Chemistry: The Study of Change

Chapter 1

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 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
Health and Medicine
Sanitation systems
Surgery with anesthesia
Vaccines and antibiotics
Gene therapy

Energy and the Environment

Fossil fuels
Solar energy
Nuclear energy
 Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century

Materials and Technology

Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals
Room-temperature superconductors?
Molecular computing?

Food and Agriculture

Genetically modified crops
“Natural” pesticides
Specialized fertilizers
The scientific method is a systematic approach to
research.

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set

of observations.

tested modified
A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same
under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration

A theory is a unifying principle that explains a

body of facts and/or those laws that are based on
them.

Atomic Theory
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes.
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
Classifications of Matter
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in
which the substances retain their distinct identities.
1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the mixture
is the same throughout

1. Heterogeneous mixture –
composition is not uniform
throughout
cement, iron filings
in sand
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into its
pure components.

magnet

distillatio
An element is a substance that cannot be separated
into simpler substances by chemical means.

118 elements have been identified

82 elements occur naturally on Earth
gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur
36 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium
A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two
or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their pure

components (elements) by chemical means.
A Comparison: The Three States of Matter
 Types of Changes
A physical change does not alter the composition or
identity of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting in water
A chemical change alters the
composition or identity of the
substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in
air to form water
 Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon how
much matter is being considered.
mass
length
volume

An intensive property of a material does not depend

upon how much matter is being considered.

density
temperature
color
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass

mass – measure of the quantity of matter

SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)

1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g
weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth
on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon
International System of Units (SI)
Base units ( m, L, g, s)
Volume – SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3)

1 to 1 relationship
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

mass
density =
volum
e

m
d V
=
 Room temp

*Measured at 1 atmosphere.
†Osmium (Os) is the densest element known.
Example 1.1
Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive.
It is used mainly in jewelry, dentistry, and electronic devices.
A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a volume of
15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.
Example 1.2
The density of mercury, the only metal that is a liquid at room
temperature, is 13.6 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 5.50 mL of the
liquid.
A Comparison of Temperature Scales

K = 0C + 273.15
273.15 K = 0 0C
373.15 K = 100 0C

9
0F = x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
Example 1.3
(a) Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic
circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of 224°C. What is its
melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

(b) Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at 2452°F.
Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius.

(c) Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature,
melts at 238.9°C. Convert its melting point to kelvins.
 Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
 Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n> n<
0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.000007720= 7.72 x 10-6
 Significant Figures
Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the
decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end
and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
Example 1.4
Determine the number of significant figures in the following
measurements:
(a) 478 cm
(b) 6.01 g
(c) 0.825 m
(d) 0.043 kg
(e) 1.310 × 1022 atoms
(f) 7000 mL
 Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.

89.332
+ 1. one significant figure after decimal point
1
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.7 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0
0.7867 round off to 0.79
 Significant Figures
Multiplication or
Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures.

4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 =

16.5
3 sig round to
figs 3 sig
figs
6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061
g ml g/
ml
2 sig round to
figs 2 sig
figs
 Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures.

The average of three measured lengths: 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 =
3 7

Because 3 is an exact number

Example 1.5
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct number
of significant figures:
(a) 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g

(b) 66.59 L − 3.113 L

(c) 8.16 m × 5.1355
(d) 0.0154 kg ÷ 88.3 mL
(e) 2.64 × 103 cm + 3.27 × 102 cm
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value
Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
 Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems

1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed

2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the problem
was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given
unit
Example 1.6
A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is 0.0833
pound (lb). What is this mass in milligrams (mg)?
(1 lb = 453.6 g.)
Example 1.7
An average adult has 5.2 L of blood. What is the volume of blood in
m3?
Example 1.10
The speed limit on most interstates is 70 miles per hour. Convert this
speed to meters per second given that
1 mi = 1.61 km