SKELETAL SYSTEM

Fig 6:The human skeleton http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/skeleton

3.1 Functions of the skeletal system

1) Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body
are attached.
2) Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the
surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.
3) Bodily movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems.
For this reason, they are often grouped together as the musculo-skeletal system. Muscles are
connected to bones by tendons. Bones are connected to each other by ligaments. Where bones
meet one another is typically called a joint. Muscles which cause movement of a joint are
connected to two different bones and contract to pull them together. An example would be the
contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. This produces a bend at the elbow. The
 contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening the
arm.
4) Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6
million red blood cells is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out
and destroyed by the liver.
5) Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an
excess is present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of these
minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

The human skeleton is divided into two distinct parts: The axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.

3.2 The Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of bones that form the axis of the body and support and protect the organs
of the head, neck, and trunk. It is made up of:

i) The Skull: The skull is the bony framework of the head. It consists of the eight cranial and
fourteen facial bones.
 Fig 6B: The human Skull http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull

A. The cranial bones makeup the protective frame of bone around the brain.
The cranial bones are:

• The fronta l forms part of the cranial cavity as well as the forehead, the brow ridges and the
nasal cavity.
• The left and right parietal forms much of the superior and lateral portions of the cranium.
• The left and right temporal form the lateral walls of the cranium as well as housing the external
ear.
 • The occipital forms the posterior and inferior portions of the cranium. Many neck muscles
attach here as this is the point of articulation with the neck.
• The sphenoid forms part of the eye orbit and helps to form the floor of the cranium.
• The ethmoid forms the medial portions of the orbits and the roof of the nasal cavity.

B. The facial bones makeup the upper and lower jaw and other facial structures.

The facial bones are:

• The mandible is the lower jawbone. It articulates with the temporal bones at the
temporomandibular joints. This forms the only freely moveable joint in the head. It provides the
chewing motion.
• The left and right maxilla are the upper jaw bones. They form part of the nose, orbits, and roof
of the mouth.
• The left and right palatine form a portion of the nasal cavity and the posterior portion of the roof
of the mouth.
• The left and right zygomatic are the cheek bones. They form portions of the orbits as well.
• The left and right nasal form the superior portion of the bridge of the nose.
• The left and right lacrimal help to form the orbits.
• The vomer forms part of the nasal septum (the divider between the nostrils).

ii) The Sternum:

The sternum is a flat, dagger shaped bone located in the middle of the chest. Along with the ribs, the
sternum forms the rib cage that protects the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from damage.

The sternum is composed of three parts:

• The manubrim, also called the "handle".
• The body, also called the "blade" or the "gladiolus", is located in the middle of the sternum and
connects the third to seventh ribs directly and the eighth through tenth ribs indirectly.
• The xiphoid process, also called the "tip", is located on the bottom of the sternum. It is often
cartilaginous (cartilage), but does become bony in later years.
These three segments of bone are usually fused in adults.

Fig 7: The thoracic cage http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoracic

iii) The Ribs: The ribs are thin, flat, curved bones that form a protective cage around the organs in the
upper body. They are comprised of 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs. These bones are divided into
three categories:

• The first seven bones are called the true ribs.

• The next three pairs of bones are called false ribs
• The last two sets of rib bones are called floating ribs. Floating ribs are smaller than both the true
ribs and the false ribs.
• The ribs form a kind of cage that encloses the upper body. They give the chest its familiar
shape.

The ribs serve several important purposes:

 • They protect the heart and lungs from injuries and shocks that might damage them.
• Ribs also protect parts of the stomach, spleen, and kidneys.
• The ribs help you to breathe. As you inhale, the muscles in between the ribs lift the rib cage up,
allowing the lungs to expand. When you exhale, the rib cage moves down again, squeezing the air
out of your lungs. iv) The Vertebral Column

Fig 8: The Vertebral Column http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vertebral column.

The vertebral column (also called the backbone, spine, or spinal column) consists of a series of 33
irregularly shaped bones, called vertebrae. These 33 bones are divided into five categories depending
on where they are located in the backbone.

• The first seven vertebrae are called the cervical vertebrae. Located at the top of the spinal
column, these bones form a flexible framework for the neck and support the head. The first cervical
vertebrae is called the atlas and the second is called the axis.
 Fig 9: The cervical vertebrae http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical vertebra

• The next twelve vertebrae are called the thoracic vertebrae. These bones move with the ribs to
form the rear anchor of the rib cage.
• After the thoracic vertebrae, come the lumbar vertebrae. These five bones are the largest
vertebrae in the spinal column.
• The sacrum is a triangular bone located just below the lumbar vertebrae. It consists of four or
five sacral vertebrae in a child, which become fused into a single bone after age 26.

The bottom of the spinal column is called the coccyx or tailbone. It consists of 3-5 bones that are fused
together in an adult. Many muscles connect to the coccyx.
Fig 10: Intervertebral Disc

These bones compose the vertebral column, resulting in a total of 26 movable parts in an adult. In
between the vertebrae are intervertebral discs made of fibrous cartilage that act as shock absorbers and
allow the back to move. As a person ages, these discs compress and shrink, resulting in a distinct
loss of height (generally between 0.5 and 2.0cm) between the ages of 50 and 55.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/disc

When looked at from the side, the spine forms four curves. These curves are called the cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, and pelvic curves. The cervical and lumbar curves are not present in an infant. The
cervical curves forms around the age of 3 months when an infant begins to hold its head up and the
lumbar curve develops when a child begins to walk.

In addition to allowing humans to stand upright and maintain their balance, the vertebral column serves
several other important functions. It helps to support the head and arms, while permitting freedom of
movement. It also provides attachment for many muscles, the ribs, and some of the organs and protects
the spinal cord, which controls most bodily functions.
3.3 The Appendicular Skeleton

The Appendicular skeleton is composed of bones that anchor the appendages to the axial skeleton.

i) The Upper Extremities

Fig 11:The Upper Extremities http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper Extremity

The upper extremity consists of three parts: the arm, the forearm, and the hand.

The arm, or brachium, is technically only the region between the shoulder and elbow. It consists of a
single long bone called the humerus. The humerus is the longest bone in the upper extremity. The top,
or head, is large, smooth, and rounded and fits into the scapula in the shoulder. On the bottom of the
humerus, are two depressions where the humerus connects to the ulna and radius of the forearm.
Together, the humerus and the ulna make up the elbow. The bottom of the humerus protects the ulnar
nerve and is commonly known as the "funny bone" because striking the elbow on a hard surface
stimulates the ulnar nerve and produces a tingling sensation.

The forearm is the region between the elbow and the wrist. It is formed by the radius on the lateral side
and the ulna on the medial side when the forearm is viewed in the anatomical position. The ulna is
longer than the radius and connected more firmly to the humerus. The radius, however, contributes
more to the movement of the wrist and hand than the ulna. The hand consists of three parts (the wrist,
palm, and five fingers) and 27 bones.

The wrist, or carpus, consists of 8 small bones called the carpal bones that are tightly bound by
ligaments. These bones are arranged in two rows of four bones.

Fig 12 : The shoulder joint

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shoulder
ii) The Lower Extremities

Fig 13: The Lower Extremities

The lower extremity is composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot, and the patella (commonly
known as the kneecap).

The thigh is the region between the hip and the knee and is composed of a single bone called the femur
or thighbone. The femur is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the body.

The leg is technically only the region from the knee to the ankle. It is formed by the fibula on side
away from the body (lateral side) and the tibia, also called the shin bone, on the side nearest the body
(medial side). The tibia connects to the femur to form the knee joint and with the talus, a foot bone, to
allow the ankle to flex and extend. The tibia is larger than the fibula because it bears most of the
weight, while the fibula serves as an area for muscle attachment.

The foot, or pes, contains the 26 bones of the ankle, instep, and the five toes. The ankle, or tarsus, is
composed of the 7 tarsal bones which correspond to the carpals in the wrist. The largest tarsal bone is
called the calcaneus or heel bone. The talus rests on top of the calcaneus and is connected to the
tibia.The metatarsal and phalanges bones of the foot are similar in number and position to the
metacarpal and phalanges bones of the hand.

The patella or kneecap is a large, triangular sesamoid bone between the femur and the tibia. It is
formed in response to the strain in the tendon that forms the knee. The patella protects the knee joint
and strengthens the tendon that forms the knee.

The bones of the lower extremities are the heaviest, largest, and strongest bones in the body because
they must bear the entire weight of the body when a person is standing in the upright position.

iii) The Shoulder Girdle: also called the Pectoral Girdle, is composed of four bones: two clavicles and
two scapulae.

The clavicle, commonly called the collarbone, is a slender S-shaped bone that connects the upper arm
to the trunk of the body and holds the shoulder joint away from the body to allow for greater freedom
of movement.

The scapula is a large, triangular, flat bone on the back side of the rib cage commonly called the
shoulder blade. It has a shallow depression called the glenoid cavity that the head of the humerus
(upper arm bone) fits into.

Usually, a "girdle" refers to something that encircles or is a complete ring. However, the shoulder
girdle is an incomplete ring. In the front, the clavicles are separated by the sternum. In the back, there
is a gap between the two scapulae.

The primary function of the pectoral girdle is to provide an attachment point for the numerous muscles
that allow the shoulder and elbow joints to move. It also provides the connection between the upper
extremities
(the arms) and the axial skeleton
iv) The Pelvic Girdle--(the sacrum and coccyx are considered part of the vertebral column).

Fig 14: The Pelvic Girdle

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvis

It is also called the hip girdle, is composed to two coxal (hip) bones. During childhood, each coxal
bone consists of three separate parts: the ilium , the ischium , and the pubis . In an adult, these three
bones are firmly fused into a single bone.

The pelvic girdle serves several important functions in the body. It supports the weight of the body
from the vertebral column. It also protects and supports the lower organs, including the urinary
bladder, the reproductive organs, and the developing fetus in a pregnant woman. The pelvic girdle
differs between men and woman. In a man, the pelvis is more massive and the iliac crests are closer
together. In a woman, the pelvis is more delicate and the iliac crests are farther apart. These differences
reflect the woman's role in pregnancy and delivery of children. When a child is born, it must pass
through its mother's pelvis. If the opening is too small, a cesarean section may be necessary.

3.4.1 Types of Bones

The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and
irregular bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide and work as levers. The bones of the upper
and lower extremities (ex. humerus, tibia, femur, ulna, metacarpals, etc.) are of this type. Short bones
are short, cube-shaped, and found in the wrists and ankles. Flat bones have broad surfaces for
protection of organs and attachment of muscles (ex. ribs, cranial bones, bones of shoulder girdle).
Irregular bones are all others that do not fall into the previous categories. They have varied shapes,
sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the skull.
3.4.2 Bone composition

Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of two forms. Compact, or dense bone, and spongy, or
cancellous, bone. Most bones contain both types. Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the
protective exterior portion of all bones. Spongy bone is inside the compact bone and is very porous
(full of tiny holes). Spongy bone occurs in most bones. The bone tissue is composed of several types of
bone cells embedded in a web of inorganic salts (mostly calcium and phosphorus) to give the bone
strength, and collagenous fibers and ground substance to give the bone flexibility