are cheap and efficient can be Environmental
designed especially for small landholdings. Changes and
Nutritional
Farmers adopt agricultural ecological farming practices like intercropping. Security
Improving nitrogen uptake and fixation is another form of agricultural
intensification. Nitrogen utilisation can be improved through practices like
precision farming or planting nitrogen-fixing crops, for example, legume plants
like beans, and soybeans amongst others.
Agriculture intensification can also be achieved through food fortification
which again improves nutrition.
The second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 2) explicitly aims at ending
hunger, achieving food security and improved nutrition, and promoting
sustainable agriculture, simultaneously by 2030. Let us discuss why and where
hunger yet exists?
1. Countries with the highest levels of hunger are usually those with civil
conflicts. Countries like the Central African Republic and Chad have a
high risk of conflicts and have the highest levels of undernourishment. A
civil conflict just not only creates food scarcity by lacking the ways and
means to get it. But its impact can be seen as malnutrition but goes further
by impacting the women and children from psychological disorders to
having sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Condition of extreme poor still exists and the majority of it is still found
in Asia. About three-fifths of it is concentrated in Bangladesh, China, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, India and Nigeria.
3. Rising inequality within the fast-growing developing nations. Higher
inequalities sabotage the resilience of societies to possible shocks in
development patterns and leave larger shares of the population vulnerable
to poverty. Though between 2005 and 2015, greater progress was made
and double as many people escaped chronic undernutrition as compared
to 1990–2005. But yet we will miss the target of eradicating hunger by
2030 if this pace of eradication continues. But the good news is that the
prevalence of undernourishment went down by almost half between 1990
and 2016 in Latin America, East and Southeast Asia, the Caucasus and
Central Asia, and North and West Africa.
4. Last but not least, the Gender inequality in the agriculture sector. The
rural poor women became so much vulnerable. Over 60 % of people living
in hunger are female. Women face challenges in accessing economic
opportunities and participation in decision-making processes. Similarly,
their decision-making capacity remains limited, including in community
decisions over natural resources. Women’s limited access to productive
resources is hampering productivity growth on smallholder farms and
perpetuating income inequalities. Consequently, in sub-Saharan Africa,
the agricultural productivity levels of female farmers are between 20
to 30 % lower than those of male farmers because of the gender gap in
access to resources.
13.7.4 Public Distribution System in India

India’s Public Distribution System (PDS) is the largest distribution network 291
Security And of its kind in the world. Public distribution of food grains was retained as a
Development Issues deliberate social policy by India when it embarked on the path of planned
economic development in 1951. In the first five-year plan, the system, which
was essentially urban-based till then was extended to all rural areas which
suffered from chronic food shortages. By the end of the Second Five Year Plan,
PDS had changed from the typical rationing system to a social safety system,
making available food grains at a ‘fair price’ so that access of households to food
grains could be improved. The concept of buffer stocks was also incorporated
into the overall food policy.
By the 1970s, PDS had evolved into a universal scheme for the distribution
of subsidised food. In the 1990s, the scheme was revamped to improve
access to food grains for people in hilly and inaccessible areas and to target
the poor. Subsequently, in 1997, the government launched the Targeted
Public Distribution System (TPDS), with a focus on the poor. TPDS aims
to provide subsidised food and fuel to the poor through a network of ration
shops. Food grains such as rice and wheat that are provided under TPDS are
procured from farmers, allocated to states and delivered to the ration shop
where the beneficiary buys his entitlement. The centre and states share the
responsibilities of identifying the poor, procuring grains and delivering food
grains to beneficiaries. In September 2013, Parliament enacted the National
Food Security Act, 2013. The Act relies largely on the existing TPDS to deliver
food grains as legal entitlements to poor households. This marks a shift by
making the right to food a justifiable right.
13.8 AGRICULTURE IN THE 21ST CENTURY

We have seen how the transformation began in the early years of the 20th
century following several scientific discoveries including chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, high yielding variety, etc. which has changed the face of agriculture
to become a system of “gain” called intensive agriculture. A breakthrough
registered in the second half of the twentieth century with the discovery of new
plant-type genes in wheat and rice, which were instrumental in giving rise to
the green revolution also called the yield revolution. The yield revolution has
evolved with the birth of the new technology which is energy-intensive. So,
what is needed is a new paradigm of inclusive agriculture green growth.
Today agriculture shares about 40% of all liveable land areas in the world.
Monocropping oversimplified the landscape and as a result, we lost ecosystem
services offered by the biodiversity both at the landscape level and field level.
The tropical forest is constantly under a slashing process, as a result, many
endangered species are on the verge of extinction. Urbanization has already
posed threat to catchments and extraction of groundwater for agricultural
use has made scarce potable water. Initially, our soil responded well to the
application of inorganic fertilizers and gave us a return in terms of yield.
But now that fertility is no more and our sick soil needs organics and other
reclamations.
So, to achieve SDG 2 on zero hunger by 2030, we need to do a lot to change
our strategies to take this sector forward to become a sustainable green sector.
We need to re-practice some of our old proven practices.
1. Agroecology: We have to take corrective measures and mimic nature
292 through developing agroecological practices. A few decades back,
agronomists noticed a sharp increase in pest outbreaks in the modern Environmental
monocropping system. Ecologists were trying their best to build a Changes and
complex interaction system between insects and plants to understand it Nutritional
better. And there comes a term, agroecology which is the application of Security
ecological science to the study, design, and management of sustainable
agriculture.
The agroecological systems are based on five ecological principles:
(1) recycling biomass and balancing nutrient flow and availability; (2)
securing favourable soil conditions for plant growth through enhanced
organic matter; (3) minimizing losses of solar radiation, water, and
nutrients by way of microclimate management, water harvesting, and soil
cover; (4) enhancing biological and genetic diversification on cropland;
and (5) enhancing beneficial biological interactions and minimizing the
use of pesticides.
So, we understood the importance of agroecology and the ecological
services offered by it. Hence, we can say that simplification and
monocropping are no solution if we want sustained supply. We need to
revive the natural nutrient cycling and other ecosystem services through
diversification of landscape by integrated landscape management and by
promoting multi-cropping. We need to calculate the gains forest offers to
crops.
2. Local to global: We have done enough by growing hybrid seeds to supply
in the international market. But time has come when we must realise
that each crop variety will not respond uniform to variable agro-climatic
conditions. We must catch the local need and accordingly planning must
be done to fit local priorities on land use, use of agricultural inputs,
priority crops and ecosystem management. Let farmers decide whether
wheat or ragi (finger millet) to be grown as per the soil type, availability
of water etc. so that they will have sufficient food to eat. Let’s go “local
to global”, only surplus food to put in the supply chain.
3. Developing sustainable cities: By 2050 two-thirds of the world’s
population will live in the cities. It will be highly important to make
their food secure, the city must start investing in growing its food. Cities
can’t just expect sustained supply by doing nothing. Rather, the time
has come when users will have to take the onus to support biodiversity
conservation, water conservation and maintain ecosystem services.
People’s participation becomes a must to improve ecosystem resilience
through urban-rural partnership.
4. Building cross-sector coalitions: Agencies of the United Nations act at
the international level but to get those international policies translated
into initiatives at the field level needs coalitions at the national level
to state to the district to tehsil level. Interagency coalitions needed to
translate policies through a top-down approach.
5. Financing for sustainable farming: Agribusiness needs integrated
investment through various schemes and financing models like public-
private partnership etc. in light of sustainable green farming and
landscape management.
6. Sound science and innovation: These are the keys to sustainable
agriculture. Greater investment is needed in the basics of agronomy, 293
Security And biotechnology, and plant breeding to ensure that farmers and consumers
Development Issues everywhere benefit from science and technology. Farmers must receive
support for implementing sustainability measures, especially in light of
the downward trend of commodity prices. A sustained effort is needed to
make this sector a net sink of greenhouse gases rather than emitters.
13.8.1 Challenges to Yield Revolution in the 21st Century

The world population is expected to reach 10-11 billion towards the end of the
21st Century. We will need at least 1billion tonnes of grain annually by 2025.
So, there will be huge pressure on the available land to meet the production
target. The 21st century demands substantial changes in the world’s food system,
including sustainable intensification to simultaneously raise yields reducing the
negative environmental effects of crop production. So, our eyes shall remain
on enhancing the yield by adding ecosystem services of the agro-ecosystem.
M.S. Swaminathan, the architect of the first Green Revolution in India as well
now advocates organic farming. Alan Savory calls the 21st-century revolution
a “Brown Revolution”, one that enhances soil organic matter, leading to
sustainable productivity gains. Agriculture in the twenty-first century will have
to respond to challenges of a different kind.
1. Eradicating extreme poverty, hunger and malnutrition
We have already seen how South Asian countries including sub-Saharan
countries are still facing extreme poverty. To eradicate hunger, we must
succeed in building resilience to conflicts and disasters.
2. Sustainably improving agricultural productivity and distribution
system
There is an urgent need to make agricultural production more sustainable
and food systems as a whole more efficient, inclusive and resilient. As,
agriculture remains a much less capital-intensive practice in low- and
middle-income countries and so, investments are required to develop
new varieties and hybrids. We need to have better extension services,
storage facilities, and basic rural infrastructure to access regional or local
markets, insurance against weather-related risks, and support to farmers’
organizations and cooperatives.
3. Addressing climate change, hike in oil price and intensification of
natural hazards
4. Job creation and income diversification
A rethinking of food systems and governance is essential for meeting current
and future challenges. Social protection combined with pro-poor growth
will help meet the challenge of ending hunger and addressing the triple
burden of malnutrition through healthier diets. Permanently eliminating
hunger, malnutrition and extreme poverty also requires building resilience
to protracted crises, disasters and conflicts, and preventing conflicts by
promoting inclusive and equitable global development. New job creation
will further improve income-earning opportunities in rural areas and
address the root causes of migration.
5. Environmental and efficiency concerns
294 A serious effort should be initiated to develop alternative land use, farming
systems, and food systems scenarios for the 21st century. The capacity Environmental
to monitor the agricultural sources and impacts of environmental change Changes and
should be strengthened. The design of technologies and institutions to Nutritional
achieve more efficient management of surface and groundwater resources Security
will become increasingly important. The modelling of the sources and
impacts of climate change must become more sophisticated. Research
on environmentally compatible farming systems should be intensified.
Intermediate efforts should be made to reform agricultural commodity and
income support policies. Alternative food systems have to be developed.
6. Integration of smallholders into value chains and maintaining
competitiveness in the market
Agriculture in the 21st century will face the challenge of integrating
smallholders into value chains. We need to link up production with the
market and it’s an opportunity for the smallholders to get the actual price
in the market with the help of technology and make their presence in the
global market.
7. Coherent and effective national and international governance
Various agencies of the United Nations are being engaged in framing
international laws and delegations of the same at the country level.
Countries are facing many challenges and at times priority gets diluted
at the implementation level. So, governance plays so much importance in
prioritizing the agenda to get implemented at the national level and further
down at the state level to district level and so on.
13.9 INITIATIVES BY THE GOVERNMENT OF

INDIA
The government of India has implemented the best possible available
technologies through various governments Programs including the adoption of
innovative models at various levels.
1. Soil Health Card (SHC)
Soil Health Card (SHC) is a Government of India scheme promoted
by the Department of Agriculture & Co-operation under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare. It is being implemented through
the Department of Agriculture of all the State and Union Territory
Governments. SHC is a printed report that a farmer will be handed over
for each of his holdings. It will contain the status of his soil concerning 12
parameters, namely N, P, K (Macro-nutrients); S (Secondary- nutrient); Zn,
Fe, Cu, Mn, Bo (Micronutrients); and pH, EC, OC (Physical parameters).
Based on this, the SHC will also indicate fertilizer recommendations and
soil amendments required for the farm.
2. To Improve Water Use Efficiency
Prime Minister Krishi Sinchai Yojana (Prime Minister Agriculture
Irrigation Plan) for Improving Water Use Efficiency says “More Crop Per
Drop of Water”. Proven technologies such as drip irrigation, saves both
water and reduce soil salinity. There is a range of improved micro-irrigation
systems to increase the efficiency of water use systems. Growing more 295
Security And water-efficient crops like millet and sorghum and cultivars such as water-
Development Issues saving rice variety. The system of rice intensification (SRI) developed
in Madagascar, is showing that changing the management of rice plants,
soil, water and nutrients can increase the yields of irrigated rice by 25–
50% or more while reducing water requirements by an equivalent per
cent.
3. Strategy for Food Saving in India
“Indian Food Sharing Alliance” (IFSA) has been formed by the Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to help solve India’s food
waste and hunger crisis by working with various partner organizations,
Food Recovery Agencies and NGOs with a mission “Save food, Share
food”. It facilitates the safe distribution of surplus food by connecting
trained food recovery agencies with food chains (https://sharefood.fssai.
gov.in/).
4. Agroforestry
About 25.32 million ha (8.2%) of the total geographical area of India
are under agroforestry. It meets 50% of the overall fuel demand,70-80%
wood for plywood, 60% raw material for paper pulp and 9-11% of green
fodder for rearing livestock besides being a selfless giver of fruit, fibre,
medicine, essential oil etc. The right selection of tree crops can be a win-
win situation where farmers can maximize the benefits.
Examples:
Poplar based agroforestry systems and wood-based industries are now
popular in the Indo-Gangetic region of India.
Prosopis cineraria-based agroforestry system of the arid zone of India
Khejri agroforestry in Rajasthan
Lac host Butea monosperma scattered agroforestry in Central India
Gum based agroforestry systems a) Acacia nilotica gum b) Butea
monosperma gum.
Acacia leucophloea and Acacia nilotica lopped for fodder in a Ravinous
tract in Madhya Pradesh, India.
5. Climate Change
a) National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA): It is a
flagship project of ICAR launched in 2011. The objectives of NICRA
are to a) undertake strategic research on adaptation and mitigation, b)
validate and demonstrate climate resilient technologies on farmers’
fields, c) To strengthen the capacity of scientists and other stakeholders
in climate-resilient agriculture, d) To draw policy guidelines for wider
scale adoption of resilience enhancing technologies and options. It
is a unique project that brings all sectors of agriculture viz., crops,
horticulture, livestock, fisheries, NRM and extension scientists on
one platform.
296
b) Minimizing Greenhouse gas emissions through alternative technologies Environmental
Changes and
Alternatives to straw burning
Nutritional
Baler for making bundles to biomass-based power plants as fuel Security
Straw chopper cum shredder zero-till sowing (ZT)
Paddy combine harvester with a straw management system (ZT)
Rotavator for incorporation of paddy straw
Reversible MB plough
Use of straw as livestock feed and bedding material
Use of straw as soil mulch in orchards
c) Micro-level Agromet Advisory Services (MAAS)
Block-level Agromet advisory bulletins are disseminated through
Field Information Facilitators (FIFs) across 20 States. This helped in
timely decision making for various field operations and minimizing
risks.
6. Critical Role of Technology Packaging in Rainfed Drylands
Rainfed agriculture encounters several constraints on account of climatic,
edaphic, and social factors. Out of the 97 million farm holdings, about
76% come under marginal and small categories. The productivity levels
of these areas have remained lower across the years because of frequent
droughts occurring due to high variability in the quantum and distribution
of rainfall, poor soil health, low fertilizer use, imbalanced fertilization,
small farm size and poor mechanization, poor socio-economic conditions
and low risk-bearing capacity, low credit availability and infrastructure
constraints.
a) In-situ moisture conservation Technology: In general, it could be
possible to reduce soil and water losses by adopting in-situ conservation
practices like dead furrows at 3.6 m intervals across the slope.
b) Land treatments Technology: Such a technology incorporates
waste-water treatment, water reuse, crop utilization of nutrients and
waste-water disposal. It involves the application of wastewater to
vegetated land using various techniques, including sprinkling methods
or surface techniques such as graded-border and furrow irrigation.
c) Farm ponds: These are considered one of the best mechanisms to
mitigate drought in rainfed rural areas.
d) Community Seed Bank: It is most suitable for a dryland ecosystem
where it is hard for farmers to get access to the market.
e) Community Fodder Bank- It is nothing but, a group of farmers coming
together to raise multiple fodder crops consisting of trees, grasses
and legumes, largely in non-arable or wastelands to meet the fodder
requirement, especially during lean periods. The idea of fodder banks
emerged to replenish arable lands that have lost their fertility due
to continuous cropping. Thus, a fallow land is sown to leguminous
perennial forages or self-seeding perennials to rebuild the nitrogen 297
Security And content of the soil through biological nitrogen fixation and at the same
Development Issues time, for the production of high-quality dry fodder.
f) Custom hiring of farm machines- Custom hiring centres evolved
as a community-led mechanism for access to costly machinery/
implements is critical for timely implementation of resilient practices
in a large area.
1. What is agricultural intensification?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………….………………………...
2. What are the effects of agricultural intensification?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
3. What is landscape change?
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........…………………………………………………………………
4. Discuss the challenges in alleviating malnutrition.
……………………………………………………………………………
….……………………...........……………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….………
……………...........………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….…………………
…...........………………………………………………………………….
13.10 LET US SUM UP

The 20th century will be remembered as an era of great progress especially in
Asia since the 1960s. Between the 1960s and 1970s, we have seen a marked
increase in grain production mainly as a result of the availability of high
yielding cultivars, irrigation facilities and inorganic fertilizers. Challenges
like poverty, hunger and malnutrition yet common in Asia and the situation
in Africa is worrisome. In addition, 21st century has a new set of problems
298 like climate change, water scarcity, degradation of soil, biodiversity loss etc. to
be tackled to keep producing enough to combat malnourishment. International Environmental
agencies are actively engaged in taking strategic decisions to get it implemented Changes and
at the national, state to village levels. Academia is actively involved in research Nutritional
to make resilient cultivars in the era of climate change and works with other Security
important stakeholders like NGOs for the capacity building and dissemination
of information to the village level. KVKs in India have played a great role in
this as well. Tackling hunger in the 21st century will not be easy without taking
small landholders in the business model from “local to global”. Wiser use of
natural resources is the need of the hour.
13.11 KEY WORDS

Food Security: Food security is defined as a condition when “all people, at all
times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life”.

REFERENCES
•• Swaminathan, M.S. Genesis and Growth of the Yield Revolution in Wheat
in India: Lessons for Shaping our Agricultural Destiny. Agric Res 2, 183–
188 (2013).
•• https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/Scientific-agriculture-the-
20th-century
•• https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf
•• https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912953109
•• https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-013-0069-3
•• https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0912953109
•• https://cas.cgiar.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Environmental%20Impacts%20
of%20Ag%20Intensification%20TN9_July2020.pdf
•• https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/malnutrition
•• https://www.fao.org/3/y4671e/y4671e06.htm
•• https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf
•• https://glopan.org/sites/default/files/ForesightReport.pdf

299
UNIT 14 URBANIZATION AND CONSUMER-
ISM
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Urban Population Growth and Development
14.4 Migration
14.5 Accelerated Urbanization: Growth of Cities and Slums
14.6 Pressures on Urban Resources
14.7 Challenges to Sustainable Urbanization
14.8 Sustainable Buildings
14.9 Let Us Sum Up
14.10 Key Words
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Cities or urban areas have been the centre of trade since ancient civilizations.
These are the economic hub that has been the centre of trade and exchange of
goods and services between rural-urban as well as urban-urban trade. In this
context, the growth of cities in a region has always been an indicator of economic
development. However, with the increasing population and unprecedented rate
of urbanization, the land as a resource is becoming scarce to nurture the ever-
rising urban population. As a result, urban areas are extending into the periphery
either along the major roads leading to town- ribbon settlement; or urban sprawl
where suburbs keep growing continuously. This urban sprawl costs agricultural
land as it gets converted into settlements and other land-use types. Not only this,
the development of slums and shantytowns also puts a blot on the development
of cities. This unit emphasizes the pattern and causes of urbanization, issues
about urbanization and challenges to sustainable urbanization.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
•• describe the pattern of urbanization;
•• discuss the issues about urbanization;
•• explain the urban sprawl and growth of slums and
•• explain the sustainable cities.
Urbanization and
14.3 URBAN POPULATION GROWTH AND Consumerism
DEVELOPMENT
All over the world, people prefer living in urban areas or cities for want of a
better lifestyle, better educational facilities, infrastructural support for sanitation,
transportation as well as employment opportunities. As per the UN Report
(2018), the global population residing in urban areas has increased from 30% in
1950 to 55% in 2018 and is expected to increase to 60% by 2030. The annual
Indian urban population growth was reported at 2.3 % in 2020 (World Bank). In
2018, Northern America was the most urbanized region in the world, followed
by Latin America and the Caribbean (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%)
with the lowest levels of urbanization being in Asia (50%) and Africa (43%).
Also, by 2018, 13% of the world’s urban population lived in 33 megacities,
and this number is projected to increase to 14% of the urban population in 41
megacities by 2030. Further, it is projected that by 2050, Asia will host 52%
and Africa approximately 21% of the world’s urban population.
It is difficult to define the term ‘urban’ as the concept and definition of the term
varies at the regional level; and also, from nation to nation. While in many places,
population structure and density form the basis of urban characterization; others
focus on administrative boundaries or employment in non-agricultural sectors
or availability of health and other infrastructural facilities. However, even to this
day, commonly, the number of people residing in the area forms the basis of the
classification of a place into a rural or urban area. Therefore, a few criteria that
can help in classifying the urban area/ urban settlement or a city are as follows:
Based on boundaries
a. City Proper: When an urban settlement is defined based on the
administrative boundary.
b. Urban Agglomeration: This is larger than that of a city proper; and
includes the extent of the contiguous urban area, or built-up area, to
delineate the city’s boundaries
c. Metropolitan Area: A metropolitan area is defined based on the
interlinkage of a given area with its surrounding areas based on social and
economic scenarios besides the presence of industries, services available
and administrative functions.
Based on population thresholds
a. Small cities have a population of 1 million.
b. Medium-sized cities have a population of 1 to 5 million.
c. Large cities have a population of 5 to 10 million.
d. Megacities have a population of 10 million or more
It is assumed that urban areas or cities contribute about 80% of GDP to modern
economic development. As per the UN report, currently, about 55% of the
world’s population lives in urban areas with these numbers rising alarmingly 301
Security And by 2050. With the ever-increasing urban population, cities often face a variety
Development Issues of social issues such as adequate housing, hygiene and sanitation facilities,
infrastructure and transport facilities, migration of rural to urban population;
as well as environmental problems such as urban heat islands, environmental
pollution-air, water, soil and noise; availability of fresh water and many more.
Once a city is built, its land use land cover is altered significantly leading to the
conversion of pervious vegetated surfaces to impervious built-up surfaces such
as roads, buildings or pavements. As a result, rainwater is unable to percolate,
and issues of urban runoff and stormwater become more severe causing havoc
for drainage facilities of the city. Thus, for the city to sustain its population, the
rate of urban growth or urban sprawl should match the rate of growth of the
urban population. However, it is generally seen that the rate of growth of people
living in urban areas is almost double the expansion of land under urban sprawl;
thus, leading to unsustainable growth of cities in the long run. It also imposes
unnecessary pressure on the land and natural resources of the area. Further, it
also exposes the population to disaster risk since, in developing countries, most
of the urban expansion of built-up urban areas occurs in the hazard-prone areas
in an unplanned manner. Also, cities consume about 67% of global energy and
are responsible for emissions of 70% of greenhouse gases.
14.4 MIGRATION
As per UN Report, 2018, Urbanization or “urban transition” refers to “a shift in
a population from one that is dispersed across small rural settlements, in which
agriculture is the dominant economic activity, towards one that is concentrated
in larger and denser urban settlements characterized by a dominance of industrial
and service activities”.
However, it becomes pertinent to distinguish between urbanization and urban
population growth. Urban growth is the increase in the proportion of the
absolute number of people living within defined urban areas (IOM, 2015);
while urbanization refers to not only the migration of people from rural to urban
areas, or an increase in urban population; but also, the process of creation of
new urban centres or when administrative boundaries of urban settlements are
extended giving rise to larger urban areas.
Further, IOM, 2015 iterates that “very often, urbanization is primarily the
result of migration”. Thus, there exists a very close-knit relationship between
urbanization and migration. This migration of people could be rural-to-rural,
rural-to-urban, urban-to-urban and urban-to-rural migration. Also, this migration
could be within national borders or across the borders in the international
domain. It is estimated that around 20% of the total population of international
migrants live in about 20 cities in the world. Not only this, the proportion of
foreign-born persons in some cities exceeds the global average of 3.5% (IOM,
2015).
302 Further, this migration plays a very important role in maintaining urban diversity
and growth. It is generally seen that international migration is more common in Urbanization and
developed countries; while in developing countries, internal migration is more Consumerism
common. However, people from developing countries also migrate to developed
countries in search of better opportunities.
With a greater influx of people into urban areas from rural areas in search of
better amenities and employment opportunities; urban areas or cities are facing
the pressure of a greater population load concerning the resources available. As
a result, it becomes essential to manage data on urbanization and migration at
the municipal or urban level for better management of urban resources.
14.5 ACCELERATED URBANIZATION: GROWTH

OF CITIES AND SLUMS
The rapid pace of urbanization, as well as urban growth, exerts a lot of pressure
on the natural resources of the region. The most affected under this sector is
the housing facility. Due to the lack of adequate housing facilities as a result of
unprecedented urban growth; there has been a rise in slums or squatter settlements
or shantytowns in urban areas. Generally speaking, ‘slums’ are described as
areas with multi-family dwelling houses of inadequate proportions. Another
term used commonly is ‘shantytown’ which describes illegal settlements as a
result of people moving into unoccupied lands and constructing their dwelling
place. Shantytowns are synonymously called ‘squatter settlements’ to depict
low-quality housing on the periphery of the city. A common difference between
slums and squatter settlements is that slums are located in inner and older parts
of cities compared to squatter settlements which are temporary and scattered
in the outer periphery of cities. Shanty towns are mainly developed from rural-
urban migration and the inability of city authorities to provide sufficient housing
facilities and employment. The presence of these slums, shantytowns and
squatter settlements has become a common feature of urban cities; especially
the metropolitan cities in India and globally in regions such as Latin America,
urban Africa and South Asian regions. In India, these slums have different names
such as bustees in Kolkata, jhuggi- jhoparies in Delhi, Jhoparpattis or Chawl in
Mumbai and Cheri in Chennai. The largest slum in Asia is the Dharavi slum in
Central Mumbai of India.
Section 3 of Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act 1956 defines slums
as areas or buildings unfit for human habitation and lacking basic amenities such
as drinking water and sanitation facilities, adequate lighting and ventilation,
faulty engineering design or dilapidated houses. Thus, the following criteria aid
in classifying an area as a slum:
(i) All areas notified as “Slum” by the state government under any Act.
(ii) All areas recognised as a slum by the state government have not been
formally notified as slums under any Act.
(iii) A compact area of at least 300 individuals or about 60-70 households
of poorly built congested tenements such as mud or brick houses, in an 303
Security And unhygienic environment with no ventilation, no proper lavatories; usually
Development Issues with inadequate infrastructure and lacking proper sanitary and drinking
water facilities.
(iv) Social isolation from urban society with the prevalence of crime, drug
abuse, alcoholism and socially aberrant behaviour.
(v) Prevalence of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, blood dysentery,
malaria, typhoid as well as jaundice due to contaminated groundwater,
The causes of urbanisation are manifold, the chief being:
•• Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation

•• Shortage of land for housing facilities
•• Exorbitant prices of land
•• The influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of employment
The first-ever detailed report on the slum population of India was given by
the Census of India in 2001 in which it was reported that 26 states/union
territories have a large proportion of the slum population. Of these, the largest
slum population exists in Maharashtra; followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi. Further,
the largest concentration of slum population is found in four major cities of
Greater Mumbai, Delhi Municipal Corporation (Urban), Kolkata and Chennai.
Surprisingly, Patna has reported only 0.25 per cent as a slum population. Figure
14.1 describes the geographical population of slums in India and Mumbai,
Maharashtra.
Fig. 14.1. Geographic distribution of slum population of (a) India (b)
Mumbai (Mahabir et. al., 2018)

1. Describe the classification of urban areas.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
304
2. Discuss the causes of rural to urban migration. Urbanization and
Consumerism
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………....................................
14.6 PRESSURES ON URBAN RESOURCES

Some of the problems that arise due to pressure on urban resources are the
following:
1. Lack of Adequate Housing: It was estimated in 2011 that about 100
million people around the world have become homeless. Thus, the lack of
adequate housing is a glaring problem in urban cities. With rising rural to
urban migration, the housing problem has further aggravated.
2. Inadequate Sewage System: Insufficient sewage system is another major
problem faced by growing cities as the population size far exceeds the
sewage systems in most unplanned urban cities. Currently, not a single
city in India is fully sewered. It is believed that only 35-40% of the urban
population has access to an adequate sewage system. Most of the cities do
not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and thus it
gets drained into a nearby river (for example, Delhi) or into the sea (for
example - Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai); thereby, polluting the water
bodies. Further, in most Indian cities, water pipes run close to sewer lines.
Any leakage leads to contamination of water that has repercussions for
water pollution which would eventually lead to an outbreak of water-
borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery and typhoid.
3. Overcrowding: With the rising population in urban cities due to growth
in the service sector and migration of people from rural to urban areas
as well as across the borders, the overcrowding of urban cities is a
common phenomenon. If we look at the example of Mumbai, the Master
Plan of Greater Mumbai suggests four acres of open space per thousand
population; while in reality, it has one-sixth of an acre of open space per
thousands of people. Delhi has the highest population density of 9,340
persons per square kilometre as per Census 2001.
4. Decline in Agricultural Productivity: Rural to urban migration leads
to lesser availability of people in the agricultural sector which causes
a reduction in agricultural production and poses a major threat to food
security. As per UN World Migration Report, 2020, 3.5% of the world’s
population, i.e., close to 272 million people have migrated globally in
2019; with 52% of international migrants being males and 48% being
females. Out of these, 74% of migrants are in the working-age group
lying between a band of 20-64 years. Further, in terms of international
migrants, India continues to be the number one nation with 17.5 million
migrants living abroad followed by Mexico and China. Also, there has
been observed a pattern that varies from region to region. While most
international migrants born in Africa, Asia and Europe reside within their
regions of birth, the majority of migrants from Latin America and the
305
Caribbean and Northern America reside outside their regions of birth.
Security And 5. Rise of Slums and Squatter Settlements: With rising urban sprawl and
Development Issues the inability of urban cities in nurturing the huge population load, the
migrants and lower-income groups are forced to settle in slums or squatter
settlements to carry on with their employment and support their families
either living with them or sending money to the ancestral villages.
It is imperative to mention that the central districts of the city bear the
greatest pressure from the immigrating population as the immigrants
throng their relatives’ and friends’ places before searching for their housing.
This situation has been described by Brush (1968) as “urban impulsion”
which results from the concentration of people in the centre of the city
close to their friends/relatives and workplace. The four metropolitan cities
of India-Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and a few other cities such
as Bangalore and Hyderabad act as magnets for migration and present
a very good example of urban sprawl. Besides, another glaring problem
is the unemployment of urban youth. It is estimated that about half of
all educated urban unemployed are concentrated in the four metropolitan
cities. Also, although urban incomes are higher than rural incomes, the
high cost of living compensates for the comparatively higher income of
the urban population.
6. Traffic Congestion: Another issue of increasing urbanization is the rise in
the automobile sector which has led to increased traffic congestion. These
transportation-related problems increase and become more complex as
the town grows in size. As a result, tremendous pressure is exerted on
public transport and causes much longer journey periods with buses and
trains crammed to capacity, overcrowded roads and very slow movement
of traffic. This leads to increased commuting time by people as well as
increased fuel consumption. This has a bearing on air pollution as well
as respiratory issues. In the Indian scenario, Mumbai has the best city
transport system besides Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune having well
established local transport systems. Delhi despite having a well-developed
road network and metro rail systems, still has congested and slow-moving
traffic which is believed to worsen by the guidelines for Delhi Master
Plan 2021, which would allow mixed land use, multi-storeyed structures
and regularisation of 24 industrial estates.
7. Water Scarcity: The problem of water scarcity in urban areas is a common
phenomenon. No urban city in India is self-sufficient in providing
drinking water to its dwellers. In many Indian cities, the municipal supply
of drinking water ranges from half an hour to two hours daily which is
not sufficient to meet the family requirements. This scarcity aggravates
during the summer months. The gap in demand and supply of water in four
metropolitan cities in India varies from 10 to 20 % which widens further
in smaller towns and cities. As a result of increased demand, Central
Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO)
fixed 125-200 litres of water per head per day for cities with a population
of more than 50,000, 100-125 litres for the population between 10,000
and 50,000 and 70-100 litres for towns with a population below 10,000.
However, the target achieved is uncertain.
To tackle the issue of water scarcity, a programme known as the
306 Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was launched
to provide water to towns with a population of less than 20,000. Also, the Urbanization and
Zakaria Committee recommended the water requirement per head per day Consumerism
204 litres for cities with a population between 5 lakh and 2 million and
272 litres for cities with a population of more than 2 million.
8. Urban Pollution: With the growth of Indian cities, managing solid and
liquid waste dumping is a crucial issue. Most Indian cities lack adequate
garbage disposal facilities and the capacity of existing landfills far
outweighs the incoming solid waste. Thus, wastes are scattered in the
open, forming leachate, attracting rodents and flies, and presenting a scary
picture of urban cities. Besides leachate contaminating the groundwater,
the open water bodies and rivers face the brunt of urbanization in the form
of stormwater runoff; defaecation, discharge of sewage and industrial
effluents in water bodies as well as inadequate management practices.
9. Urban Crimes: The social fabric of urban cities is very diverse due to
people with different cultural backgrounds co-existing together. However,
the problem of urban crimes is rampant that disturbs the peace of the cities
and makes it unsafe for the inhabitants; particularly the women and children
being most vulnerable. Increasing consumerism, materialistic lifestyle,
socio-economic disparities, unemployment and growing loneliness lead
to increased crime in urban cities. In India, the two metropolitan cities of
Delhi and Mumbai have a high crime rate in terms of theft, robbery, sexual
assault, rape and kidnappings to list a few.
14.7 CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE

URBANIZATION
It is pertinent to mention that all the above factors listed in the above section
such as adequate housing and sanitation facilities, availability of drinking water,
urban sprawl, urban slums as well as pollution pose a significant challenge to
sustainable urbanization. The pace of urbanization is also causing changes in
land use landcover of urban areas where pervious vegetated surfaces are being
converted to impervious concrete surfaces for housing, roads, and flyovers as
well as commercial centres. The influx of people from rural to peri-urban and
urban areas and the emergence of new activities-be commercial or labour-
driven occupational activities, is continuously changing the urban landscape
with lesser and lesser availability of land as a resource in megacities.
Besides these issues, another aspect of urbanization is the role played by cities
in tackling climate change. The LULC conversion has a bearing on the local
micro-climate of the region with the formation of urban heat islands that exhibit
elevated temperatures in the city centre compared to peri-urban and rural areas.
Also, the exposure of cities increases the risk of climate change and disaster risk
as the city grows in size. The coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to storm
surges, tsunamis, cyclones as well as coastal floods besides the rise of sea level.
Not only this, but cities have also played a crucial role in combating epidemics as
the recent example of the COVID-19 pandemic that has hampered public health
as well as the economic and social structure of urban areas. The preparedness of
cities in tackling the pandemic world over has been an eye-opener, as it required
a massive overhaul in the structure of the health sector with the involvement
of all the components of the urban governance and the public at large. Thus, 307
Security And building healthy and resilient cities is the need of the hour that provides a
Development Issues haven for its citizens against epidemics, pandemics and other challenges
such as migration. The FAO Framework for Migration proposes to minimise
the causes of migration and offer lucrative alternatives in rural areas to curb
migration besides promoting the well-being of migrants. Not only this, but the
Government of India has also launched major development programmes such
as Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP), Environmental Improvement of
Urban Slums (EIUS), Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
(IDSMT), Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO), Mega-
Cities Project, and Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (IUPEP).
14.8 SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS

The growth of sustainable cities is dependent on sustainable buildings. India
is among the fastest-growing economies of the world with projections that
seventeen of the twenty fastest-growing cities of the world between 2019 and
2030 will be from India (Oxford Economics’ Global cities report). This poses
challenges to urban governance, livelihood, water supply, sanitation as well as
liveability conditions for urban citizens. Most of the urban cities in India have
grown in an unplanned manner with larger clusters of urban agglomerations
in the centre of the city and less congested in the outskirts. Hence, Jawaharlal
Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was launched in 2005 to
reform the cities through planned development initiatives. It was later replaced
by Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). Later,
many other schemes such as Smart Cities Mission, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
– Housing for All (Urban) (PMAY-U), and Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)
(SBM-U) were launched to improve the quality of life in urban cities.
Sustainable buildings are also known as ‘Green Buildings’ that focus on
environmental conservation besides construction safety. This is achieved by
focussing on energy-efficient architectural design, recycling of grey wastewater,
using solar and other renewable sources of energy, reducing the burden on
fossil fuels and cutting down on the demand of electricity. GRIHA norms
help in ratifying or certifying the housing settlements for a better quality of
living. In India, various government and corporate housing are increasingly
implementing the concept of “Green Buildings” and trying to increase the green
cover of urban settlements. This also has a bearing on climate change as there
has been a shift in mindset from excessive consumerism and lifestyle demands
to climate-conscious green consumerism.
1. Enlist the major challenges of urbanisation.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
308
………………………………….………………………………………… Urbanization and
………….…………….…………..…….…………….…………............... Consumerism
2. What policies have been launched by the government of India to combat
the issue of housing facilities in urban areas?
……………………………………………………………………………
….…………………………………………………………………………
……………….……………………………………………………………
…………………………….………………………………………………
………………………………………….…………….…………...............
14.9 LET US SUM UP

In the present unit, urbanisation and its impacts, the challenges posed have been
discussed in great detail. Thus, at the end of this chapter, the students would be
well-versed with the following concepts:
•• Pattern of urbanization
•• Causes of urbanization
•• Issues about urbanization
•• Urban sprawl and growth of slums
•• How to develop sustainable cities and sustainable buildings.
14.10 KEY WORDS

Migration: Environmental migration refers to human migration where
environmental risks or environmental change plays a significant role in
influencing the migration decision and destination. Migration may involve
distinct categories such as direct, involuntary, and temporary displacement due
to weather-related disasters; voluntary relocation as settlements and economies
become less viable; or planned resettlement encouraged by government actions
or incentives. All migration decisions are multi-causal, and hence it is not meant
to describe any migrant flow as being solely for environmental reasons.
Green Building: A green building is “designed”, “constructed” and “operated/
maintained” to reduce greatly the environmental impacts and augment the
resource use efficiency and at the same time factor in the “cultural and community
sensitivity”. Use of energy-efficient equipment aid in attaining higher efficiency
in performance. The green buildings are constructed in such a way that it uses
less electrical energy, but use more natural sunlight for operation.
Acronyms:
•• GDP: Gross Domestic Product

•• IOM: International Organization for Migration
•• UBSP: Urban Basic Services for the Poor
•• EIUS: Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums 309
Water-Related •• IDSMT: Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns
Issues •• HUDCO: Housing and Urban Development Corporation
•• IUPEP: Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme
•• JNNURM: Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
•• AMRUT: Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
•• PMAY-U: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing for All (Urban)
•• SBM-U: Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban)

REFERENCES
•• Duncan, H. and Popp I. 2018 World Migration Report 2018, Chapter 10:
Migrants and Cities: Stepping Beyond World Migration Report 2015, IOM,
Geneva.
•• United Nations 2018 Sustainable cities, human mobility and international
migration: Report of the Secretary-General, UN, New York.
•• Charles,A., Galal H., and Guna D. 2018 Preparing Cities to Manage Migration,
A policy brief from the Think20 Migration Task Force, CARI and CIPPEC,
Buenos Aires.
•• Jansen, K. et al. 2018 Economic Migration and the Role of Cities –
Ensuring Social Cohesion, A policy brief from the Think20 Migration Task
Force, CARI and CIPPEC, Buenos Aires.
•• United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA)
2018 World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, UN DESA,
Population Division.
•• World Migration Report, 2020; IOM UN Migration, Published by
International Organization for Migration (IOM), Switzerland. ISSN 1561-
5502; e-ISBN 978-92-9068-789-4.
•• Mahabir, Ron & Crooks, Andrew & Stefanidis, Anthony & Croitoru, Arie
& Agouris, Peggy (2018). A Critical Review of High and Very High-
Resolution Remote Sensing Approaches for Detecting and Mapping Slums:
Trends, Challenges and Emerging Opportunities. Urban Science. 2. 10.3390/
urbansci2010008.
WEB LINKS
•• https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment/overview
(Accessed on 23 December 2021)
•• https://mohua.gov.in › cms › urban-growth (Accessed on 23 December 2021)
•• https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/urbanisation-et-migration
•• https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/urbanisation-et-migration
310 •• https://rosanjose.iom.int/site/es/blog/el-complejo-punto-de-encuentro-
entre-la-migracion-ambiental-y-la-covid-19 (Accessed on 23 December Urbanization and
2021) Consumerism
•• https://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda/
•• https://www.iom.int/
•• https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/2015
•• https://www.weforum.org/reports/migration-and-its-impact-on-cities
•• https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/rural-to-urban-
migration-in-india-why-labour-mobility-bucks-global-trend/ (Accessed on
23 December 2021)
•• https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/view-indias-
urbanisation-challenges-and-the-way-forward/articleshow/79443872.
cm s ? u t m _ s o u r c e = c o n t e n t o f i n t e r e s t & u t m _ m e d i u m = t e x t & u t m _
campaign=cppst

2. Please refer to sections 14.4 and 14.5
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UNIT 15 MULTIDRUG-RESISTANT ORGAN-
ISMS
Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Definition
15.4 Causes of Antimicrobial Resistance
15.5 Extent
15.6 Emerging Infectious Diseases
15.7 Mechanism
15.8 Impacts
15.10 Let Us Sum Up
15.11 Key Words
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to the increasing menace of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs),
WHO in the year 2011 emphasized combating drug resistance (Sharma, 2011)
that has led to increased morbidity, mortality and economic losses to the nation
due to increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Cohen, 2000; Rosenberger
et. al., 2011; Morales et. al. 2012). Antimicrobial resistance refers to the ability
of a microbe to resist the effects of a drug and may continue to multiply even in
the presence of drugs. Antimicrobial-resistant germs are not killed by the drugs
that are typically used against them and may continue to multiply (cdc.gov.in).
Historically speaking, the problem of MDROs is not a recent one, with the first
antibiotic resistance being reported in Staphylococcus aureus towards penicillin
resistance. With the increasing use of antibiotics, the number of MDROs has
increased manifold throughout the world. This unit emphasizes the causes,
extent and impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms.
15.2 OBJECTIVES
•• define Multidrug-Resistant Organisms;
•• explain the Emerging Infectious Diseases and
•• explain the causes, extent and impacts of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms.
Multidrug-resistant
15.3 DEFINITION Organisms
Multi-Drug Resistant Organisms (MDROs) are microorganisms, particularly
bacteria, that have become resistant to one or more classes of antimicrobial agents
or antibiotics. This implies that antibiotics become ineffective in controlling
such bacteria (IOM, 1998; https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/
mdro/background.html). These MDROs deserve special emphasis in the
healthcare sector since these MDROs are resistant not just to one antimicrobial
agent, but a broad spectrum of antimicrobial agents which may be antibacterial,
antifungal or antiviral. Examples include certain bacteria such as Escherichia
coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia, S. pneumoniae (MDRSP), vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus
(VISA) and vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA), Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Enterococci especially
Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE), and other organisms such as
Burkholderia cepacian and Ralstonia pickettii. Generally, MDROs are present
in hospitals and long-term healthcare facilities and affect old or sick people.
Further, European Centre for Disease Control (ECDC) and Centre for Disease
Control & Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, have extensively defined the multidrug-
resistant (MDR), extensively drug-resistant (XDR), and pandrug-resistant
(PDR) organisms based on antimicrobial agents and antimicrobial categories
(Magiorakos et. al., 2012). While multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) refers
to acquired non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial
categories; Extensively drug-resistant organism (XDRO) was defined as non-
susceptibility to at least one agent in all but two or fewer antimicrobial categories.
Pandrug Resistant Organism (PDRO) was defined as nonsusceptibility to all
agents in all antimicrobial categories. Another term defined by CDC in this
context is Multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolate which is defined as an isolate that
is resistant to at least one antibiotic in three or more drug classes. Further, non-
susceptible isolate refers to an isolate that is either resistant or not completely
susceptible to one or more antibiotics.
15.4. CAUSES OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

The causes of antimicrobial resistance could be many. A few of them are listed
here:
•• Over-prescription of Antibiotics: It is well known that antibiotics have
been used for a long to treat various diseases; however, overuse of antibiotics
has its challenges. It is observed that micro-organisms that were effective
in treating disease have become resistant, and are no longer responding to
antibiotics. Sometimes, the doctors prescribe antibiotics for a condition,
such as a throat infection; when test results are awaited and doctors are not
sure if the sickness is caused by bacteria or virus. It is pertinent to mention
that antibiotics are effective only against bacteria, and not viruses; therefore,
over-prescription must be avoided.
313
Security And •• Patients not finishing the entire antibiotic course: Many times, it is seen
Development Issues that patients who are on a dose of antibiotics, leave it midway once they feel
relaxed; however, the illness may resurface. Prescribing antibiotics again to
cure the same disease may involve a higher dosage of antibiotics to achieve
the desired results. Thus, it leads to developing resistance in the long run if
such practice continues.
•• Antibiotics being taken longer than necessary or when not needed: It
is common knowledge that antibiotics dampen the action of bacteria by
limiting their growth and reproduction. However, an overdose of antibiotics
or antibiotics once taken longer than when they are needed often results in
developing resistance against the antibiotics and is ineffective.
•• Overuse of antibiotics in livestock and fish farming: In developing
countries, there has been an increasing demand for animal protein, which has
resulted in intensive cultivation of livestock. This has resulted in an increase
in residues of antibiotics in animal-derived products which eventually leads
to antibiotic resistance. This is a matter of concern as regards public health
concern because the antibiotic-resistant bacteria associated with the animals
may be pathogenic to humans, that can be easily transmitted to humans
via food chains. This would be widely spread in the environment via the
food chain and food web that can ultimately lead to human infections.
The increased use of antibiotics is so complex that it can lead to increased
healthcare as well as implications for human life. Thus, these challenges
cannot be isolated by geographic boundaries and are of local, national,
regional, and international dimensions.
•• Poor infection control in healthcare settings: In healthcare settings,
preventing infections will aid in minimising the burden of MDROs and thus
limiting antimicrobial resistance. This can be achieved by implementing
appropriate clinical practices such as management of vascular and urinary
catheters that are a part of routine patient care, accurate diagnosis of infections
to avoid an overdose of antibiotics, prevention of infection, judicious use of
antimicrobial agents and controlling transmission of these MDROs.
•• Poor hygiene and sanitation: In healthcare settings and patients recovering
at home infected by MDROs, maintaining proper hygiene and sanitation is
of utmost importance as poor sanitation would be conducive to the growth
and transmission of MDROs. The burden of MDROs due to poor hygiene
and sanitation can be minimized by training the medical/technical staff (or,
attendants at home) and making them aware of the importance of proper
hygiene in the healthcare sector and also at home.
15.5 Extent
Studies prove that the MDROs can spread from person to person through
direct contact; or via medication cart handles, bed rails, intravenous poles, and
catheters. Many times, it is observed that MDRO may be present in the human
body, but may not cause any sickness, a process known as “colonization”. For
example, the presence of Staphylococcus aureus on the skin may not always
fall sick; and those falling sick may be elderly people, children or people with
decreased immunity on account of acute diseases, autoimmune diseases or
314
patients who underwent surgical procedures. Patients hospitalized in clinical Multidrug-resistant
facilities, especially Intensive Care Unit (ICU) patients, tend to have more risk Organisms
factors than non-hospitalized patients and have the highest infection rates.
Another concept that the readers need to be aware of is ‘decolonization’. This
term indicates treatment of MDRO caused infections in patients by controlling
the carriers of MDROs so that the infection in patients can be curtailed. However,
this method has its limitations, as it is not easy to study decolonization and the
efficacy is difficult to determine.
15.6 EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES

The occurrence of emerging infectious diseases has increased over the world in
the last three decades with 30 new agents discovered worldwide, and this trend is
expected to continue in future. India, being a developing country also has been a
hub of emerging infectious diseases due to its geographical location, prevailing
climate, the socio-economic structure of the society and, most importantly, the
environmental factors. In recent years, there has been the emergence and re-
emergence of various infectious diseases, most of which are of zoonotic origin.
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) include new, previously undefined diseases
as well as old diseases with new features, such as the introduction of a disease
to a new location or a new population, an increase in the incidence and spread
of the disease, or new features such as resistance to available treatments. Re-
emerging infectious disease is a disease that was once endemic, and had been
eradicated, but has again reappeared after that.
This is a challenging situation for the healthcare sector that has repercussions for
economic development as well. The distribution of emerging and re-emerging
pathogens by groups shows that 37 per cent of emerging and re-emerging
pathogens are viruses and prions followed by protozoa (25%). This indicates that
emerging and re-emerging pathogens are disproportionately viruses (Woolhouse
et. al., 2005). For example, the first severe infectious disease to emerge in the
21st century is the SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), which was first
reported in Guangdong province of China in 2003 and thereafter spread to 30
countries in the world. The SARS virus is reported to originate possibly from
civet cats, caused thousands of deaths within a short period and caused a loss
of 10-30 billion USD in Asia alone (WHO, 2007). Besides, H1N1 influenza,
another EID, was reported in March 2009 from Mexico, which had spread to the
entire world including India by September 2009. World Health Organization
(WHO) had reported more than 17,000 deaths worldwide; of which the United
States alone witnessed 12,000 deaths.
The complete picture of EID in India from 1990 to 2011 can be understood in
Figure 15.1. Some of these EIDs include the epidemic cholera of 1992 caused by
Vibrio cholerae O139. The epidemic originated in southern peninsular India and
spread both inland and along the coastline of the Bay of Bengal. The epidemic
Plague outbreak of 1994, 2002 and 2004 in India are other examples of EIDs.
The National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) has identified the junction
of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu; the Beed belt in Maharashtra,
Rohru in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand as focal points of the plague
outbreak in India; with the worst affected being 1994 plague outbreak of Surat
in Gujarat.
315
Security And
Development Issues
Fig. 15.1: Recognized site(s) of emerging and re-emerging infections in

India, 1990-2011 (NCBI, 2013).
The incidence of diphtheria, a vaccine-preventable disease during 1980 was
later reduced. However, diphtheria outbreaks from various States including
Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Maharashtra and Gujarat have been reported
due to inadequate vaccination/booster doses.
The Nipah virus was first recognized in 1999 during an outbreak among pig
farmers in Malaysia. Since then, there have been 12 additional outbreaks, all in
South Asia. Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are the natural hosts for the
Nipah virus. Evidence shows that the geographical distribution of Henipavirus
(Nipah and Hendra) overlaps with that of Pteropus. Over the years, the
epidemiology of Nipah appears to have changed. Evidence of person-to-person
transmission and a high case fatality rate (60-70%) were some of the alarming
developments seen in Nipah outbreaks in India (2001) and Bangladesh (2001,
2006). Nipah virus has also been categorized as a foodborne disease from eating
dates contaminated with urine or saliva of infected bats.
The Nipah virus led to a high fatality in India in 2001, which was first
recognized in 1999 during an outbreak among pig farmers in Malaysia. Fruit
bats of the Pteropodidae family are the natural hosts for the Nipah virus. Later,
Rhabdoviridae led to an outbreak of febrile illness in 1965 in the Chandipura
(Nagpur) region and was named as Chandipura (CHP) virus and is transmitted
to humans by sandflies. CHP virus outbreaks have been reported in Andhra
Pradesh (2003), Gujarat (2004) and Maharashtra (2007). Chikungunya fever,
316
caused by the chikungunya virus, was first reported in Tanzania in 1953; which Multidrug-resistant
was later reported in India again in 2006. Almost 22 States and Union Territories Organisms
of India have reported cases of chikungunya over the years.
Avian influenza is an infection caused by Influenza A (H5N1) viruses, usually
infecting poultry animals and pigs. Bird flu was first reported in Navapur tehsil of
Nandurbar district of Maharashtra, and at many places in India in 2002-03.
The pandemic HINI influenza virus emerged in humans in early April 2009 in
Mexico and California which later spread worldwide by human transmission.
Another EID that deserves a mention is Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever
(CCHF) caused by CCHF virus that circulates in an enzootic tick-vertebrate-
tick cycle. A rapid outbreak of CCHF virus was reported in Gujarat in 2011
that spread via human transmission. Early laboratory diagnosis and containment
measures helped in combating the disease promptly.
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) characterized by fever and seizures affects
children below 10 years of age and the states affected most by it include Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Assam and West Bengal. AES often occurs in outbreaks during
summer or following the rains.
Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) or Monkey Fever Disease was first discovered
in 1957 in the Kyasanur forest of Shimoga district, Karnataka. Later, in 2016,
it was reported in Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, where about 650 people were
affected.
Further, Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) in 2017 reported a
total of 1683 outbreak of Emerging Infectious Diseases, out of which 71% of
these EIDs was caused by viral pathogens while the remaining 29% were by
non-viral pathogens. It was also observed that 30% of the outbreaks were febrile
rash syndromes such as measles, rubella and chickenpox, while gastroenteritis
and arboviral diseases contributed 20 and 17%, respectively.
1. What are Multidrug-Resistant Organisms?
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2. What are Emerging Infectious Diseases? Give a few examples.
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Security And 15.7 MECHANISM
Development Issues
The mechanism of spread of MDROs infections is by direct contact- either
with an infected person’s body fluids- such as blood, drainage from a wound,
urine, bowel movements (stool), or sputum (phlegm). They can also be spread
by contact with equipment or surfaces that might be bearing germs. However, it
is to be kept in mind that contact, such as touching or hugging, will not spread
MDROs.
The chances of MDRO infection are higher in elderly people or people who
underwent surgery recently. Also at risk are people with chronic illness or
people hospitalized for a longer duration. Further, if a person has a weakened
immune system or open wounds/sores or tubes/drains in the body, he is more
likely to be infected with MDROs.
15.8 IMPACTS
MDROs cause infections in almost any part of the body.
A. Bloodstream: MDROs in the bloodstream may lead to serious infection,
which at times can be life-threatening. The epidemiology of MDROs
during bloodstream infection (BSI) and associated risks of MDROs
among patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) in France was studied by
Dinh et. al. (2016) and it was observed that the occurrence of MDROs in
BSI in an SCI population is quite frequent; however, no associated risks
were identified that would aid in optimizing antibiotic treatment.
B. Lungs: Infection of MDROs in the lungs can lead to pulmonary infections,
pneumonia and tuberculosis and treatment is based on a combination of
various antibiotics.
C. Urinary tract: The most common causal organism for urinary tract
infections (UTIs) by MDROs is Enterobacteriaceae. Infectious Diseases
Society of America has issued guidelines that for patients suffering
from MDROs induced UTIs, antibiotic therapy should be based on data
about local resistance data, supply/ prevalence of drugs and antibiotic
intolerance history of treated patients.
D. Wounds: In various studies, MDROs are aggravating the infections,
especially in patients having open wounds or sores.
E. Skin: MDROs are most likely to enter the human body if there is an open
wound, sore or boils in the skin. An example of the same is Methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria that causes infections
in different parts of the body once it enters through the skin.
F. Surgical site: Surgical sites are very much prone to infections by MDROs,
especially people who have undergone recent surgery, or are having tubes
and drains in the body, are at higher risk of contracting MDROs based
infections.

318 Management of MDROs is a challenging domain due to their limited ability
to respond to common antibiotics. However, it is seen that a combination of Multidrug-resistant
antibiotics is many times successful in treating MDROs based infections. Organisms
Various agencies such as the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
suggest following strictly the prescription of antibiotics by doctors and not
leaving it mid-way.
Another approach is handwashing – one of the most effective methods to limit
the spread of MDROs. Healthcare professionals are trained to wash their hands
with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds or use an alcohol-based hand
sanitizer before and after treating each patient. Besides, all healthcare personnel
are trained to clean their hands after touching any surface, patient care items,
equipment, and room surfaces and after removing protective clothing. This
can also be corroborated by preparing a checklist to ensure all areas were
cleaned. This approach has been very significant during times of the COVID-19
pandemic to control the spread of coronaviruses as well. Further, vaccination
against resistant micro-organisms will also be effective in combating infection
against MDROs.
However, outside a healthcare setting, it is essential to wash hands properly with
soap and water on coming in contact with such person and wash clothes/towels
etc. that were used during contact with the person. In case, a patient infected
with MDRO needs care at home, the attendant or caretaker needs to follow a
similar procedure of washing hands with soap and water before and after coming
in contact with the sick patient infected with MDROs. Not only this, bedsheets,
towels, gloves and the room of the patient should be cleaned and disinfected
regularly. Also, care should be taken to use disposable gloves, gowns or masks
and other materials as much as possible, that can be disposed of safely. Further,
it becomes essential to notify the healthcare professionals monitoring the patient
about his/her infection with MDROs. Further, patients with an MDRO infection
are usually isolated or share a room with other patients having similar infections
by MDROs. Control of MDROs in a healthcare setting requires a different set
of protocols; e.g., on visiting a patient in a hospital, it is advisable to wash hands
before entering/leaving the room and wearing disposable gloves or gowns.
It is pertinent to mention that the primary responsibility for spreading awareness
about MDROs and infection thereof lies in hospitals and other healthcare facilities.
These monitor the spread of MDROs and educate technical staff and caregivers
on the best ways to prevent it. The training is provided for maintaining adequate
hygiene, daily cleaning, use of antibiotics and use of protective clothing.
Further, there are various control interventions, that include the following:
1. Administrative Support: It is believed that for successfully controlling
the MDROs, the most important step is administrative support and
involvement which requires committed human resources. Examples
include:
•• Ensuring effective communications by implementing system changes.
This includes computer alerts to identify patients with a history of
MDROs infections.
•• Providing appropriate facilities for reducing infections due to direct
contact. This includes installing washbasins/sinks for washing hands
with soap and water or sanitizers/alcohol-based handwash dispensers.
319
Security And •• Maintaining adequate staff for proper care of patients hospitalized
Development Issues with MDROs.
•• Enforcing mechanism to implement adherence to recommended
infection control practices.
•• Administrative interventions in controlling transmission rates of
MDROs.
•• Participation in local, regional, national or global collaborations for
combating MDROs caused infections.
2. Judicious Use of Antimicrobials: The CDC Campaign to Prevent
Antimicrobial Resistance was launched in 2002 to emphasize on judicious
use of antimicrobials. This aspect focuses on the effective antimicrobial
treatment of infections, use of narrow-spectrum agents, avoiding longer
duration of therapy, educating about side-effects of MDROs; academic
interventions to counteract pharmaceutical influences on prescribing
patterns; computer-assisted management programs; and active efforts to
remove redundant antimicrobial combinations.
3. Surveillance: Surveillance is a critically important component of any
MDRO control program, and is of both routine and enhanced surveillance
nature. This allows early identification of newly emerging pathogens,
monitoring epidemiologic trends, and measuring the effectiveness of
interventions. The simplest form of MDRO surveillance is the monitoring
of clinical microbiology isolates resulting from tests ordered as part of
routine clinical care for detecting the emergence of new MDROs not
previously detected. Another aspect is determining MDRO incidence
based on clinical culture results.
4. Standard and Contact Precautions: CDC has recommended the use
of Standard and Contact Precautions for MDROs since 1996 to prevent
MDROs transmission. Standard precautions are significant in preventing
MDRO transmission, even in facilities that use Contact Precautions for
patients with an identified MDRO, i.e., from potentially colonized patients,
because many times, colonization with MDROs can go undetected due to
lack of sensitivity, or intermittent colonization due to antimicrobial therapy.
Therefore, Standard Precautions must be used to prevent transmission.
Hand hygiene is an important component of Standard Precautions. On the
other hand, contact precautions are intended to prevent the transmission
of infectious agents, which are transmitted by direct or indirect contact
with the patient or the patient’s environment.
5. Environmental Measures: The potential role of environmental reservoirs,
such as surfaces and medical equipment, in the transmission of VRE
and other MDROs has been reported in several studies, which has led
to interventions such as dedicated cleaning staff and increased cleaning
and disinfection of frequently touched surfaces. Therefore, monitoring
for adherence to recommended environmental cleaning practices is an
important determinant for success in controlling the transmission of
MDROs and other pathogens in the environment.
6. Decolonization: Decolonization is a concept that implies the treatment
320 of persons colonized with a specific MDRO, usually MRSA, wherein
the carrier organism of MDRO is eradicated. Most healthcare facilities Multidrug-resistant
have limited the use of decolonization to MRSA outbreaks, or other high Organisms
prevalence situations.
7. Need for Coordinated Action: The above facts indicate that combating
MDRO calls for a coordinated action plan and following a multisectoral
approach by engaging stakeholders from the health sector, policy
formulation, researchers and academicians to attain better public health
outcomes. The launch of various programmes such as the Global Action
Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP), the Antimicrobial Resistance
Multi-Partner Trust Fund (AMR MPTF), and the Global Antibiotic
Research & Development Partnership (GARDP), AMR Action Fund and
other initiatives could bridge the existing gap in MDRO studies. The
Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP) framework was
set out in the Global Action Plan (GAP) on AMR during the 2015 World
Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation
of multisectoral national action plans to slow the emergence and reduce the
spread of AMR. Besides, Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial
Resistance was declared by United Nations General Assembly in New
York in September 2016, which also emphasized on multisectoral approach
by engaging human resources as well as environmental health sectors.
The Interagency Coordination Group on AMR submitted its report “No
time to wait: Securing the future from drug-resistant infections” to the UN
Secretary-General in April 2019.
Not only this, World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW),
previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week is celebrated since
2015 to include all antimicrobials including antibiotics, antifungals,
antiparasitic and antivirals and encourages best practices among the
general public, health workers and policymakers.
Further, WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use
Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to continue filling knowledge
gaps by collecting, analysing, interpreting and sharing data by countries.
It monitors the status of existing and new national surveillance systems,
provides technical support to countries and facilitates enrolment into
GLASS. The Global Research and Development priority setting for
AMR was again set up in 2017, to guide research and development
into new antimicrobials, diagnostics and vaccines by the WHO. Global
Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP) is a
not-for-profit global partnership developing treatments for drug-resistant
infections that pose the greatest threat to health.
1. Describe the spread of infection by MDROs.
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Security And 2. What is decolonization?
Development Issues ……………………………………………………………………………
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15.10 LET US SUM UP

For a developing country such as India, the emerging infections, particularly
due to MDROs remain a real challenge due to its large population structure,
geographical location and limitations in the healthcare sector. Thus, combating
MDRO caused infections calls for a multi-pronged strategy for combating
emerging and re-emerging infections. Centre of excellence and high-end
research facility should be set up to develop partnerships between public
health organizations and research institutes to improve their scientific capacity,
share best practices and expand the knowledge domain as far as MDROs are
concerned. Besides, adequate efforts are also needed to develop surveillance
tools, diagnostic tests, vaccines and therapeutics through basic as well as applied
research. Fast diagnosis and appropriate treatment call for the appointment of
well-trained and committed staff. Besides, commitment and comprehensive
efforts are also necessary at all levels of health services to meet the threat
of emerging and re-emerging infections. This calls for appropriate policy
formulations keeping scientific temperament and spirit of enquiry among the
healthcare workers and researchers.
15.11 KEY WORDS

Multidrug-resistant Organisms (MDROs): In general, bacteria (excluding
M. tuberculosis) that are resistant to one or more classes of antimicrobial
agents and usually are resistant to all but one or two commercially available
antimicrobial agents (e.g., MRSA, VRE, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase
[ESBL]-producing or intrinsically resistant gram-negative bacilli).
Abbreviations
AMR MPTF: Antimicrobial Resistance Multi-Partner Trust Fund
AMR: Anti-Microbial Resistance
CCHF: Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever
CDC: Centre for Disease Control and Prevention
ECDC: European Centre for Disease Control
EIDs: Emerging Infectious Diseases
GAP: Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance
GARDP: Global Antibiotic Research & Development Partnership
IDSP: Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme
322 KFD: Kyasanur Forest Disease

MDR: Multidrug-Resistant Multidrug-resistant
Organisms
MDROs: Multidrug-Resistant Organisms
MRSA: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
NCDC: National Centre for Disease Control
PDRO: Pandrug Resistant organisms
SARS: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
XDRO: Extensively Drug-Resistant Organisms

REFERENCES
•• Cohen M. L. Changing patterns of infectious
disease. Nature. 2000;406(6797):762–767. doi: 10.1038/35021206.
•• Dinh A, Saliba M, Saadeh D, Bouchand F, Descatha A, Roux AL, Davido B,
Clair B, Denys P, Annane D, Perronne C, Bernard L. Bloodstream infections
due to multidrug-resistant organisms among spinal cord-injured patients,
epidemiology over 16 years and associated risks: a comparative study.
Spinal Cord. 2016 Sep;54(9):720-5. doi: 10.1038/sc.2015.234. Epub 2016
Feb 16. PMID: 26882486.
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Costar D, Gale B, Schiff G, Miller K, Earl T, Katapodis N, Sheedy C,
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•• IOM (1998), eds. Harrison, P. F. Lederberg, J. (National Academy Press,
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PhD; Linda Chiarello, RN MS; the Healthcare Infection Control Practices
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mdro/
•• Magiorakos A.-P., Srinivasan A., Carey R. B., et al. Multidrug-
resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an
international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired
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doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03570.x.
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drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa acquisition. BMC Health Services
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National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health & Family Welfare,
Ministry of Health, Government of India; 2005. Disease burden in India:
estimations and causal analysis.
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cohorting and ‘superisolation’ in a single intensive care unit in response
to an outbreak of diverse multi-drug resistant organisms. Surgical
Infections. 12(5):345–350. doi: 10.1089/sur.2010.076.
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tomorrow. Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. 29(2):91–92.
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reemerging pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis.11:1842–7
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Organization; 2007. World Health Report 2007
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definitions.pdf
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February 2022)
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(Accessed 08 February 2022)

324
Unit 16 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
GOALS
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 The concept of Sustainable Development
16.4 Genesis of Sustainable Development Goals
16.5 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
16.6 SDG 13: Take Urgent Action to Combat Climate Change and its Impacts
16.7 India’s Progress and Preparedness towards SDG 13
16.7.1 National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
16.7.2 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution
16.8 Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Key Words
16.1 INTRODUCTION
We can recall from the previous units and can categorically state that climate
change challenges the existence of humanity; it is a reality and calls for urgent
action at the global and national levels. According to UNFCC, “the global nature
of climate change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and
their participation in an effective and appropriate international response, to
accelerate the reduction of global greenhouse gas emissions.” In this context,
the year 2015 marked a milestone in humanity’s efforts towards building a
better and more sustainable future for everyone. In 2015 “the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs)” were agreed by 193 member states of the United
Nations and complemented by commitments made in the Paris Agreement which
map out a broad spectrum of economic, social and environmental objectives
to be achieved by 2030. “The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
having 17 interconnected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169
targets is a global plan of action for people, planet and prosperity”. Among
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) specified in the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, climate change is not only one of the SDGs, but it
impacts most of the other SDGs as well. It is a threat enhancer, with the potential
to negatively affect humanity’s greatest challenges including health, poverty,
hunger, inequality and ecosystem preservation, among others. Addressing
climate change also offers humanity’s greatest chance to positively impact these
goals.
India also adopted two transformative agreements within the span of a few
months: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Paris Climate
Change Agreement. The 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement share the
Security And purpose of creating a more resilient, productive and healthy environment
Development Issues for present and future generations. These two agreements though adopted
separately, nevertheless, share the common goal of building a climate-safe
future that is more sustainable, resilient and prosperous for all. The SDGs are
global goals and they are built upon the erstwhile Millennium Development
Goals. These goals are exhaustive, universal and integrated and emphasize
core areas of poverty and inequality, economic growth, innovation, sustainable
consumption and production, climate change, peace and justice and partnerships.
In this unit, we will discuss the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; the
genesis of Sustainable Development Goals; SDG 13 which demands “urgent
action to combat climate change and its impacts”; and India’s progress and
preparedness for achieving SDG 13.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
goals;
•• discuss the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Sustainable
Development Goals;
•• recognise SDG 13- take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts; and
•• review India’s progress and preparedness on SDGs 13.
16.3 THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
The term “Sustainable Development” was first coined in 1972 at the United
Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm. The most
important publication on “Sustainable Development” is the publication by
the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) or the
Bruntland Commission report in 1987 titled “Our Common Future”. The World
Commission on Environment and Development was initiated by the General
Assembly of the United Nations in 1982, and its report, Our Common Future,
was published in 1987. It was chaired by then Prime Minister of Norway, Gro
Harlem Brundtland, thus earning the name the “Brundtland Commission.”
The report was published to link the issues of economic development and
environmental stability and the oft-cited definition of sustainable development
was provided as “development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
(United Nations General Assembly, 1987, p. 43). In other words, it is improving
the quality of life of the present generation without excessive use or abuse of
natural resources, so that they can be preserved for the next generation. Its roots
were in the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment where
326 the conflicts between environment and development were first acknowledged.
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Sustainable
in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the so-called “Earth Summit”) issued a declaration Development Goals
of principles, a detailed Agenda 21 of desired actions, international agreements
on climate change and biodiversity, and a statement of principles on forests.
Ten years later, in 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
Johannesburg, South Africa, the commitment to sustainable development was
reaffirmed.
Box 16.1: Sustainable Development: From Our Common Future (WCED,
1987)
•• “Humanity can make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does
imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present
state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and
by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But
technology and social organization can be both managed and improved to
make way for a new era of economic growth. The Commission believes that
widespread poverty is no longer inevitable. Poverty is not only an evil in
itself, but sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all
and extending to all the opportunities to fulfil their aspirations for a better
life. A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological
and other catastrophes”.
•• “Meeting essential needs requires not only a new era of economic growth
for nations in which the majority are poor but an assurance that those poor
get their fair share of the resources required to sustain that growth. Such
equity would be aided by political systems that secure effective citizen
participation in decision making and by greater democracy in international
decision making”.
•• “Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent
adopt lifestyles within the planet’s ecological means - in their use of
energy, for example. Further, rapidly growing populations can increase the
pressure on resources and slow any rise in living standards; thus sustainable
development can only be pursued if population size and growth are in
harmony with the changing productive potential of the ecosystem”.
•• “Yet in the end, sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony,
but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the
direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and
institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs.
We do not pretend that the process is easy. Painful choices have to be made”.
16.4 GENESIS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

GOALS
In 2000, the Millennium Summit was held in New York, which resulted in the
UN Millennium Declaration. The Millennium Declaration resulted in a set
of targets to be achieved by 2015 that included environmental sustainability,
the eradication of extreme poverty and equality for women, now known as 327
Security And the Millennium Development Goals. In 2000, 189 countries agreed under the
Development Issues umbrella of the United Nations on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
by signing the Millennium Declaration. According to the UN Declaration, the
MDGs were to be achieved in a timeline of 15 years and, thus, they expired in
2015. The MDGs were composed of eight goals: seven social goals (namely
eradicating hunger, promoting education and gender equality, reducing child
mortality, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, creating a
global partnership for development) and one environmental goal (ensuring
environmental sustainability). The MDGs reflected, indeed, the idea at that
time that health and education were crucial drivers of development, thus
sustainability and development were to be achieved by goals mostly focused
on the improvement of individuals’ conditions. The era of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) which mobilized attention on addressing the
challenges of extreme poverty, hunger, illiteracy and disease came to an end in
2015.
World Summit on Sustainable Development which was held in Johannesburg
renewed international commitment to the pursuit of sustainable development with
the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI); 2012 resulted in an outcome
document “The Future We Want”. In the document, the States reaffirmed the
commitments to all previous sustainable development agreements, plans and
targets. They also committed to developing a suite of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) building on the priorities identified in Agenda 21 and the JPOI
and decided to replace the Commission for Sustainable Development with a
‘high-level political forum’ to progress implementation of Agenda 21 and the
JPOI, and the achievement of the SDGs. The Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) were agreed upon at the United Nations in New York in September
2015.
16.5 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Since its inception in 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has
provided a blueprint for shared prosperity in a sustainable world. The 17 Goals
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development came into force on 1 January
2016. These SDGs are a “universal set of goals and targets agreed by 194 UN
member states to guide their development policies and initiatives over the next
15 years”. The 2030 Agenda focuses on the “elimination of hunger and reduction
of poverty and inequality (opportunity, resource access, gender, and youth) in
all their forms”. The 2030 Agenda also buttress the Paris Agreement on climate
change by “promoting and facilitating energy efficiency and clean energy”.
It also aims to augment the resilience to extreme weather events and climate
change; protect the habitat and ecosystem; enhance resource use efficiency; and
enable sustainable production and consumption.
If we look at the history of SDGs, the Heads of State and Government
328 representatives, held a meeting at the United Nations Headquarters in New
York from 25-27th September 2015 and they agreed upon a new 2030 Agenda Sustainable
for Sustainable Development, which was built around 17 goals and 169 targets Development Goals
(UN, 2015). The 2030 Agenda and its seventeen Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), are much
broader in scope and ambition, encompassing the eradication of poverty and
hunger and improved health and nutrition; reduction of inequality; the building
of peaceful, just and inclusive societies; the protection of human rights; the
promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls; and
the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources.
The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are:

•• Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere;
•• Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture;
•• Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages;
•• Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote
lifelong learning opportunities for all;
•• Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls;
•• Goal 6: Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all;
•• Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
for all;
•• Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment and decent work for all;
•• Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation;
•• Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries;
•• Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable;
•• Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns;
•• Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts;
•• Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
for sustainable development;
•• Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss;
•• Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable
and inclusive institutions at all levels; and
•• Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development. 329
Security And The 2030 Agenda advocates “sustainable development in all of its three
Development Issues dimensions, for all countries (developing and developed), based on the
fundamental recognition and protection of human rights, dignity and equity”.
Further, SDGs endeavour to create a suitable environment for “sustainable,
inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity and decent work for
all, taking into account different levels of national development and capacities”
(http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7808e.pdf). These SDGs are ambitious and universal
and at the same time, they direct towards a path for nations to achieve fair,
equitable, inclusive and environment-friendly development. In other words, we
can say that human and environmental rights underpin the foundation of the
SDGs that demand robust and integrated actions nationally and also charted
out the role of different actors in the process. The SDGs being interdependent
require actions at all levels to attain the development outcomes.
1. Give an overview of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….…………………...........
2. What are Sustainable Development Goals?
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
16.6 SDG 13: TAKE URGENT ACTION TO

COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS
IMPACTS
According to the Sustainable Development Goals Report, 2019, the most urgent
area for action is climate change. There is an urgent need to contain the greenhouse
gases emissions so that the global average temperature doesn’t overshoot 2.0oC.
The impacts of climate change are catastrophic and irreversible; increasing
frequency and magnitude of disasters; ocean acidification; land degradation and
coastal erosion; and loss of biodiversity. Climate change affects the poor and
disadvantaged groups. They have the potential to impact agricultural production
leading to food shortages, famines and hunger. Further, climate change is
projected to displace up to 140 million people by 2050. According to the World
Meteorological Organization, 2018 was the fourth warmest year on record, with
the past four years (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018) being the four warmest years on
330
record. The world continues to experience rising sea levels, extreme weather
conditions and increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. Climate change Sustainable
is a cross-cutting and immediate threat to the achievement of the SDGs, and the Development Goals
survival and well-being of island nations and coastal communities. This calls for
urgent and accelerated action by countries as they implement the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development and their commitments to the Paris Agreement on
Climate Change.
Box 16.2: Status and Trends: Climate Change
Climate change is happening right now, and its effects are visible. The global mean
temperature for 2018 is estimated to be 0.99 ± 0.13 °C above the preindustrial
baseline, arctic temperatures exceptionally high relative to a long-term average,
and many countries experienced their warmest year on record. The impacts are
being felt all over the world and addressing these requires a robust two-pronged
approach: reduction in the greenhouse gas emissions, and adaptation planning.
As of February 2019, 185 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement. Parties to the
Paris Agreement are expected to prepare, communicate and maintain successive
nationally determined contributions (NDCs). As of 27 February 2019, 182
Parties (181 countries plus the European Commission) had communicated their
first NDCs to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Secretariat (UNFCCC).
Climate action requires efforts on mitigation, adaptation and means of
implementation – climate finance, technology and capacity building. Just as
problems are interrelated, the solutions to poverty, inequality, climate change
and other global challenges are also interlinked. Valuable opportunities exist
to accelerate progress by examining inter-linkages across goals. For example,
tackling climate change requires a shift to clean energy, reversing the trend in
forest loss, and changing our production and consumption patterns. Promoting
sustainable agriculture can help reduce both hunger and poverty since close to
80 per cent of those who are extremely poor live in rural areas. Increasing access
to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene can save millions of lives per year
and improve school attendance.
Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13 Climate Action) commits to take
“urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”, emphasizing the
globally agreed need to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and
adapt to the damages caused by climate change while acknowledging that the
“United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary
international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to
climate change.” The UNFCCC acknowledges that “the global nature of climate
change calls for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their
participation in an effective and appropriate international response, following
their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and
their social and economic conditions.”
To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and implement the Paris
Agreement, developed and developing countries alike will need to transform
their energy systems, ecosystem management, agriculture and land use, urban
management, material use, gender outcomes, health, education, governance
and other areas. Goal 13 in particular focuses on the “urgent action” required 331
Security And to “combat climate change and its impacts”, thus incorporating both climate
Development Issues change mitigation and climate change adaptation. Its scope includes three
targets: 13.1- strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related
hazards and natural disasters in all countries; 13.2- integrate climate change
measures into national policies, strategies, and planning; and 13.3- improve
education, awareness-raising and human institutional capacity on climate
change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and early warning.
Box 16.3: Global Warming of 1.5°C Special Report
According to the “Global Warming of 1.5°C Special Report” from the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the world has already
warmed by 1°C, increasing the episodes and intensity of extreme weather
events. The report states that limiting global warming to 1.5°C is still possible
but would require “rapid and far-reaching” transitions in how we manage land,
energy, industry, buildings, transport and cities. Specifically, global net human-
caused emissions of carbon dioxide would need to fall by about 45 per cent
from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching “net zero” around 2050.
Achieving all other SDGs will be much more challenging without urgent climate
action, including those related to poverty, hunger, access to water, terrestrial and
marine ecosystems, health, gender equality and the empowerment of women
and girls, among others. Conversely, many of the goals and targets can also be
achieved in ways that would enable adaptive responses to climate change. The
energy transitions envisaged in SDG 7 would contribute significantly to lowering
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions relative to business-as-usual pathways.
From the perspective of protection of the climate system and GHG emission
reduction, UNFCCC and SDG 13 endeavour to strengthen and augment
resilience and adaptive capacity. The developing countries and low-income
countries in their pursuit of sustainable development, require climate change
interventions, which demand both “financial and technological inputs”.
BOX 16.4: Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is acknowledged
as the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global
response to climate change.
13.1: Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and
natural disasters in all countries.
13.2: Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and
planning.
13.3: Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional
capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and
early warning.
13.a: Implement the commitment undertaken by developed country Parties to
the UNFCCC to a goal of mobilizing jointly USD100 billion annually
by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of developing countries
332 in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on
implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through Sustainable
its capitalization as soon as possible. Development Goals
13.b: Promote mechanisms for raising capacities for effective climate change-
related planning and management, in LDCs, including focusing on women,
youth, and local and marginalized communities.
Source: http://www.cisdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SDG_13_
Climate_-_Issue_Brief__-_06.09.2016_-Final_-_UNEP.pdf
16.7 INDIA’S PROGRESS AND PREPAREDNESS

TOWARD SDG 13
In the previous section, you have got an idea of SDG - 13. In this section, we
will discuss, India’s preparedness and progress toward SDG 13. We know that
India has signed and ratified the Paris Agreement, making it obligatory for it
to reach its commitments. India is also a signatory among 192 nations to the
2030 Global Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Government of India
has entrusted NITI Aayog, with coordinating the SDG Agenda in India and
has asked the states to prepare action plans and has also embarked upon an
exercise to develop national indicators for the 17 Goals, besides undertaking
consultations on specific goals. NITI Aayog is expected to come up with the
long-term vision (2015-30) and medium-term plan (2015-22), in response to
which it recently developed a short-term action agenda. NITI Aayog has carried
out a draft mapping of goals and targets against existing schemes and these
goals have been assigned to respective ministries. There is also active at the
state level, with states asked to put forward their plans for implementing the
SDGs to NITI Aayog, looking at the SDGs as a guiding framework for their
long-term development strategy. This includes a proposal to introduce an SDG
charter for each government ministry. The MoEFCC has been assigned the
responsibility of three goals (Goal 12, 13 and 15) directly where they need to
coordinate with different ministries on individual targets. Further, they have
partial responsibility for another seven goals for which they will engage with
other ministries. NITI Aayog is also given the responsibility to develop an energy
policy in light of India’s commitment to the Paris Agreement. The MoEFCC has
designed the Nationally Determined Contributions with consultations from state
governments, ministries and civil societies.
16.7.1 NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(NAPCC)
In this section, we will discuss the National Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) and other initiatives by the Government of India. The NAPCC
consists of eight National Missions namely:
•• Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission;
•• National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency;
•• National Mission on Sustainable Habitat; 333
Security And •• National Water Mission;
Development Issues •• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture;
•• National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem;
•• National Mission for a Green India; and
•• National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
Under these initiatives, the Government has been able to make significant
progress toward achieving SDG and SDG 13. Apart from these initiatives, the
Indian government set up the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in 2010
to finance and promote clean energy initiatives along with the allocation
of resources for clean energy research. Under Jawaharlal Nehru National
Solar Mission (JNNSM), the installation of solar photovoltaic (SPV) lights
and small capacity lights were done. The scope of the NCEF also includes
projects under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), which
are being implemented under the flagship programmes of “Grid-Interactive
and Distributive Renewable Power” and “Research, Design, Development
in Renewable Energy”. Several of the NAPCC missions (Energy Efficiency,
Water and Greening India, for example) offered opportunities for urban-scale
engagement, including one (the Mission on Sustainable Habitat) that focussed
explicitly on cities.
Following the development of the NAPCC, in 2009, the Government of India
asked state governments to follow this process in their respective states,
focussing specifically on developing policies and plans that align with the
eight NAPCC missions and the development priorities of each state. As of
October 2016, 32 states and union territories in India have State Action Plans on
Climate Change that have been endorsed by the National Steering Committee
on Climate Change (MoEFCC, 2016). The state plans seem to focus largely on
good sustainable development strategies, on adaptation rather than mitigation,
integrating their climate change action plans with the overall development goals
of the state.
Although India has done well on many sustainable development goals and
climate goals, much is yet desired to achieve sustainable development in the
real sense. First and foremost is the need for a clear road map to implement
the SDGs with identified roles for the state governments, and a monitoring
mechanism to measure progress. Public education and awareness are second
to none in terms of invoking people in the achievement of the SDGs. The
SDGs are more complex than to be achieved by the policies and government
programmes alone. The countries need to harness the energy, understanding
and participation of all stakeholders including the NGOs to make sustainable
development a reality.
Under the SDGs’ framework, actions under Goal 13 are largely based on the
outcomes of the climate change negotiations in the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The 2030 Agenda and the Paris
334 Agreement give us the tools to address the challenges posed by climate change,
poverty and inequality. We must use them judiciously. And, as UN Secretary- Sustainable
General António Guterres said “we need more action, more ambition and more Development Goals
political will. This will take unprecedented levels of collaborative, multilateral
action. It will take increased efforts not by nations alone, but by all segments of
society”.
16.7.2 Intended Nationally Determined Contri Bution

The Prime Minister of India, speaking at the SDGs Summit in the UN, in
September 2015 said, “Today, much of India’s development agenda is mirrored
in the Sustainable Development Goals. Since independence, we have pursued
the dream of eliminating poverty in India. We have chosen the path of removing
poverty by empowering the poor.” India’s institutional framework on climate
change is focused on achieving its pre-2020 commitments and the Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) rather than achieving SDGs in general or
SDG 13 in particular.
India’s effort in integrating climate change measures into national policies has
been focused on achieving pre-2020 commitment and its Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC) as also reflected by the national indicators. India agreed
in Copenhagen (2009) to reduce its energy intensity by 20-25% by 2020 over
the 2005 level. Through its INDC (2015), it voluntarily committed to reducing
its energy intensity by 30-35% by 2030 (over the 2005 level), achieving 40%
cumulative electric power installed capacity for the fossil fuel-based energy
resources by 2030 (conditional and transfer of technology and international
finance), and create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2
through additional forest cover. The National Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC,
2008) and State Action Plan/s on Climate Change are constrained by financial
support, appropriate institutional structure, meaningful monitoring and a clear
road map.
Box 16.5: India’s Commitments
India agreed to reduce its emission intensity by 20-25% by 2020 over the 2005
level. In the Paris Agreement, India’s NDC committed to achieving three targets:
•• 33% - 35% reduction in the energy intensity of its GDP by 2030 over 2005
(20-25% by 2020 over 2005 in the Copenhagen Accord);
•• 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity for the fossil fuel-based
energy resources by 2030 (conditional and transfer of technology and
international finance);
•• Additional carbon sinks of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2 through additional
forest cover.
1. Give an overview of SDG-13.
…………………………………………………………………………… 335
Security And ….………………………………………………………………………
Development Issues ………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
2. Discuss India’s preparedness for SDG-13.
……………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………
………………………………………………….………………………...
16.8 LET US SUM UP

It is clear that climate change threatens decades of development progress and
jeopardizes inclusive and sustainable growth. The SDGs framework provides
the best path for addressing this climate emergency in ways that help everyone,
in particular women, children, youth, older persons, persons with disabilities
and those living in small island developing states. We have discussed in this
unit the genesis of sustainable development and sustainable development goals;
recognized the urgency for climate action through SDG 13, and reviewed the
progress and preparedness of India toward SDG 13.
16.9 KEY WORDS

MDGs: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), endorsed by
governments at the United Nations in September 2000, aim to improve
human well-being by reducing poverty, hunger, child and maternal mortality,
ensuring education for all, controlling and managing diseases, tackling gender
disparity, ensuring sustainable development and pursuing global partnerships.
Paris Agreement (PA): At COP21 in 2015, after many years of negotiations,
countries signed the momentous Paris Agreement, setting out the global
expectations for dramatically reducing carbon emissions. The Paris Agreement
entered into force in November 2016 and lays out the overarching global goals
and framework for international climate action in the post-2020 period. Under
the PA, countries have pledged to keep global temperature increases below 2
degrees from pre-industrial times.
Green Climate Fund: Established by the UNFCCC, as an operating entity
of the financial mechanism to assist developing countries in mitigation of and
adaptation to practices to climate change.

REFERENCES
•• http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/durban_nov_2011/decisions/application/
pdf/cop17_durbanplatform.pdf.
•• http://www.cisdl.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SDG_13_Climate_-_
Issue_Brief__-_06.09.2016_-Final_-_UNEP.pdf
336 •• http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7808e.pdf
•• http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/Published Documents/India%20First/ Sustainable
INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC. pdf Development Goals
•• Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (2010). National Action Plan
on Climate Change. New Delhi: Government of India.
•• SDG 13 on Taking Action on Climate Change and its Impacts: Contributions
of International Law, Policy and Governance, Issue Brief, 2016
•• UN (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.
•• United Nations Development Group (2016). Mainstreaming the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development: Reference Guide for UN Country
Teams. UNDG, New York.
•• United Nations (2016). Global Sustainable Development Report: 2016
Edition. New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development.
•• WCED. (1987). Our Common Future. Ed. Gro Harlem Brundtland. World
Commission on Environment and Development. www.un-documents.net/
our-common-future.pdf

1. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has provided a blueprint
for shared prosperity in a sustainable world. The 2030 Agenda focuses
on the “elimination of hunger and reduction of poverty and inequality
(opportunity, resource access, gender, and youth) in all their forms”. The
2030 Agenda and its seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), are much broader
in scope and ambition, encompassing the eradication of poverty and
hunger and improved health and nutrition; reduction of inequality; the
building of peaceful, just and inclusive societies; the protection of human
rights; the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women
and girls; and the lasting protection of the planet and its natural resources.
The 2030 Agenda advocates “sustainable development in all of its three
dimensions, for all countries (developing and developed), based on the
fundamental recognition and protection of human rights, dignity and
equity”. Further, SDGs endeavour to create a suitable environment for
“sustainable, inclusive and sustained economic growth, shared prosperity
and decent work for all, taking into account different levels of national
development and capacities”.
2. The Sustainable Development Goals are a “universal set of goals and
targets agreed by 194 UN member states to guide their development
policies and initiatives over the next 15 years”. The 17 Goals of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development came into force on 1 January 2016.
1. Sustainable Development Goal 13 (SDG 13 Climate Action) commits to
take “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”, emphasizing
the globally agreed need to mitigate anthropogenic greenhouse gas 337
Security And emissions and adapt to the damages caused by climate change while
Development Issues acknowledging that the “United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum
for negotiating the global response to climate change.” The UNFCCC
acknowledges that “the global nature of climate change calls for the
widest possible cooperation by all countries and their participation in an
effective and appropriate international response, following their common
but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities and their
social and economic conditions.”
Goal 13 in particular focuses on the “urgent action” required to “combat
climate change and its impacts”, thus incorporating both climate change
mitigation and climate change adaptation. Its scope includes three
targets: 13.1- strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-
related hazards and natural disasters in all countries; 13.2- integrate
climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning;
and 13.3- improve education, awareness-raising and human institutional
capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction, and
early warning.
2. India has signed and ratified the Paris Agreement, making it obligatory
for it to reach its commitments. India is also a signatory among 192
nations to the 2030 Global Agenda for Sustainable Development. The
Government of India has entrusted NITI Aayog, with coordinating the
SDG Agenda in India and has asked the states to prepare action plans
and has also embarked upon an exercise to develop national indicators
for the 17 Goals, besides undertaking consultations on specific goals.
The MoEFCC has been assigned the responsibility of three goals (Goal
12, 13 and 15) directly where they need to coordinate with different
ministries on individual targets. Further, they have partial responsibility
for another seven goals for which they will engage with other ministries.
NITI Aayog is also given the responsibility to develop an energy policy
in light of India’s commitment to the Paris Agreement. The MoEFCC
has designed the Nationally Determined Contributions with consultations
from state governments, ministries and civil societies. India has launched
the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which consists of
eight National Missions.
India’s institutional framework on climate change is focused on
achieving its pre-2020 commitments and the Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) rather than achieving SDGs in general or SDG 13
in particular. India’s effort in integrating climate change measures into
national policies has been focused on achieving pre-2020 commitment
and its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) as also reflected by
the national indicators. India agreed in Copenhagen (2009) to reduce its
energy intensity by 20-25% by 2020 over the 2005 level. Through its
INDC (2015), it voluntarily committed to reducing its energy intensity by
30-35% by 2030 (over the 2005 level), achieving 40% cumulative electric
power installed capacity for the fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030
(conditional and transfer of technology and international finance), and
create an additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tonnes of CO2 through
additional forest cover.
338

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MEVE 019

BLOCK AND COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Air Pollution Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU

BLOCK 2 LAND AND SOIL ISSUES

Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principal Scientist, CESCRA, IARI,

BLOCK 3 WATER-RELATED ISSUES

Dr. Vikas Singhal, ARD, IGNOU (RC Delhi-1).

BLOCK 4 SECURITY AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

FORMAT EDITORS AND LANGUAGE EDITORS

1.3 DEFINITION OF AIR POLLUTION

1.4 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR

‘Respirable’ particles enter the blood

Less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) ‘Fine’ particles

Less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1) ‘Ultrafine’

1.4.2 SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

1.5 TROPOSPHERIC OZONE

12 Fig. 1.1 Mechanism of O3 generation in a chain reaction cycle

The concentrations of tropospheric ozone depend on the influence of various

1.5.3 Health Impacts

1.6 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1,2-Dichlorobenzene Methylene chloride Chlorethane

1,3-Dichlorobenzene Methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE) Chloroform

1,4-Dichlorobenzene 2-Propanol Cyclohexane

1,2-Dichloroethane Tetrachloroethene Heptane

1,1-Dichloroethene Tetrahydrofuran Toluene

NO2 >hν NO(g)+ O(g)

1.6.3 Management and Policy

1.7 ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION OF AIR

1.7.1 Photochemical Smog

20 Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 KEY WORDS

1.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.3 DEFINITION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

2.5 DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Fig. 2.1 Energy Budget of Earth and its atmosphere: A Schematic

2.6 EXTENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

From 1750 to 1994, a decrease in surface pH of 0.1 has

Fig. 2.2 Changing concentration of Greenhouse Gases

2.7 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

2.7.2 Heat Waves and Extreme Temperatures

2.7.3 Socioeconomic Impacts

2.7.4 Climate Change Impacts on Health

2.8 WHICH COUNTRY HAS CONTRIBUTED THE

BOX 2.5: Global Warming: The Key Contributors

2.9 POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE

2.10 IMPLICATIONS FOR POST-2015 DEVELOP-

2.11 LET US SUM UP

2.12 KEY WORDS

2.13 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/

2.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3.3 FORMATION AND DISSOCIATION OF OZONE

3.4 UV RADIATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

3.5 CAUSES OF OZONE DEPLETION

ClO + ClO 2Cl + O2 (vi)

Fig.3.1 Role of PSC on Ozone Depletion

44 Fig 3.2 Conversion of halogen gases to reactive halogen gases

Fig. 3.3 Ozone Depletion Process

Fig. 3.4 Destruction of Ozone by CFCs