AXIAL SKELETON

BY KEMBOI K BOAZ
OBJECTIVES
 identify the bones of the skull (face and cranium)
 list the functions of the sinuses and fontanelles of the
skull
 outline the characteristics of a typical vertebra
 describe the structure of the vertebral column
 explain the movements and functions of the vertebral
column
 identify the bones forming the thoracic cage.
INTRODUCTION
The bones of the skeleton are divided into two groups:
the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral
column, ribs and sternum. Together the bones forming
these structures constitute the central bony core of the
body, the axis.
Skull
The skull rests on the upper end of the vertebral
column and its bony structure is divided into two
parts:
 the cranium and
 the face
Cranium
 The cranium is formed by a number of flat and irregular bones that provide a bony
protection for the brain. It has a base upon which the brain rests and a vault that
surrounds and covers it. The periosteum lining the inner surface of the skull bones forms
the outer layer of dura mater. In the mature skull the joints (sutures) between the bones
are immovable (fibrous). The bones have numerous perforations (e.g. foramina, fissures)
through which nerves, blood and lymph vessels pass. The bones of the cranium are:
 • 1 frontal bone
 • 2 parietal bones
 • 2 temporal bones
 • 1 occipital bone
 • 1 sphenoid bone
 • 1 ethmoid bone.
Face

The skeleton of the face is formed by 13 bones in

addition to the frontal bone already described. :
• 2 zygomatic (cheek) bones
• 1 maxilla
• 2 nasal bones
• 2 lacrimal bones
• 1 vomer
• 2 palatine bones
• 2 inferior conchae
• 1 mandible.
Sinuses

Sinuses containing air are present in the sphenoid,

ethmoid, maxillary and frontal bones.
They all communicate with the nasal cavity and are
lined with ciliated mucous membrane.
They give resonance to the voice and reduce the
weight of the skull, making it easier to carry.
 Caldwell View of Sinus
1.Nasal Septum
2. Frontal Sinus
2 3. Maxillary Sinus
4. Ethmoid Sinus
5. Inferior Turbinate
6.Odontoid process

1 4

6
Fontanelles of the skull .

At birth, ossification of the cranial sutures is

incomplete.
 Where three or more bones meet there are distinct
membranous areas, or fontanelles.
The two largest are the anterior fontanelle, not fully
ossified until the child is 12 to 18 months old, and the
posterior fontanelle, usually ossified 2 to 3 months
after birth.
The skull bones do not fuse earlier to allow for
moulding of the baby's head during childbirth.
FETAL SKULL
Functions of the skull

The various parts of the skull have specific and different functions:
• The cranium protects the delicate tissues of the brain.
• The bony eye sockets provide the eyes with some protection against
injury and give attachment to the muscles that move the eyes.
• The temporal bone protects the delicate structures of the ear.
• The sinuses in some face and skull bones give resonance to the
voice.
• The bones of the face form the walls of the posterior part of the
nasal cavities and form the upper part of the air passages.
• The maxilla and the mandible provide alveolar ridges in which the
teeth are embedded.
• Chewing of food is performed by the mandible, controlled by
muscles of the lower face.
Vertebral column
 There are 26 bones in the vertebral column. 24 separate vertebrae
extend downwards from the occipital bone of the skull; then there
is the sacrum, formed from five fused vertebrae,and lastly the
coccyx, or tail, which is formed from between three to five small
fused vertebrae.
 The vertebral column is divided into different regions. The first
seven vertebrae, in the neck, form the cervical spine; the next
twelve vertebrae are the thoracic spine, and the next five the lumbar
spine, the lowest vertebra of which articulates with the sacrum.
Each vertebra is identified by the first letter of its region in the
spine, followed by a number indicating its position .
Characteristics of a typical vertebra
1.The body
This is the broad, flattened, largest part of the
vertebra. When the vertebrae are stacked together in
the vertebral column, it is the flattened surfaces of the
body of each vertebra that articulate with the
corresponding surfaces of adjacent vertebrae.
2.The vertebral (neural) arch

This encloses a large vertebral foramen. It lies behind

the body, and forms the posterior and lateral walls of
the vertebral foramen. The lateral walls are formed
from plates of bone called pedicles, and the posterior
walls are formed from laminae.
 Projecting from the regions where the pedicle meets
the lamina is a lateral prominence called a transverse
process, and where the two laminae meet at the back
is a process called the spinous process.
Region-specific vertebral characteristics

Cervical vertebrae (Fig. 16.21)

These are the smallest vertebrae. The transverse processes have
a foramen through which a vertebral artery passes upwards to
the brain.
 The first two cervical vertebrae, the atlas and the axis, are
atypical.
The first cervical vertebra, the atlas, is the bone on which the
skull rests. Below the atlas is the axis, the second cervical
vertebra (C2).
The atlas is essentially a ring of bone, with no distinct body or
spinous process, although it has two short transverse process
 They permit nodding of the head.
……..
The axis sits below the atlas, and has a small body with
a small superior projection called the odontoid process
(also called the dens, meaning tooth).
 This occupies part of the posterior foramen of the atlas
above, and is held securely within it by the transverse
ligament . The head pivots (i.e. turns from side to side)
on this joint.
The 7th cervical vertebra, C7, is also known as the
vertebra prominens. It possesses along spinous
prominence terminating in a swollen tubercle, which is
easily felt at the base of the neck.
Thoracic vertebrae
The twelve thoracic vertebrae are larger than the
cervical vertebrae because this section of the vertebral
column has to support more body weight.
The bodies and transverse processes have facets for
articulation with the ribs.
Lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 16.20)

These are the largest of the vertebrae because they

have to support the weight of the upper body.
They have substantial spinous processes for
attachment of the muscles of the lower back.
Sacrum (Fig. 16.24)

 This consists of five rudimentary vertebrae fused to form a

triangular or wedge-shaped bone with a concave anterior surface.
 The upper part, or base, articulates with the 5th lumbar vertebra.
On each side it articulates with the ilium to form a sacroiliac
joint, and at its inferior tip it articulates with the coccyx.
 The anterior edge of the base, the promontory, protrudes into the
pelvic cavity. The vertebral foramina are present, and on each side
of the bone there is a series of foramina for the passage of nerves.
Coccyx
 This consists of the four terminal vertebrae fused to form a very
small triangular bone, the broad base of which articulates with
the tip of the sacrum.
Features of the vertebral column
a.Intervertebral discs
 The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs, consisting of
an outer rim of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus) and a central core of soft
gelatinous material (nucleus pulposus)
b.Intervertebral foramina
 When two adjacent vertebrae are viewed from the side, a foramen formed by a gap
between the vertebral pedicles can be seen through which the spinal nerves, blood
vessels and lymph vessels pass.
c.Ligaments of the vertebral column (Fig. 16.25)
 These ligaments hold the vertebrae together and keep the intervertebral discs in
position.
1.The transverse ligament maintains the odontoid process of the axis in the correct
position in relation to the atlas (Fig. 16.22C).
2.The anterior longitudinal ligament extends the whole length of the column and lies
in front of the vertebral bodies.
……
3.The posterior longitudinal ligament lies inside the
vertebral canal and extends the whole length of the
vertebral column in close contact with the posterior
surface of the bodies of the bones.
4.The ligamenta flava connect the laminae of adjacent
vertebrae.
5.The ligamentum nuchae and the supraspinous
ligament connect the spinous processes,extending
from the occiput to the sacrum.
Curves of the vertebral column
When viewed from the side, the vertebral column
presents four curves: two primary and two secondary.
The fetus in the uterus lies curled up so that the head
and the knees are more or less touching. This position
shows the primary curvature.
 The secondary cervical curve develops when the child
can hold up his head (after about 3 months) and the
secondary lumbar curve develops when he stands
upright (after 12 to 15 months). The thoracic and sacral
primary curves are retained.
Movements of the vertebral column

The movements between the individual bones of the

vertebral column are very limited.
However, the movements of the column as a whole are
quite extensive and include flexion (bending forward),
extension (bending backward), lateral flexion
(bending to the side) and rotation.
 There is more movement in the cervical and lumbar
regions than elsewhere.
Functions of the vertebral column

These include the following.

• Collectively the vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal, which
provides a strong bony protection for the delicate spinal cord lying
within it.
• The pedicles of adjacent vertebrae form inter vertebral foramina, one on
each side, providing access to the spinal cord for spinal nerves, blood
vessels and lymph vessels.
• The numerous individual bones with their intervertebral discs allow
movement of the whole column.
• It supports the skull.
• The intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers, protecting the brain.
• It forms the axis of the trunk, giving attachment to the ribs, shoulder
girdle and upper limbs, and the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
Thoracic cage (Fig. 16.28)

The thorax (thoracic cage) is formed by the sternum

anteriorly, twelve pairs of ribs forming the lateral bony
cages, and the twelve thoracic vertebrae.
Structure of the Thoracic cage
Sternum (breast bone) (Fig. 16.29
This flat bone can be felt just under the skin in the
middle of the front of the chest.
The manubrium is the uppermost section and articulates
with the clavicles at the sternoclavicular joints and with
the first two pairs of ribs.
The body or middle portion gives attachment to the ribs.
The xiphoid process is the tip of the bone. It gives
attachment to the diaphragm, muscles of the anterior
abdominal wall and the linea alba.
Ribs

The 12 pairs of ribs form the lateral walls of the thoracic

cage (Fig. 16.28).
 They are elongated curved bones (Fig. 16.30) that
articulate posteriorly with the vertebral column.
Anteriorly, the first seven pairs of ribs articulate directly
with the sternum and are known as the true ribs. The
next three pairs articulate only indirectly.
In both cases, costal cartilages attach the ribs to the
sternum. The lowest two pairs of ribs, referred to as
floating ribs, do not join the sternum at all, their
anterior tips being free.
Bonny structure of the thoracic wall
 The ribs
RIBS are curved, flat bones that form anterolatral bones of the
thoracic cage
They are remarkably light in weight yet highly resilient. Each rib
has a spongy interior containing bone marrow (hematopoietic
tissue), which forms blood cells.

There are three types of rib:

1. True (vertebrocostal) ribs (1st to 7th ribs): They attach directly to
the sternum through their own costal cartilages.
2. False (vertebrochondral) ribs (8th, 9th, and usually 10th ribs):
Their cartilages are connected to the cartilage of the rib above
them; thus their connection with the sternum is indirect.
3. Floating (vertebral, free) ribs (11th, 12th, and sometimes 10th
ribs): The rudimentary cartilages of these ribs do not connect even
indirectly with the sternum; instead they end in the posterior
abdominal musculature.
 Structure of a rib
Morphologically ribs can be classified into two:- typical and
atypical
Features of Typical ribs (3rd -9th ribs)
1. Head: that is wedge-shaped and has two facets, separated by the
crest of the head.
2. Neck: that connects the head with the body at the level of the
tubercle.
3. Tubercle: at the junction of the neck and body and has a smooth
articular part, for articulating with the corresponding transverse
process of the vertebra, and a rough non-articular part, for
attachment of the costotransverse ligament.
4. Body (shaft): thin, flat, and curved, most markedly at the costal
angle where the rib turns anterolaterally the concave internal
surface of the body has a costal groove paralleling the inferior
border of the rib, which provides some protection for the
intercostal nerve and vessels.
Features of a typical rib
END