The Skeletal System (part 2)

The SKULL is the bony framework of the head. It is comprised of the 8 cranial
and 14 facial bones.

The bones of the skull are made up of external and internal tables of compact
bone separated by a layer of spongy bone called diploe.

Cranial Bones
The cranial bones makeup the protective frame of bone around the brain.
The cranial bones are:

 Frontal bone forms part of the cranial cavity as well as the forehead, the
brow ridges and the nasal cavity.
 Parietal bones (Left and Right) form much of the superior and lateral
portions of the cranium.
 Temporal bones (Left and Right) form the lateral walls of the cranium as
well as housing the external ear.
 Occipital bone forms the posterior and inferior portions of the cranium.
Many neck muscles attach here as this is the point of articulation with the
neck.
 Sphenoid bone forms part of the eye orbit and helps to form the floor of
the cranium.
 Ethmoid bone forms the medial portions of the orbits and the roof of the
nasal cavity.

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Sutures the joints between bones of the skull are immovable and called.

 Sagittal suture – unites the 2 parietal bones in the midline.

 Lambdoid suture – unites the parietal bones with the occipital bone
 Coronal suture – unites the frontal bone with the parietal bones
 Squamosal suture – unites the squamous portion of the temporal
bone with the parietal bones
 Metopic suture – (if present) unites the 2 fontal bones

Facial Bones
The facial bones makeup the upper and lower jaw and other facial structures.
The facial bones are:

 Mandible is the lower jawbone. It articulates with the temporal bones at

the temporomandibular joints. This forms the only freely moveable joint
in the head. It provides the chewing motion.
 Maxilla (Left and Right) are the upper jaw bones. They form part of the
nose, orbits, and roof of the mouth.
 Palatine (Left and Right) form a portion of the nasal cavity and the
posterior portion of the roof of the mouth.
 Zygomatic (Left and Right) are the cheek bones. They form portions of
the orbits as well.
 Nasal (Left and Right) form the superior portion of the bridge of the nose.
 Lacrimal (Left and Right) help to form the orbits.
 Vomer forms part of the nasal septum (the divider between the nostrils).
 Inferior Turbinate/concha (Left and Right) forms the lateral walls of the
nose and increase the surface area of the nasal cavity.
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The Fetal Skull
The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length

 Fontanelles – The “soft spot” on baby’s head. These are composed of

fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones of the newborns

1. anterior fontanel = largest

2. posterior fontanel
3. anterolateral (sphenoidal) fontanel
4. posterolateral (mastoid) fontanel
o Allow the brain to grow
o Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

Paranasal Sinuses

 Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity:

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  Maxillary sinus; Frontal sinuses; Sphenoidal sinuses; Ethmoidal
sinuses
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice

HYOID BONE
 Small U-shape; lies in front of the neck between the mandible &
thyroid cartilage
 The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue

AUDITORY OSSICLES
 small bones found in the middle ear
a. Stapes (stirrup)
b. Incus (anvil)
c. Malleus (hammer)

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The Bony Thorax

 Made-up of three parts

 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic vertebrae
 Forms a cage to protect major organs of the chest

Sternum is a flat, dagger shaped bone located in the middle of the chest. Along
with the ribs, the sternum forms the rib cage that protects the heart, lungs, and
major blood vessels from damage. 

Sternum is composed of three parts:

 Manubrium, also called the "handle"
– is located at the top of the sternum and moves slightly. It is connected to
the first two ribs.
 Body, also called the "blade" or the "gladiolus"
– is located in the middle of the sternum and connects the third to seventh
ribs directly and the eighth through tenth ribs indirectly.

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  Xiphoid process, also called the "tip"
– is located on the bottom of the sternum. It is often cartilaginous
(cartilage), but does become bony in later years.

These three segments of bone are usually fused in adults.

Sternum serves an important function in the body. The ribs are connected to it by
the costal cartilage. Without the sternum, there would be a hole in the bone
structure in the middle of your chest, right above your heart and lungs. The
sternum protects this vital area and completes the circle of the rib cage.

Ribs are thin, flat, curved bones that form a protective cage around the organs in
the upper body. They are comprised 24 bones arranged in 12 pairs.

Ribs are divided into three categories:

 True Ribs
– the first seven bones These bones are connected to the spine (the
backbone) in back. In the front, the true ribs are connected directly to the
breastbone or sternum by a strip of cartilage called the costal cartilage.

 False Ribs
– next three pairs of the bones. These bones are slightly shorter than the
true ribs and are connected to the spine in back. However, instead of
being attached directly to the sternum in front, the false ribs are attached
to the lowest true rib.

 Floating Ribs

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 – last two sets of rib bones. Floating ribs are smaller than both the true ribs
and the false ribs. They are attached to the spine at the back, but are not
connected to anything in the front.

The ribs form a kind of cage the encloses the upper body. They give the chest its
familiar shape.

Ribs serve several important purposes. They protect the heart and lungs from
injuries and shocks that might damage them. Ribs also protect parts of the
stomach, spleen, and kidneys. The ribs help you to breathe. As you inhale, the
muscles in between the ribs lift the rib cage up, allowing the lungs to expand.
When you exhale, the rib cage moves down again, squeezing the air out of your
lungs.

The vertebral column (also called the backbone, spine, or spinal column) consists
of a series of 33 irregularly shaped bones, called vertebrae. These 33 bones are
divided into five categories depending on where they are located in the
backbone.

 Cervical Vertebrae
– the first seven vertebrae. Located at the top of the spinal column, these
bones form a flexible framework for the neck and support the head.
– Atlas, the first cervical vertebrae; allows the head to nod "yes".
– Axis, allows the head to shake "no".

 Thoracic Vertebrae
– the next twelve vertebrae, these bones move with the ribs to form the
rear anchor of the rib cage. Thoracic vertebrae are larger than cervical
vertebrae and increase in size from top to bottom.

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  Lumbar Vertebrae
– These five bones are the largest vertebrae in the spinal column. These
vertebrae support most of the body's weight and are attached to many of
the back muscles.

 Sacrum
– is a triangular bone located just below the lumbar vertebrae. It consists
of four or five sacral vertebrae in a child, which become fused into a
single bone in adult. The sacrum forms the back wall of the pelvic girdle
and moves with it.

 Coccyx or tailbone
– the bottom of the spinal column. It consists of 3-5 bones that are fused
together in an adult. Many muscles connect to the coccyx.

These bones compose the vertebral column, resulting in a total of 26 movable

parts in an adult.

 Intervertebral Disc
– in between the vertebrae, made of fibrous cartilage that act as shock
absorbers and allow the back to move. As a person ages, these discs
compress and shrink, resulting in a distinct loss of height (generally
between 0.5 and 2.0cm) between the ages of 50 and 55.

The spine forms four curves:

 Cervical curve is located at the top of the spine and is composed of
cervical vertebrae.

 Thoracic and lumbar curves composed of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae

respectively.

 Pelvic or sacral curve is formed by the sacrum and coccyx.

 Curves allow human beings to stand upright and help to maintain the balance
of the upper body. The cervical and lumbar curves are not present in an
infant. The cervical curves forms around the age of 3 months when an infant
begins to hold its head up and the lumbar curve develops when a child
begins to walk.
 Vertebral column serves several other important functions. It helps to support
the head and arms, while permitting freedom of movement. It also provides
attachment for many muscles, the ribs, and some of the organs and protects
the spinal cord, which controls most bodily functions.

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Upper Extremity
 arm

 forearm
 hand.

The Arm or brachium

is technically only the region between the shoulder and elbow.

 Humerus
– it consists of a single long bone
– the humerus is the longest bone in the upper extremity. The top, or
head, is large, smooth, and rounded and fits into the scapula in the
shoulder.

 Radius
– are two depressions where the humerus connects
– is connected on the side away from the body (lateral side)

 Ulna
– is connected on the side towards the body (medial side) when standing
in the anatomical position.

 The humerus and the ulna make up the elbow.

 Funny Bone
– the bottom of the humerus protects the ulnar nerve.

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 – striking the elbow on a hard surface stimulates the ulnar nerve and
produces a tingling sensation.

The Forearm
is the region between the elbow and the wrist.

 Radius
– on the lateral side.
– contributes more to the movement of the wrist and hand than the ulna.

 Ulna
– on the medial side when the forearm is viewed in the anatomical
position.
– is longer than the radius and connected more firmly to the humerus.

 When the hand is turned over so that the palm is facing downwards, the
radius crosses over the ulna. The top of each bone connects to the humerus of
the arm and the bottom of each connects to the bones of the hand.

The Hand
consists of three parts (the wrist, palm, and five fingers) and 27 bones.

 Wrist, or Carpus
– consists of 8 small bones called the carpal bones that are tightly bound
by ligaments.
– bones are arranged in two rows of four bones each.

 scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform bones

– the top row (the row closest to the forearm) from the lateral
(thumb) side to the medial side contains the.

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 – the scaphoid and lunate connect to the bottom of the radius.

 trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate

– the second row from lateral to medial

 five metacarpal bones

– the palm or metacarpus, one aligned with each of the fingers
– are not named but are numbered I to V starting with the thumb.
– the bases of the metacarpal bones are connected to the wrist
bones and the heads are connected to the bones of the fingers.
– the heads of the metacarpals form the knuckles of a clenched fist.
 14 phalanges
– single finger bone is called a phalanx.
– phalanges are arranged in three rows; first row (the closest to the
metacarpals) is called the proximal row. second row is the middle
row, and the farthest row is called the distal row.
– each finger has a proximal phalanx, a middle phalanx, and a
distal phalanx, except the thumb (also called the pollex) which does
not have a middle phalanx.
– The digits are also numbered I to V

Lower Extremity
– thigh
– leg
– foot
– patella (commonly known as the kneecap).

The Thigh
The thigh is the region between the hip and the knee and is composed of a single
bone called the femur or thighbone. The femur is the longest, largest, and
strongest bone in the body.

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The Leg
The leg is technically only the region from the knee to the ankle.

 Fibula
– on side away from the body (lateral side)

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  Tibia
– also called the shin bone, on the side nearest the body (medial
side).
– the tibia connects to the femur to form the knee joint and with the
talus, a foot bone, to allow the ankle to flex and extend.
– the tibia is larger than the fibula because it bears most of the
weight, while the fibula serves as an area for muscle attachment.

The Foot
The foot, or pes, contains the 26 bones of the ankle, instep, and the five toes.

 7 tarsal bones
– the ankle, or tarsus; correspond to the carpals in the wrist.
– calcaneus or heel bone the largest tarsal bone
– talus rests on top of the calcaneus and is connected to the tibia.
– navicular bone directly in front of the talus
– medial, intermediate, the lateral cuneiform bones, and the
cuboid bone the remaining bones from medial to lateral

 Metatarsal and Phalanges bones

– are similar in number and position to the metacarpal and
phalanges bones of the hand.
– five metatarsal bones are numbered I to V starting on the medial
side with the big toe.
– the first metatarsal bone is larger than the others because it plays
a major role in supporting the body's weight.

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 – the 14 phalanges of the foot, as with the hand, are arranged in a
proximal row, a middle row, and a distal row, with the big toe, or
hallux, having only a proximal and distal phalanx.
The foot's two arches are formed by the structure and arrangement of the bones
and are maintained by tendons and ligaments. The arches give when weight is
placed on the foot and spring back when the weight is lifted off of the foot. The
arches may fall due to a weakening of the ligaments and tendons in the foot.

The Patella
The patella or kneecap is a large, triangular sesamoid bone between the femur
and the tibia. It is formed in response to the strain in the tendon that forms the
knee. The patella protects the knee joint and strengthens the tendon that forms
the knee.

The bones of the lower extremities are the heaviest, largest, and strongest bones
in the body because they must bear the entire weight of the body when a person
is standing in the upright position.

 Sesamoid bone
– little bone embedded in a joint capsule or tendon. The kneecap
(patella) is a sesamoid bone.
Shoulder Girdle, also called the Pectoral Girdle
is composed of four bones: two clavicles and two scapulae.

 Clavicle

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 commonly called the collarbone, is a slender S-shaped bone that
connects the upper arm to the trunk of the body and holds the
shoulder joint away from the body to allow for greater freedom of
movement. One end of the clavicle is connected to the sternum and
one end is connected to the scapula.

 Scapula
is a large, triangular, flat bone on the back side of the rib cage
commonly called the shoulder blade. It overlays the second
through seventh rib and serves as an attachment for several
muscles. It has a shallow depression called the glenoid cavity that
the head of the humerus (upper arm bone) fits into.

Usually, a "girdle" refers to something that encircles or is a complete ring.

However, the shoulder girdle is an incomplete ring. In the front, the clavicles are
separated by the sternum. In the back, there is a gap between the two scapulae.

The primary function of the pectoral girdle is to provide an attachment point for
the numerous muscles that allow the shoulder and elbow joints to move. It also
provides the connection between the upper extremities (the arms) and the axial
skeleton.

Pelvic Girdle, also called the hip girdle

is composed to two coxal (hip) bones.

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Coxal bones are also called the ossa coxae or innominate bones.
During childhood, each coxal bone consists of three separate parts: the ilium, the
ischium and the pubis. In an adult, these three bones are firmly fused into a
single bone. The coxal bone on the left side has been divided into its component
pieces while the right side has been preserved.

In the back, these two bones meet on either side of the sacrum. In the front, they
are connected by a muscle called the pubic symphysis

The pelvic girdle serves several important functions in the body. It supports the
weight of the body from the vertebral column. It also protects and supports the
lower organs, including the urinary bladder, the reproductive organs, and the
developing fetus in a pregnant woman.

The pelvic girdle differs between men and woman. In a man, the pelvis is more
massive and the iliac crests are closer together. In a woman, the pelvis is more
delicate and the iliac crests are farther apart. These differences reflect the
woman's role in pregnancy and delivery of children. When a child is born, it
must pass through its mother's pelvis. If the opening is too small, a cesarean
section may be necessary.

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