MODULE A1 - HISTORY OF GLACIATION &

DEGLACIATION
THE DAWN OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
Creating soil involves the physical, chemical and biological transformation of rock into a loose
material capable of supporting plant life. This long and complex procedure had its beginnings in
ancient geological events that created bedrock and broke it up into the raw material for soil. The
raw materials that became soils in Western Canada originated from two important geological
processes: sedimentary bedrock formation and glaciation.

FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY BEDROCK

The flooding from time to time of large portions of the interior plains of North America over the
past several hundred million years has resulted in the formation of layers of sedimentary
bedrock

GLACIATION AND DEGLACIATION

A series of glacial events have occurred over the past hundred thousand years. These events
were separated by warmer, interglacial (between glaciers) times with temperatures at least as
high as today. The latest glacial event occurred less than 20,000 years ago.

BEDROCK FORMATION
Western Canada has been periodically flooded under large oceans and freshwater seas over
the past several 100 million years. The sediments collected at the bottom of these water bodies
reached tremendous thickness over long periods of time and ultimately became compressed
into huge slabs of sedimentary bedrock. Since the various water bodies contained unique
proportions of minerals and organisms, the sediments deposited and the bedrock that formed
from each event were unique. A series of bedrock layers up to 3000 meters in depth exist below
the surface over much of central and southern Alberta. These layers represent sedimentary
deposits from the most recent flooding events (near the surface) to the most ancient deposits
which are found at great depths.
The bedrock layers in Alberta are tilted from the horizontal causing different layers to be
exposed at the surface as you move across Alberta from the Rockies to the Saskatchewan
border.
The unique characteristics of bedrock deposits directly influences the soil types that develop
from them. For example, soils that develop from the weathering of salt-free bedrock like the
Paskapoo formation tend to produce nonsaline soils. Soils that develop from the weathering
Edmonton formation bedrock tend to be more saline because the rock texture (particle size) are
influenced by the bedrock from which the soil material was weathered.
Despite the strong influence of bedrock on soil qualities, prairie soils often bear little
resemblance to the bedrock they rest on. That’s because the broken-up materials at the earth’s
surface have often been moved great distances from the bedrock they originated from by wind,
water or ancient glaciers.
 FORMATION NAME COMPOSITION ORIGIN OTHER FEATURES

PASKAPOO sandstones and shale freshwater salt free and calcareous

EDMONTON sandstone, shale with salty water relatively saline

coal seams

BEARPAW shales, clay and salts marine deposits associated with high
sodium “hardpan” soils

BELLY RIVER freshwater

Milk River sandstone and shale

Lea Park shales marine associated with high

sodium “hardpan” soils

Shaftsbury primarily shale, some marine

sandstone

La Biche primarily shale marine

Smokey Group primarily shale, some marine

sandstone

Clearwater primarily shale, some marine

sandstone

Grand Rapids mix of sandstone and beach materials

shales

Precambrian primarily granite and Canadian Shield

metamorphic rock

*Unique bedrock characteristics influence the soils that develop

E.g.: Saline bedrock = saline soils
non-saline = non saline soils
Glaciation impacts bedrock influence on soils

SURFICIAL GEOLOGICAL DEPOSITS

The second important geological event influencing the soils of Western Canada was the
glaciation and deglaciation of the interior plains. This event, commonly called the “Ice Age”,
ground up and redistributed the surface bedrock producing a tremendous variety of materials
out of which soils later developed.
Glaciation has occurred several times in the past 2 million years due to unexplained changes in
the climate. These changes generated cooler temperatures and higher precipitation in the
northern hemisphere. The buildup of snow over a thousand years created a huge mass of ice
up to 3 km in thickness which spread slowly southward effectively bulldozing and grinding up
the bedrock beneath it. The latest of these continental glaciers was called the Laurentide
glacier, It had its center over the eastern part of Hudson’s Bay and extended over all of Canada
from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains and into the northern United States. A separate glacier
known as the Cordilleran extended over the Rocky Mountains from Washington State up the the
Arctic Ocean. These glaciers were at their peak only 18,000 years ago and melted back from
southern Alberta 10-12,000 years ago.
Glaciers created new surface material, both as they advanced during glaciation and as they
retreated during deglaciation. Glacial meltwaters have also had a strong influence on formation
of prairie soils.

GLACIATION
The huge flowing slabs of ice had the effect of leveling and scouring the earth’s surface. The
bedrock material under the ice was ground up and pushed along, creating an unsorted mixture
of particle sizes that ranged from stones and boulders to fine flower (clay) sizes. This mixture
was originally called boulder clay but is now referred to as glacial till or morainal material.
Glacial till accumulates within the ice of moving glaciers and is often transported hundreds of
kilometers from its place of origin. Glacial till is the most common surficial material found across
the prairies.

Fluvial - round rocks from flowing water

Lacustrine - fine soil from calm water lakes
Eolian - fine soil from winds

DEGLACIATION
Water Deposits
The melting back of the ice sheets created a surface different from the bedrock surface
that had previously existed. The mizute of ice and till that was washed away from the
glacier by streams and rivers was sorted according to size by the meltwater. Larger
particles such as sands, gravel and small stones settled out of flowing water. These
coarse fluvial deposits now remain where rivers once flowed 10,000 years ago. Fine
sand, silt and clay particles were carried to glacial lakes where they settled out in
relatively still waters and formed level to gently undulating lake-bed deposits. These well
sorted sediment are usually stratified and referred to as lacustrine materials.
Wind Deposits
After the glacier melted and the land dried up, the bare surface was exposed to winds
that re-worked the materials. Two types of eolian (wind) deposits occur as the result of
this resorting process: sand dunes formed from the coarse particle size fractions and
loess formed from finer particles (very fine sands, silts and clays) which settled out of
dust clouds and were deposited as veneers and blankets usually over glacial till.

MODULE A1 - QUESTIONS
1. How were the layers of sedimentary bedrock beneath us formed?
Sedimentary bedrock formed from the accumulation of sediment at the bottom of seas and
oceans that once covered large parts of North America. Over millions of years the sediments
were compressed into rock.

2. Why is the kind of sedimentary bedrock found near the earth’s surface differ from one part of
Alberta to another?
Sedimentary bedrock differs from one area to another in Alberta because the earth’s crust has
been tilled by mountain formation. This tilling caused different layers to be exposed at the
surface across Alberta.

3. How much of North America was covered by the last glaciation?

The last glaciation was centered over Hudson’s Bay and covered the northern half of North
America from coast to coast south to include the northern portion of the USA.

4. Define.
a. Fluvial - stream deposited materials
Fluvial material usually consists of gravels and sands that have settled out of
flowing waters of glacial streams
b. Glacial Till - unsorted ice-deposited material
Glacial till is material directly deposited by glacial ice and not sorted by wind or
water. The material ranges from clay-sized particles to stones and boulders
c. Lacustrine - lake deposited material
Lacustrine material consists of finer particles of silts and clay deposited in the still
waters of glacial lakes
d. Eolian - wind deposited material
Eolian material can consist of coarser particles sorted by wind into dunes or very
fine sandy and silty materials settling out of dust clouds accumulating to form
loess (veneers and blankets of strongly sorted material usually overlying glacial
till)

MODULE A2 - SOIL FORMING FACTORS

SOIL FORMING FACTORS
Most Western Canadian soils were formed from the unconsolidated (loose) geological materials
which were transported to their present locations by the actions of glacier ice, water or wind.
Other soils developed from materials that originated in their present locations either out of the
organic remains that accumulated in wet areas or from the weathering of bedrock that was
exposed at the earth’s surface. Regardless of their origins, however, the original surface
materials, known as parent materials, underwent considerable changes before they were
transformed into the life-giving material that we now call soil.
The development of soil from the original parent materials involves additions (add) of organic
soil, transformation (divide) of organic and mineral substances by weathering, translocation
(multiply) of materials to various layers in the soil and losses (subtract) through the processes of
erosion and leaching.
The transformation of parent materials into soils is accompanied by the development of distinct
soil layers. These layers are called horizons and they reflect changes that have happened to the
original parent materials due to additions, transformations, translocations and losses. A cross
sectional view of a soil showing all the layers from the surface down to the unchanged parent
material is called a soil profile.

The kinds of changes and the extent of the changes that occur as soils develop are controlled
by five soil forming factors: climate, organisms, parent materials, topography and time. The five
soil forming factors can be represented in the form of an equation as follows:

S= C+O+P+T Where: S= soil C=climate O=living organisms

Time P=parent materials T=topography

This equation means that the unique product we call soil develops from the accumulated effects
of all five soil forming factors occurring over long periods of time. The differences between soils
across the prairies result from the variations in climate, organisms, parent materials or
topography that occur from place to place.

PARENT MATERIAL
The surficial geological materials in which soils form are known as parent materials. Differences
between various parent materials led to the development of very different kinds of soils. Basic
chemical and physical properties of soil including salt content, pH, texture and structure are
strongly influenced by the composition of the original parent material. The three main groups of
parent materials are transported materials, residual materials and organic materials.

TRANSPORTED PARENT MATERIALS

These are materials that have been moved from their place of origin and they are classified on
the basis of the agents which moved them. Most parent materials in western Canada have been
transported to their present location.
Glacial Ice
Material moved and deposited by glacial ice is referred to as glacial till or moraine. This
material is characterized by unsorted mixture of clay, silt, sand and sharp-edged gravel,
stones or boulders.
Moving Water
Material moved and deposited by rivers or streams is referred to as fluvial parent
material. This parent material is usually strongly sorted (containing particles of uniform
size) and stratified (layered). Particles are usually rounded from tumbling in streams and
range in size from sands to gravels depending on the speed of the stream. Deposits
from the seasonal flooding of riverbanks are called alluvium.
Lakes
Materials deposited in lakes is referred to as lacustrine parent material. Tens of
thousands of temporary lakes formed across western Canada as the glaciers melted
out. Most drained away thousands of years ago. This parent material is strongly sorted
and is usually dominated by silts and clays. If these materials are formed in glacial
lakes,
they may contain light and dark colored layers called varves. The lake represents
deposits from summer and winter in the sediment rich glacial lakes.
Wind
Materials that were moved and deposited by wind are referred to as eolian. These
parent
materials can be divided into two groups.
loess - very fine material that drops out of suspension in calm air. These particles are
strongly sorted and are dominated by very fine sand and silt.
sand dunes - ridges of coarser sand that accumulate by being blown along the soil
surface. These materials are also strongly sorted.
Gravity
Material moved and deposited at the base of relatively steep slopes by the force of
gravity is referred to as colluvium parent material. This material can vary in composition
and ranges from rock fragments to fine soil materials.
Residual Parent Materials
These are mineral materials that formed from the weathering of bedrock in its present
location. The nature and properties of residual materials reflect the mineral makeup
and the degree of weathering of the original bedrock.
Organic Parent Material
These are organic materials that have accumulated as a result of the cyclical growth and
decay of plants. The plant remains accumulate in areas where rate of decay is slowed
by high rainfall, low temperatures or acidic conditions.
Peat
Organic materials which are only partly decomposed and which accumulate in
wet, low lying or depressional areas in cool to cold, humid climates. These
materials originate from mosses, sedges and woody materials.
Muck
Organic material that is highly decomposed and in which the original plant parts
are not recognizable. These materials are usually quite finely divided and may be
quite powdery when dry.
CLIMATE
This soil forming factor reflects the average weather conditions at a given location over an
extended period of time. The two most important elements of climate influencing soil formation
are temperature and precipitation. These components of climate determine the degree and
extent of chemical and physical weathering of soil parent materials, and also strongly influence
the vegetation and overall biological activity in the soil.

LIVING ORGANISMS
This soil forming factor includes the plants, animals and microorganisms that live in the soil.
Living organisms cause soil mixing and nutrient cycling. They also have a strong influence on
the accumulation of organic matter and the development of soil structure (the way the soil
components clump together). Surface vegetation has the most profound effect on soil
development. In western Canada, soil zones correspond to the areas of grasslands, forest and
transitional vegetation that once grew there.

TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE

Topography can be described as “the lay of the land” including the steepness and direction of
the slopes. Topography influenced soil development because of the way it distributes rainfall
and sunlight over the ground. Rainfall tends to run off the crests of slopes and enter the soil
along the lower slopes and valleys. This leads to more plant growth and deeper soil
development in the lower portions of a hillside compared to the upper portions
The aspect of a slope (direction a slope faces) also affects soil development. North facing
slopes are cooler and retain more moisture than the south facing slopes. This may lead to the
establishment of different plant communities and the formation of different soils on opposite
sides of a hill.

TIME
Soils have developed over a long period of time and continue to change slowly into the future.
Under ideal conditions that favor intense weathering, a distinct soil profile can develop from
parent material in about 200 years. On the other hand, in a less favorable environment it could
take several thousand years for a recognizable soil to form.

Man
Humans are sometimes considered to be a sixth soil forming factor. Humans can modify the
impact of the factors responsible for soil formation through activities such as cultivation and
logging. Humans can also have a strong impact on the living organisms’ factor by removal of
trees or cultivation of grassland. These activities have a major influence on soil additions and
losses, microbial activity and the subsequent soil development.

MODULE A2 - PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between transported and residual parent material?
Transported parent materials were moved from their place of origin whereas the residual
materials developed from the weathering for their present location.

2. Which transported parent materials are moved by water?

Fluvial and lacustrine materials are transported by water.

3. Describe two characteristics of fluvial parent material.

Fluvial materials are usually strongly sorted and stratified. Particle sizes range from sand to
gravels.

4. Why are peat and muck known as cumulose parent materials?

Peat and muck are known as cumulose materials because they accumulate (grow) from the
cyclical growth and decay of plants.

5. What effect does aspect have on soil development.

Aspect is the slope of land in relation to the sun. Southerly aspects receive more direct sunlight
leading to warmer, drier soils and grassland vegetation. Northerly aspects are cooler and retain
moisture better feeding vegetation.

6. How long does it take for a soil the develop out of parent materials under ideal conditions?
Under ideal conditions, that are favor intense weathering, a distinct soil profile can develop in
about 200 years.

MODULE A3 - FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF

SOIL
SIMPLE DEFINITION OF SOIL
Not everything found at the earth’s surface can be called soil. To be classified as soil the
surface must be unconsolidated (loose) and must occur naturally and usually appears as
distinct layers that are visible from a side view. Soils will change over time because the soil
forming factors continue to work on them but these three distinct characteristics remain.

THE FOUR FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF SOIL

The four fundamental components of soil are:
- mineral material
- organic matter
- air
- water

The proportions of mineral and organic components change very slowly in soil but the
proportions of water and air vary constantly depending on moisture supply. The percentage of
air and water has a large impact on soil productivity. Optimum moisture content for plant growth
is about 25% of total volume (50% of the total pore volume). Air simply occupies the pore space
(spaces between soil particles) not filled with water.

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS IN SOILS

Minerals are the nonliving, crystalline compounds found in rocks that makeup the majority of soil
particles in most soils. Mineral particles cover a wide range of sizes from small rock fragments
down to the tiniest clay particles which can be observed with electron microscopes. Although
most soil minerals have a crystalline structure, some highly weathered secondary minerals are
amorphous or non-crystalline in nature. Soils can be composed of a huge variety of mineral
compounds. Two soil samples will differ in the proportions of minerals they contain and their
particle sizes because soils originate from different parent materials and have been exposed to
different degrees of weathering. General categories of minerals common to western Canadian
soils include primary minerals, secondary minerals and carbonate minerals. Minerals are
important to soils because they dictate the soil chemistry which has a big influence on soil pH,
salinity, fertility and structure.

PRIMARY MINERALS
Primary minerals have remained relatively unchanged in composition since they formed from
cooling lava. Quartz (silicone dioxide), the most common example, can be easily observed
under a microscope as shiny, clear crystals common in sand samples. Primary minerals found
in soils are resistant to weathering (breakdown). They are usually large particles that contribute
to air and water movement but are less important for fertility or water holding capacity. (Igneous
rock)

SECONDARY MINERALS
Secondary minerals include silicate clays and iron or aluminum oxides which have been formed
over time from the weathering process that breaks down minerals. Primary minerals dominate
the coarse particle sizes and secondary minerals makeup the majority of the fine sized particles.
Secondary minerals influence important soil properties including fertility and water holding
capacity.

CARBONATE MINERALS
Carbonate minerals are a special group of secondary minerals that are composed mainly of
calcite (CaCo3) and dolomite (CaMg(Co3)2). These minerals originated in the limestone
bedrock that was crushed by the glacial ice sheets as they moved across the continent. There
are also numerous secondary minerals that have been formed by dissolving of primary
carbonates and their precipitation or crystallization in modified form.
Carbonate minerals maintain alkaline pH (>7) in soils and provide essential nutrients for plant
growth (calcium and magnesium). Carbonate minerals may interfere with plant growth when
present in high amounts. Carbonate levels in surface horizons usually decrease over time due
to leaching from rainfall and natural acids. The presence of soil carbonates can be easily tested
for by adding a few drops of dilute HCl to a soil same and watching for effervescence (bubbling)
that occurs when it reacts with the carbonates.

THE ORGANIC FRACTION OF SOIL

Soil organic matter is made up of plant, animal, and microbial residues in various stages of
decomposition. It includes cells and tissues of soil organisms as well as substances synthesized
by the soil population. Active organic matter is readily decomposed by soil organisms to release
simple nutrient. Humus is used to describe the fraction of soil organic matter that remains after
the more active fractions have been broken down.
Although the organic matter content of most mineral soils is relatively small (2-10% by weight),
its influence on soil properties is considerable. Soil organic matter enhances fertility by
improving the soil’s nutrient and water holding capacity. It also enhances soil structure and
increases the diversity of pore sizes. Finally, organic matter is the primary food source for soil
microorganisms which break down the complex materials into simple end products, some which
are plant nutrients.

SOIL WATER
*Adhesion - holds 2 things together
*Cohesion - water bonds to itself
Soil water influences plant growth, as well as the speed of soil development, the amount of
organic matter that accumulates and the stability of soil aggregates (clods).
Soil water is held against the downward pull of gravity in the pore spaces by the combined
forces of adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion is the force that causes water and soil particles to
be attracted to each other and cohesion is the attractive force between water molecules
themselves. Together, these forces cause a considerable portion of the water that drains
through a soil to be held against the sides of mineral and organic particles in the soil pore
space. The combined total of all water held in soil pore spaces is referred to as the soil
reservoir.

Since water is attracted to the sides of soil particles, the amount of water held in a soil will be
strongly influenced by the total surface area of the particles. Large sand-sized particles have
relatively small total surface area per soil volume, and create large pore spaces between
particles through which water can easily drain. Soils with higher clay and humus contents store
larger amounts of water because of the tremendous amount of total surface area that they
provide to attract water molecules.

Soils with high clay content may hold large total amounts of water, but much of it is held with too
much force to allow plants to use it. This tightly held water is called unavailable water. The water
plants are able to absorb what is called available water. Sandy soils tend to have low total water
holding capacities but a large amount of their water is available for plant growth. Medium
textured soils (loams) tend to have the best water holding characteristics since they contain a
combination of large and small particle and pore space sizes.

SOIL AIR
Soil air occupies the spaces not filled with soil particles or water. Soil air exchanges slowly with
atmospheric air but differs in several respects:
- soil air is not interconnected; therefore, its composition varies from place to place
- soil air usually has a relative humidity close to 100% (95-100%) in moist soils
- the concentration of carbon dioxide is often a hundred times higher in air than the 0.05
found in atmospheric air
- the concentration of oxygen in soil is often half of the 20% found in atmospheric air
Soil air is most beneficial to plant growth when it contains high levels of oxygen and low levels
of the toxic gases that may build up under low oxygen conditions. The content and composition
of soil air is mainly determined by soil particle size, bulk density and water content.

Soils with large interconnected pore spaces exchange air more freely with the atmosphere. This
includes sandy soils and soil with high levels of organic matter. Soils with large amounts of very
small soil particles (such as clays) have smaller pore spaces which are less interconnected and
do not rapidly exchange gases with the atmosphere.

Soil water content influences air content directly since air simply moves into those pore spaces
not occupied by water. When soil has a low water content, air moves freely between soil and the
atmosphere and the composition of soil air will be similar to atmospheric air. When soil has a
high-water content air tends to get trapped in small pockets and microbial processes bring about
changes in the concentration of gases. For example, carbon dioxide levels build up and oxygen
levels drop due to the respiration of aerobic microbes (those which require oxygen to survive)
dominate. Anaerobic microbes (those that thrive without oxygen) produce poisonous end
products including ethylene, methane, and H2S which can be toxic to plant growth when
present in sufficient amounts.

Soil air is also affected by the demand for oxygen from microbes and plant roots, as well as the
effect of farm management factors such as manure additions or tillage. Manure additions speed
up microbial activity, depleting oxygen levels more quickly. Tillage usually aerates and loosens
the soil. Tillage when the soil is too wet can cause competition and lead to poorer air exchange
with the atmosphere due to an adverse effect on soil structure.
MODULE A3 - PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The simple definition of soil has 3 characteristics. Name them.
A soil must be unconsolidated, occur naturally and have distinct layers when viewed from the
side.
2. Explain the difference between primary and secondary minerals.
Primary minerals have been relatively unchanged since they were cooled from lava. Secondary
minerals are new minerals that have formed over time from the weathering products of primary
minerals. Secondary minerals crystals are usually much smaller in size and provide more in the
way of fertility and water holding.

3. What simple test can be used to determine the carbonate content of soils?
Carbonate minerals will effervescent (bubble) when they come in contact with dilute HCl acid.

4. How is humus different from regular organic matter?

Humus is the fraction of soil organic matter that remains after the more easily decomposable
organic matter is broken down.

5. Explain the term “unavailable water”.

Unavailable water is the soil moisture that is held too tightly by soil particles to be available for
plant growth.

6. Which soil components have the most impact on water holding capacity?
Soils with high clay and humus content store larger amounts of soil water.

7. Which soil conditions promote free exchange of air between the atmosphere and the soil?
Soils with large interconnected pore spaces and low water content promote free exchange of air
between the soil and atmosphere.

MODULE A4 - SOIL CLASSIFICATION

WHAT ARE SOIL PROFILES AND HORIZONS?
The rocks and minerals that make up soil parent materials are constantly being changed by the
process of weathering (physical and chemical breakdown). Weathering of parent materials
releases nutrients to feed plants and other soil organisms. As plants and soil organisms’ decay,
they are mixed with mineral matter by living organisms. In this way the soil changes from a
uniform material into different colored layers being at the surface and continuing downward.
These soil layers are referred to as soil horizons.

Water also plays a significant role in the development of soil horizons. The downward
movement of water may move soil particles, nutrients, organic matter and various chemical
compounds deeper into the soil. As these processes continue, the parent material near the
surface changes and distinct layers become visible. Over a period of time, the development of
thick layers give rise to soil profiles that reflect specific sets of soil forming processes.

A soil profile is vertical slice of the soil through all its horizons. It extends down into the parent
material to a maximum depth of two meters. Soils in Canada are classified according to
properties that can be observed and measured in a soil profile.

A soil profile contains distinct horizontal layers of soil called horizons which differ from each
other in their physical and chemical properties. Two of the most obvious characteristics of soil
horizons are color and structure (the shapes of soil clods) which usually change distinctly at the
border between two horizons. Master soil horizons are the primary layers that are designated A,
B or C in mineral soil material. Organic soil horizons are designated LFH or O.

LFH Horizon
- an organic horizon that accumulates at the soil surface made primarily of leaf litter.
Occurs mainly under forest.
A Horizon
- A mineral soil horizon formed at or near the soil surface. In grassland soils, this horizon
usually has the highest levels of organic matter and biological life. In forested soils it has
experienced the greatest degree of loss of salts and fine soil particles through leaching.
B Horizon
- A mineral horizon which has accumulated materials such as clay particles and humus
from the layers above. It has undergone some chemical change which often gives it a
brownish color, different from the horizon above, and a specific structure (natural
grouping of soil particles).
C Horizon
- A mineral horizon which has been comparatively unaffected by the soil forming
process
except for the accumulations of soluble salts and carbonates. This horizon is nearly the
same as the original soil and parent material.

HORIZON SUFFIXES
Soil horizons are more completely described by attaching a lower-case suffix (such as f, h, k
etc.) to the master soil horizon designation (A, B, or C). These suffixes represent specific
conditions that occur within the master horizon. For example, a soil horizon designated Ah is a
A horizon which has been enriched by the accumulation of humus. A soil horizon designated Ck
is a C horizon that contains carbonate materials which will effervesce when dilute hydrochloric
acid [HCl] is added.

MINERAL HORIZON SUFFIXES

e - eluviated or leached of clay, iron or organic matter

- platy structure and a grayish white in color when dry
- used with A (Ae)
f - filium
- a weak development of an attribute
g - gleysolic
- gray color and/or prominent mottling due to poor drainage
- used with A, B or C horizons
h - humic
- enriched with organic matter
- usually exhibits a dark color (brown to black or dark grey)
- used with A or B horizons
k - carbonate
- contains primary carbonate minerals
- effervesces (fizzes) when dilute HCl is applied
m - modified
- altered by chemical processes that have caused a change in color or structure or both
- used with B horizon (Bm)
n - enriched in sodium (salts)
- may exhibit columnar structures; extremely hard consistency when dry
- used with B horizons (Bn)
p - plow layer
- disturbed by cultivation
- used with A horizon (Ap)
s - saline
- Calcium magnesium salts
t - enriched with clay
- used with B horizon (Bt)

TYPICAL SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil profiles are formed from the original parent materials by the five soil forming factors
(COPTT) explained in Module A2. Various combinations of the five soil forming factors can lead
to the creation of a huge variety of possible soil profiles. In Western Canada, however, climate,
parent material and living organisms have been the most dominant factors in soil formation
resulting in a few broad soil profile groupings os types. Two of the most common profile types
are those that develop under grassland and forest vegetation.

In western Canada, native grasslands formed mainly in the drier areas of southern Alberta,
Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Forests developed in the more humid climate bordering the
northern and western fringes of the prairie region. While both grassland and forest added
organic matter to the soil, the kind and amount produced by each was quite different and led to
very different profile arrangements.

The effects of climate and vegetation on soil profiles continues into the B horizons. The
subsurface horizons under grasslands and forest soils have been developed different colors and
structures.

The subsurface horizon in all well-drained grassland soil becomes modified (changed) over time
by chemical and physical processes to form a Bm horizon. Bm horizons are brownish in color
and are made of large elongated (slender or tapering form) soil peds (clumps) called prismatic
structures that allow water drainage and root penetration.

The subsurface of forested soils has a Bt horizon which has been enriched with clay particles
that coat the small, blocky shaped soil peds. Bt horizons swell up when wet, and cause poor
drainage and reduced root penetration.

THE CANADIAN SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION

www.sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis
A soil classification system is needed in order for people to communicate soil information
effectively. In Canada, soils are classified according to a hierarchical classification system which
begins by separating soils into one of 10 broad categories called Orders. Each of the ten Orders
group together soils with characteristics that are similar mainly in the arrangement of their
horizons. Soil orders are divided further into subcategories called great groups which again are
divided into subgroups, then families and ultimately series. Each successive category down
from the order level defines soils by increasingly specific characteristics. The soil series is the
most specific level of a classification. Soils are given the same series name are virtually
identical in most ways even when they occur many miles apart.

VERY GENERAL------------------------------------------------------------------------------VERY SPECIFIC

Order -----------> Great Groups ----------> Subgroups ------------------> Families -------------> Series

Basis for Subdivision

- soils which developed under generally similar conditions are grouped together in the same
ORDER
FOR EXAMPLE
- most grassland soils are included in the chernozemic order;
- most forested soils are included in the Luvisolic order

- soils which are similar in very specific ways are grouped together in the same soil series. Soils
in the same series will have similar texture, structure, depth of soil horizons, pH, stones, etc.

FIVE COMMON SOIL ORDERS AND THEIR DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

 SOIL ORDER DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS TYPICAL
HORIZON
SEQUENCES

Chernozemic - “Agricultural” soils which developed under grassland Ah, Bm, Ck

vegetation
- usually fertile with adequate amounts of organic matter in
the topsoil
- found in the Brown, Dark Brown, Black and Dark Gray soil

Gleysolic - develop in low-lying depressional, wet areas Ah, Bg, Cg

- have dull gray colors and reddish colored mottles
(splotches)
- have several soil zones
Humic Gleysol, Gleysol, Luvic Gleysol

Luvisolic - these are they “gray wooded” soils which form under LFH, Ae, Bt,
forest vegetation Ck
- have LFH litter layer and eluviated (leached) surface
mineral horizon (Ae)
- usually less productive for field crops that Chernozemic
soils
- found mostly in gray soil zone
- Gray Brown Luvisol, Gray Luvisol

Solonetzic - developed on parent materials containing high levels of Ah, Ae, Bnt,
sodium (Na) salts Csk
- often found together with Chernozemic soils
- the B horizon has a columnar structure that is hard when
dry and sticky when wet
- called “hardpan soils” and often require special
management techniques such as deep plowing or surface
drainage
- Solonetz, Solodized Solonetz, Solod

Organic - develop from the accumulation of partly decomposed Of, Om, Oh

organic materials mainly water- loving grasses, woody
plants and moss
- occur in poorly drained, depressional areas
- 30% is organic soil
SUMMARY
In this module, you were introduced to terms which helped you to understand the development
of soil horizons and to interpret soil profiles.
Learning the characteristics of the five most common soil orders will help you recognize soils in
the field and to classify them in a way that is recognized in Canada.
Soils given the same series name are virtually identical in most properties, even when they
occur many miles apart.
Knowing the soil series is important because farm management practices such as crop choice,
tillage and fertilizer use are similar for soils with the same series name.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR MODULE A4
1. What is a soil profile?
A soil profile is a vertical slice of the soil exposing all of its horizons. Analysis of the
characteristic of a soil profile allows the soil to be classified.
2. What are two of the more obvious soil characteristics that change as you move from one soil
horizon to the next?
Structure and color are two obvious characteristics that change as you move from one horizon
to the next.

3. What is the purpose of attaching suffixes to master soil horizons?

Suffixes attached to a Master soil horizon give a more specific description of the horizon’s
characteristics.

4. Describe three ways in which soil profiles from grasslands and forested soils differ.
Three differences between the surface horizons of grassland and forested soils:
Organic matter is distributed deep into the A horizon of a grassland but lies mainly at the
surface of forested soils.
The mineral surface horizon of a grassland is much more fertile than the forested soil.
The pH of the surface horizon in a grassland soil is usually neutral or alkaline whereas a
forested soil is acidic.

5. Write the appropriate soil orders to match the description given.

Gleysolic develop in low lying areas, found in several soil zones
Luvisolic form under forested vegetation; have a leached A horizon
Solonetzic “hardpan soils” that develop in parent materials with high levels of sodium
Chernozemic grassland soil with dark topsoil rich in organic matter