Faculty of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering

YEAR I: SEMESTER I

EMT1101: Engineering Mathematics I

LECTURE SET II

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

SECTION I: The Limit Concept

‘Infinity is a floorless room without walls or ceiling.’

©2009
1. The Limit Concept
1.1 Definition
A function f  x  is said to have a limit L as x approaches a number a ( lim f  x   L ) if the number
x a

f (x ) is close to L when x is chosen sufficiently near, though not equal to, the number a . In other
words, f (x ) tends to get closer and closer to L as x gets closer and closer to a .
x 1
Investigate the value of lim
x 3 x2
x 1
Example 1.1 Investigating lim
x 3 x2

x 1 x 1
x x
x2 x2

2 0.250000 4 0.500000

2.9 0.387755 3.1 0.411765

2.99 0.398798 3.01 0.401198

2.999 0.399880 3.001 0.400120

2.9999 0.399988 3.0001 0l400012

   

3 0.4 3 0.4

x 1 2
The data in the table suggests that lim 
x 3 x2 5
x 1 2
The graph of f ( x)  in the figure below reinforces the suggestion that f (x ) is near
x2 5
when x is near 3 .

x 1
y  0.4 y
x2

x3

1
 x 1
Note that although substitution of x  3 into f ( x)  would provide the correct answer in
x2
this case, in other cases it might give incorrect answers or even no answer at all.
x2  4
Example 1.2 Investigate lim
x2 x2  x  6

x2  4 x2  4
x x
x2  x  6 x2  x  6

1 0.750000 3 0.833333

1.5 0.777778 2.5 0.818182

1.9 0.795918 2.1 0.803922

1.99 0.799599 2.01 0.800399

1.999 0.799960 2.001 0.800040

1.9999 0.799996 2.0001 0.800004

   

2 0.8 2 0.8

x2  4 4
The numerical data shows that lim 2

x2 x  x6 5
x
Example 1.3 Investigate lim
x0 x

x  1x0
f x   
x  1 x  0

y
1

1

Form the graph it is apparent the f  x   1 as x  0 from the right and that f  x   1 as x  0
x
from the left. Therefore, lim does not exist.
x0 x

2
1.2 The Limit Laws
1.2.1 Constant Law
If f  x   C , where C is a constant [so f  x  is a constant function], then lim f  x   lim C  C
x a x a

1.2.2 Sum Law

If both the limits lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M
x a x a

 
exist, then lim f  x   g  x   lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M
x a x a x a

The limit of a sum of is the sum of the limits; the limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.
1.2.3 Product Law
If both the limits lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M
x a x a

 
exist, then lim f  x g  x   lim f  x  lim g  x   LM
x a x a x a

The limit of a product is the product of the limits
1.2.4 Quotient Law
If both the limits lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M
x a x a

 f  x   lim
 x a
f x  L  
Exist and M  0 , then lim
x a g  x 


 lim
x a
g  x 

M  
The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits, provided that the limit of the denominator is not
zero.
1.2.5 Root Law
If n is a positive integer and if a  0 for even values of n , then lim n x  n a
x a

The case where n  1 of the root law is lim x  a

x a

Example 1.4 Evaluate lim x 2  2 x  4

x 3
 
x 3
   x 3
x 3
      
x 3 x 3
2
lim x 2  2 x  4  lim x 2  lim 2 x  lim 4  lim x  2 lim x  lim 4  32  2  3  4  19
x 3 x 3

2x  5
Example 1.5 Evaluate lim
x 3  2
x  2x  4 
2x  5 lim2 x  5 11
x 3
lim  
x 3  2
x  2x  4  2

lim x  2 x  4 19
x 3

x2  4
Example 1.6 Investigate lim
x2 x2  x  6

lim
x2  4
 lim
x  2x  2  lim x  2  4
x2 2
x  x6 x 2 x  2x  3 x2 x  3 5

3
1.2.6 Substitution Law

x a x L x a

Suppose that lim g  x   L and lim f  x   f  L  , then, lim f  g  x   f lim g  x   f L 
x a

Example 1.7 Evaluate lim 3 3 x 3  20
x 4

1
1 3
lim 3 3 x 3  20
x 4 x 4
   
 3 lim 3 x 3  20 x  lim 3 x 3  lim 20 x
x 4
 x 4

3
 3
  lim 3x 2  lim 20 x   4
x 4 x 4
 
1.3 Limits for Trigonometric Functions
lim cos x  1 and lim sin x  0
x 0 x 0

sin x
It can be shown using numerical data analysis that lim 1
x 0 x
1  cos x
Example 1.8 Show that lim 0
x 0 x
1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x sin 2 x  sin x  sin x  0
lim  lim   lim   lim  lim   1 0
x0 x x 0 x 1  cos x x 0 x1  cos x   x 0 x  x 0 1  cos x  11
tan 3 x
Exercise 1: Evaluate lim (Answer is 3)
x 0 x
1.4 Squeeze Law of Limits (Sandwich Theorem)
If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x ) for all x  a in some neighborhood of a and also lim f  x   L  lim h x  then
x a x a

lim g  x   L as well
x a

See illustration in figure below

y  h(x)

y  g (x )

y  f (x)

a x
1
Example 1.9 Investigate lim x sin
x 0 x
1 1
 x  x sin   x and  x  0 as x  0 therefore from squeeze Law lim x sin  0
x x  0 x

4
1.5 One Sided Limits
1.5.1 The Right-Hand Limit of a Function
If f is defined on the interval ( a, c) immediately to the right of a . Then the number L is said to be
right-hand limit of f (x ) as x  a from the right provided that the number f (x ) is close to L when
a point x in ( a, c) is chosen sufficiently close to a .
x
lim f  x   L e.g. lim 1
x a x 0 x
1.5.2 The Left-Hand Limit of a Function
If f is defined on the interval (c, a ) immediately to the left of a . Then the number L is said to be
left-hand limit of f (x ) as x  a from the left provided that the number f (x ) is close to L when a
point x in (c, a ) is chosen sufficiently close to a .
x
lim f  x   L e.g. lim  1
x a x 0 x
1.5.3 One Sided Limits and Two Sided Limits
If the function f is defined for x  a in the neighborhood of the point a , then the two sided limit
lim f  x  exists and is equal to the number L if and only if the one sided limits exist lim f  x   L
xa x a

and lim f  x   L
x a

1.6 Infinite Limits

1
Example 1.10 Investigate lim
x 1  x  12

1
The value f ( x )  increases without bound (that is, eventually exceeds any pre-assigned
x  12
number) as x  1 either from the left or from the right.
1 1 1
Therefore lim    lim and lim  
x 1 x  12
x1  x  1
2 x 1  x  12

1
Example 1.21 Investigate lim
x 0 x
1 1 1
lim   and lim   therefore lim does not exist.
x 0  x x 0 x x 0 x

5
2. Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

2.1 Definitions
An indeterminate form is a certain type of expression with a limit that is not evident by inspection.
f x 
There are several types of indeterminate form. If lim f  x   0  lim g  x  , then the quotient has
x a x a g x 
0
the indeterminate form at x  a (or as x  a ) hence the quotient law of limits cannot be used to
0
evaluate a limit in such an instance. The limit of an indeterminate form if often evaluated by
performing a special algebraic manipulation or construction, however, it is often more convenient to
apply a rule and in this L’Hôpital’s Rule will be used.
2.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule
2.2.1 Theorem
If the functions f and g are differentiable and g ' ( x) is non-zero in some neighborhood of the point
a (except possibly at a itself) and lim f  x   0  lim g  x  :
x a x a

 f x   f ' x 
Then lim  lim  provided that the limit exists as a finite real number or is   or   .
x a g  x   x a g '  x  
   
2.2.2 Proof
If the functions f and g are not merely differentiable but have continuous derivatives near x  a
 f '  x   lim f '  x  f ' a 
and g ' a   0 then: lim   x a  by the quotient law of limits. In this case
x a g '  x 
  lim g '  x  g ' a 
x a

 f  x   f ' a 
L’Hôpital’s Rule reduces to lim  .
x a g  x  
  g ' a 
If f a   0  g a  , then from the right hand side:

 f  x   f a    f  x   f a  
lim  
f ' a  xa 

xa   lim  xa 
 lim
 f x   f a   lim f x 
g ' a 
lim 
 g  x   g a   x  a  g  x   g a   x  a g x   g a  xa  g x  
x a
 x  a   x  a 

 f  x   f ' a 
Therefore if f a   0  g a  and g ' a   0 lim  .
x a g  x  
  g ' a 
Examples 2.1
ex 1
(a) Find lim
x0 sin 2 x

0
The fraction whose limit is sought has the indeterminate form at x  0 . The numerator and
0
denominator are clearly differentiable in some neighborhood of x  0 , and the derivative of the
denominator is non-zero there, therefore invoking L’Hôpital’s Rule:
ex 1 ex e0 1
lim  lim  
x0 sin 2 x x 0 2 cos 2 x 2 cos 0 2

6
 sin x
(b) Find lim
x 0 x  x2
0
The fraction whose limit is sought has the indeterminate form at x  0 . The numerator and
0
denominator are clearly differentiable in some neighborhood of x  0 , and the derivative of the
denominator is non-zero there, therefore invoking L’Hôpital’s Rule:

sin x cos x lim cos x lim cos x 1

x 0 x 0
lim  lim    1
x 0 x x 2 x 0 1  2 x lim1  2 x  lim1  lim 2  lim x 1  2  0
x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0

1  x  ln x
(c) Find lim
x 1 1  cos x

f ' x
NB: If the quotient is itself indeterminate, then L’Hôpital’s Rule may be applied repeatedly,
g ' x
however the hypotheses of the rule have to be verified at each stage before its application.
1
1 
1  x  ln x x  lim x  1
lim  lim
x 1 1  cos x x1   sin x x 1 x sin x

Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule again:

x 1 1 1
lim  lim 2
 2
x 1 x sin x x 1  sin x   x cos x 
When L’Hôpital’s Rule is applied repeatedly, the numerator and denominator are differentiated
separately until at least one of them has a nonzero finite limit. At that point the limit of the quotient
can be recognized by inspection.
2.3 Indeterminate Forms Involving 
It should be noted that the limit given by L’Hôpital’s Rule can be infinite, and the real number a in
 f x   f ' x 
the rule can be replaced with either   or   for example: lim   lim   provided the
x  g  x 
  x  g '  x  
other hypotheses are satisfied in some interval of the form c,   in particular it should be verified
 f ' x
that lim f  x   0  lim g  x  and lim  exists.
x  x  x  g '  x  
 
f x  
L’Hôpital’s Rule can also be applied when the quotient has the indeterminate form . This
g x  
means that lim f  x   and lim g  x    .
x  x 

Examples 2.2
 ex 
(a) Find lim  
x  ln x
 
 
x
 e   ex 
Since lim e x    lim ln x , applying L’Hôpital’s Rule: lim   x  1   lim
 lim xe x  
x  x  x  ln x x 
   
x

7
  ex   xn 
(b) Verify that lim  n    and that lim  x   0
x  x x  e
   
2.4 Other Indeterminate Forms
0 
L’Hôpital’s Rule can only be applied directly to the indeterminate forms
and . However, there
0 
are other indeterminate forms, to apply the rule such forms have to b converted into the form
0 
or .
0 
Let’s suppose that lim f  x   0 and lim g  x    then the product f  x   g  x  has the indeterminate
x a x a

form 0   at x  a as x  a  . To find the limit of f  x   g  x  at x  a as x  a  the problem is

0  f x  g x 
recast in the forms or as follows: f  x   g  x   
0  1 g x  1 f x 
Now L’Hôpital’s Rule can be applied if its other hypotheses are satisfied.
 x 1
Example 2.3 Find lim  x ln
x 
 x  1
This is the indeterminate form 0   , so the problem can be recast as:
 x 1 
 x  1  ln x  1  0
lim  x ln   lim  1  , note that the right hand side now has the form , invoking
x 
 x  1 x 
  0
 x 
 2 
 x 1  x2 1  2 x2 2
L’Hôpital’s Rule: lim  x ln   lim 
 1  x 2lim   lim  2
 2
x 
 x  1 x  
 2  x  1 x  1  1 x
 x 
If lim f  x     lim g x  then f  x  g  x  has the indeterminate form    as x  a .To evaluate
x a x a

lim f  x   g  x  , the problem is manipulated so as to convert it into to which L’Hôpital’s Rule can
x a

0 
be applied i.e. or .
0 
Examples 2.4
1 1 
(a) Find lim 
x 0 x
 sin x 
1 1   sin x  x   cos x   1    sin x 
lim    lim    lim   lim  0
x 0 x
 sin x  x 0
 x sin x  x  0
 sin x  x cos x  x 0
 2 cos x  x sin x 

(b) Find lim

x 
x 2
 3x  x 

8
 1
  
 3    1  1  3  2   3   
    2  3
  
  1   1  x   x   
2

lim
x  
 2
x  

x  3 x  x  lim  x 
 
3
1   1    lim  
x  x   1
x    lim  
 x    1
   lim
 x  
2
3

3
2
     2  1
x x x
   
 
2.5 The Indeterminate Forms 00 ,  0 , and 1
g x
To evaluate lim f  x  given that the limits of f and g as x  a are such that one of the
x a

indeterminate forms 00 ,  0 , or 1 manifests:

(a) Let y   f  x g  x 
(b) Simplify ln y  g  x  ln f  x 
(c) Evaluate L  lim ln y
x a

g x
(d) Conclude that lim f  x   eL
x a

Examples 2.5
1
(a) Find limcos x x2
x0

This results into the indeterminate form1 .Therefore,

1
lncos x 
Let y  cos xx2 then ln y  notice that as x  0 cos x  1 and so ln(cos x)  0 . There
x2
0
now the system is in the indeterminate form . Invoking L’Hôpital’s Rule:
0
lncos x  sin x cos x tan x 0
lim ln y  lim 2
 lim  lim Still indeterminate form ,
x 0 x 0 x x  0 2x x  0 2x 0
Invoking L’Hôpital’s Rule :

sec2 x 1 1
 lim  lim 2

x 0 2 x0 2 cos x 2
1 1
Therefore limcos x x 2  e 1 2 
x0 e
tan x
(b) Find lim x
x 0

This results into the indeterminate form 00 .Therefore,

ln x 
Let y  x tan x the ln y  tan x ln x  . Now this has the indeterminate form , Invoking
cot x 
1
ln x x sin 2 x  sin x 
L’Hôpital’s Rule: lim ln y  lim  lim 2
  lim   lim   sin x  1  0  0
x0 x 0 cot x x 0  csc x x 0 x x 0  x 
Therefore lim x tan x  e 0  1
x 0