Literature of milk

Composition of milk

According to Maurald et al, 2014 The nutritional value of milk is particularly high due to the balance of
the nutrients that compose it. The composition varies among animal species and breeds within the
same species, and also from one dairy to the other, depending on the period of lactation and diet .
sodium.

Quantitative composition of the milk

Main constituent Limits of variation Mean value
Water 85.5-89.5 87.5
Total solids 10.5-14.5 13.0
Fat 2.5-6.0 3.9
Proteins 2.9-5.0 3.4
Lactose 3.6-5.5 4.8
Minerals 0.6-0.9 0.8
The two types of proteins in cows milk are, Casein and Whey

According to Foroutan 2019,

The enzymes in milk include, Peroxidase, Catalase, Phosphatase, Lipase and lactase.

Vitamin Amount in one litre of milk, mg

A 0.2-2
B1 0.4
B2 1.7
C 5
D 0.002

4 MINERALS AND SALTS IN MILK.

Milk contains a number of minerals. The total concentration is less than 1%.

Mineral salts occur in solution in milk serum or in casein compounds. The most important salts
are those of sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium. They occur as phosphates, chlorides,
citrates and caseinates. Potassium and calcium salt are the most abundant in normal milk. the
amount of salts present are not constant towards the end of lactation and even more so in the case
of udder diseases.

OBTAINING MILK AT JESA

Milk is the largest raw material that is used at JESA dairy. This implies that a big supply for the
raw material is needed. The suppliers are:
3.1.2 Small Scale suppliers:

These are suppliers that supply above 5litres of milk per day. They deliver it in cans. These
suppliers are basically local suppliers (live around the industry). The also transport their milk of
motocycles and bicycles.

3.1.3 Large Scale Suppliers:

These are the ones that supply the milk in trucks. They supply the largest percentage of the milk
that is processed in the industry. These suppliers have different collection centers where they
collect the milk from and bring it at the industry

PASTUERIZATION

Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process of food preservation in which packaged and non-

packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mild heat. The process is named
after the French microbiologist Louis Pasteur whose research in the 1860s demonstrated that
thermal processing would deactivate unwanted microorganisms in wine

This is done at a temperature greator than 70oC and less than 100oC. The heat treatment and
cooling process are designed to inhibit a phase change of the product. The acidity of the food
determines the parameters (time and temperature) of the heat treatment as well as the duration of
shelf life. Parameters also take into account nutritional and sensory qualities that are sensitive to
heat.

Purpose of pasteurization

 It is not the goal of pasteurization to eradicate all microbes from food. Instead, it helps to
lower the number of live germs, making them less likely to spread disease if proper conditions
are applied to storage conditions.(sanjogta, 2023)
 It is regularly utilized as a CCP in many HACCP plans and is widely used in the food sector.
 Pasteurization is typically employed to eliminate all disease-causing organisms (as in the case
of pasteurizing milk) or to lessen the number of organisms that cause food to spoil, as in the
case of vinegar.
  The pasteurization neutralizes all non-spore-forming pathogenic bacteria, most vegetative
spoiling microorganisms, and slows or halts microbial and enzyme activity.
 It extends food’s shelf life at low temperatures, usually 4°C for a few days (for instance, milk)
or months (e.g., bottled fruit).

TYPES OF PASTUERIZATION

. Vat Pasteurization or low temperature

 Vat pasteurizer consists of a temperature-controlled, closed vat.
 Additionally, it is called batch pasteurization or low-temperature, or prolonged pasteurization.
 The food product is brought to a temperature between 62 °C to 64 °C and maintained there for
about 30 minutes, and then swiftly cooled.
Advantages
1. Vat pasteurization works effectively for low-volume items in bigger enterprises and small
plants.
2. They are particularly well suited to processing cultured products like buttermilk and sour
cream, which require mixing for the incorporation of starter, several hours of quiescent
holding for incubation, agitation for breaking the curd, and final cooling the tank in addition
to being pasteurized and cooled.
Disadvantages
1. Pasteurization in vats often occurs in batches and is, therefore, slow.
2. Although manual controls are employed, the operator must always pay close attention to
avoid overheating, over-holding, and burning.
3. Since the vat cannot regenerate heat, heating, and cooling are relatively expensive.


Ultra pasteurization (UP)

 In the same way as the HTST process, ultra-pasteurization is also carried out at a higher
temperature using slightly different tools.
 UP pasteurized products have a longer shelf life but still require refrigeration.
 Different dairy products require different pasteurization processes depending on the product’s
fat level.
  Ice cream, dairy dessert mixes, cream, or processed cheese need stronger treatment, such as
70°C for 25–30 min. or 80°C for 25 s.
Advantages
1. The shelf life of milk is greatly extended by ultrapasteurization.
Disadvantages
1. The milk does not taste like conventional pasteurized milk and contains up to 20% fewer
vitamins A, D, and E than conventional pasteurized milk.
2. The shelf life of pasteurized milk is shorter once opened due to decreased levels of
antimicrobials, helpful bacteria, and enzymes.


High Temperature/Short Time (HTST)

 HTST pasteurization is also referred to as flash pasteurization or the continuous method.
 HTST pasteurization stands for high-temperature, short-time processing.
 It is currently one of the most popular pasteurization techniques.
 The liquid is heated to temperatures between 71.5 °C to 74 °C for approximately 15 to 30
seconds or between 74°C to 76°C for 15 to 20 seconds, followed by rapidly cooling to
between 4°C and 5.5 °C using a continuous heat exchanger.
Advantages
1. The color and flavor are better preserved.
2. Suitable for milk products, juice/puree-based goods, and legged beer products.
Disadvantages
1. This approach can be used in fewer manufacturing facilities.
2. It is pretty expensive.

Microorganisms killed by pasteurization

1. Acid producers- Streptococci, Lactobacilli, Microbacteria, Coliforms, Micrococci

2. Gas producers- Coliforms, Clostridium butyricum, Torula cremoris
3. Ropy or stringy fermentation- Alcaligenes viscolactis, Enterobacter aerogenes
4. Proteolytic
organisms Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Proteus spp., Streptococcus liquefaciens
5. Lipolytic organisms- Pseudomonas fluorescens, Achromobactor lipolyticum, Candida
lipolytica, Penicillium spp.

3.6.1.4 SHELF LIFE OF PASTEURISED MILK.

Shelf life is the period of time during which food products remain safe, retain desired sensory,
chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics and maintain a composition that complies
with the label declaration when stored and handled under the recommended conditions. ie, shelf
life is considered as a period of time in which food products are stable and viable for
consumption.

The shelf life of pasteurized milk is always dependent on the quality of the raw milk. Naturally,
it is also most important that production conditions are technically and hygienically optimized,
and that the plant is properly managed.

Freshly pasteurized milk processed and packaged by Jesa farm dairy ltd has a shelf-life of 6
days when kept at 5 – 7 °C in an unopened package.

Effects of pasteurization.

 pasteurization has a small effect on the vitamins naturally found in milk. And contrary to
raw milk, which only contains a small amount of vitamin D, pasteurized milk is fortified
with this vitamin
 levels of riboflavin, or vitamin B2, decrease significantly during the pasteurization
process.

Sterilization
sterilization can be defined as the complete removal of all forms of microorganisms,
both vegetative and spore forms, from a surface or an object.

Classification of Sterilization

Sterilization is achieved by different physical and chemical methods in microbiology.

Sterilization is classified into 2 types – physical sterilization and chemical sterilization.
Physical Methods of Sterilization
Physical sterilization includes the following methods:

 Heat Sterilization
Heat sterilization is the most effective method of sterilization, where the elimination of microbes
is achieved by the destruction of cell constituents and enzymes. It is done by two methods:

1.
1.
A. Moist Heat Sterilization: It is one of the best methods of sterilization.
Moist heat sterilization is done with the help of an instrument called an
autoclave. An autoclave works on the principle of producing steam under
pressure. Thus moist heat sterilization is also known as steam sterilization.
The water is boiled in an autoclave at 121-134℃ at a pressure of 15psi.
This leads to coagulation of proteins in the microorganism, and they are
effectively killed.
B. Dry Heat Sterilization: This method is used on objects that are sensitive
to moisture. Moisture-free heat or dry heat is applied on the surface or
objects such that there is denaturation and lysis of proteins which leads to
oxidative damage, and ultimately the microbial cell dies out or may even
burn. Some methods of dry heat sterilization include incinerators, hot air
ovens and flaming techniques.

 Filtration
This is a mechanical method of sterilization in microbiology. This method uses membranous
filters with small pores to filter out the liquid so that all the bigger particles and microbes cannot
pass through. The three steps of filtration are sieving, adsorption and trapping.

 Irradiation
Irradiation is the process of exposing surfaces or objects to different kinds of radiation for
sterilization. It is of two types:

1.
1.
A. Non-ionising Radiation: Ultraviolet radiation is exposed to the object,
which is absorbed by nucleic acids of the microorganisms. This leads to
the formation of pyrimidine dimers in the DNA strand, which causes the
replicative error, and eventually, the microbe dies.
B. Ionising Radiation: Upon exposure to ionising radiations such as gamma
rays and X-rays, reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide and
superoxide ions are formed that oxidise the cellular components of the
microbe, and they die.
  Sound Waves Vibration
Sonix sound waves ranging from 20-40 kHz in frequency are applied across the fluid to be
sterilized. These ultrasonic waves produce an alternation of compressive and tensile forces
forming cavities in the solution. These cavities suddenly collapse, which creates submicroscopic
voids and removes microorganisms from the container.

 Fractional Sterilization
Fractional sterilization or tyndallisation is a method used for media containing gelatin or sugar.
Typically, exposure to 100°C for 20 minutes on 3 successive days is required. The principle is
that the first exposure kills all spores and vegetative bacteria. If they germinate, they will be
killed in the subsequent exposures. However, this method may fail to kill spores of certain
thermophiles and anaerobes.

Chemical Methods of Sterilization

Chemical methods of sterilization are used in microbiology for biological specimens and plastic
equipment. In this method, several chemicals work as bactericidal agents. They can be of two
types: gaseous or liquid.

 Gaseous Sterilization
Gaseous sterilization is the method where the object is exposed to gas in a closed, heated and
pressurised chamber. The gaseous chemical agents used for sterilization include ethylene oxide,
formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide and ozone.

 Liquid Sterilization
Liquid sterilization is the process of immersing the object in a liquid such that it kills all the
viable microorganisms and their spores. This method is less effective than gaseous sterilization
and is used to remove low levels of contamination. Common liquid chemical agents that are used
for sterilization include hydrogen peroxide, glutaraldehyde and hypochlorite solution.

Cold Sterilization Definition – It is a process in which sterilization is carried out at low

temperatures with the help of chemicals, filters, radiation and all other means excluding high
temperatures. It is done for products that contain heat-sensitive ingredients and yet require
sterilization.

Utilities used in UHT treatment.

 Clean soft water for cleaning materials, heating milk and processing.
 Power or electricity for running machines like homogenizer.
 Compressed air is used for opening and closing of the valves.
  Steam is used for boiling the water used to beat the milk.
 Raw materials i.e milk.

3.6.2.4For heat sterilization at JESA, IMPORTANT NOTES

 At the Critical Control Point (CCP), the milk is heated for only 4 seconds to kill all the
microorganisms and prevent it from being burnt.
 Heating of the milk is a stepwise process where steam from the boiler heats the water and
the water heats the milk. Its not advisable to heat the milk directly with milk because the
milk can be burnt easily since steam is at very high temperatures.
 The homogenizer has a valve that opens and pours the milk incase of an emergency.
 Ultra compressed air and steam filters trap all the microorganisms in the steam.

The pipes and tanks used in the process are made up of stainless steel. This is because of its good
properties which may include:

 It does not rust

 It does not corrode
Its strong

3.6.2.3 UHT MILK FILLING AND PACKING.

At the old plant UHT milk is packed in pouches in 500ml, using the UHT filling machine. The
machine receives 2000lt/h and packs 1800lt/hr.

The 200lt/hr is sent back to the balance tank as return. Filling machine is kpt sterile using sterile
air. The peroxide chamber keeps peroxide for sterilizing the packing machine, Squeezers remove
the peroxide from the film.

UV lamps dry the excess peroxides as well as killing microbes to avoid any contamination

The packaging material is a film that is made of polyethene with 5 layers, that cuts oof air
entrance and inserting the date.

PACKAGING INTEGRITY ANALYSIS FOR STERILIZED PRODUCTS

. 3.7.1.3.1 Conductivity test.

This test is used to check for any micro pores on the package. Basically, this tests detects for
the contact with aluminium layer.
Requirements.

A conductivity meter

Salt bath (10g NaCl/litre water)

Glass or plastic beaker

Procedure.

Empty the packages of the product

Cut packages in half but do not cut the longitudinal seal (LS)

Fold the package at the Longtudinal seal. (LS)

Place the package in the salt bath.

Pour salt solution into both halves of the package using beaker. This should be done without
weting the edges.

Place one probe in the bath and one in one half of the package

Check for continuity, repeat for other half of the package.

A deflection on a conductivity meter shows a that there are micropores (contact with aluminium
layer has issues).

Note; If any sample shows positive to conductivity, we continue with the red ink test.

3.7.1.3.2 RED INK TEST

This is perfomed when package shows positive to conductivity. This test indicates if there is any
rupture through the inside layers of PE, the Aluminium Foil and the PE laminate.

Requirements.

Red ink solution (saturated Erythrosine B in pure Isopropanol) – Pipette

Procedure.

 Empty packages of product

 Dry packages of water (before introducing ink)
 Cover all critical spots
 Exposure to the ink (5 minutes)
 Aspirate excess ink with pipette and dry with paper towel
3.7.1.3.3 TS TEAR DOWN test
It checks for the rupturing of the material layers and consistency of the seal quality.
Requirements.
– Stretch/Seal Pliers
– 10x magnifier with 0.2mm divisions (preferably illuminated
Procedure
TAKE two sample packages
– EMPTY packages of product
– CUT off the top and bottom Transversal Seals
– CUT no more than 1mm off the ends of the seals
– USE the Stretch Pliers, and (if necessary) the magnifier, to evaluate the seal quality

Figure 1 Ts tear down test

3.7.1.3.4 LS AND SA EVALUATION.

Figure 2 LS and SA Evaluation

What will be revealed:

 Measurement of Air Gap
 Evaluation of Heat Zone & Strip position
 Evidence of Channels
 Rupturing of material layers
Requirements
.10x magnifier with 0.2mm divisions (preferably illuminated)
– Zonoscope
– Red ink solution (saturated Erythrosine B in pure Isopropanol)
– Vernier Caliper or ruler
Procedure
Take two packages and unfold to expose LS, DO NOT crease the strip
– Measure the strip position and heat zone
– Inject ink into one air gap, check for leaks through longitudinal creases
– Cut up the middle of the Strip remove overlap, pull off strip at 90 o
– Evaluate seal quality according to OM

YOGHURT

Process of yoghurt formation

Using a blender stabilizer, starch and sugar are added to the milk to make a yoghurt mixture.
This process is known as blending. The pasteurized milk is pumped via the tri blender where it’s
blended with stabilizers (starch) and sugar which acts as a sweetener.

After mixing, the mixture is left to hygrate for 45 minutes. During hydration, moisture is
asorbed from the starch . This process contributes to the smoothness of the yoghurt.
3.7.2.2 Process of yoghurt pasteurization.
The yoghurt mixture is taken into the pre heating chamber of the heat exchanger where its
temperature is raised to about 60oC. This is important because: it facilitates dissolving of sugar
and stabilizer, ensures attainment of the required temperatures for homogenization which lies
between 55-60oC.

It is then taken to the homogenizer so that the fat can be homogenously mixed in the yoghurt.
This ensures uniform distribution of fat globules. This process is normally carried out at 95 oC
for 5 minutes. The temperature sensors on the system ensures optimum attainment of the
pasteurization temperature of the out flow product of the yoghurt mix. The yoghurt mix is then
rapidly cooled to inoculation temperature (40-45oC).

It is then taken back to the heating chamber and heated to a pasteurization temperature of about
91-99 oC.

It enters the holding tubes and passes through for 6minutes.

Its then taken back to the cooling chamber of the heat exchanger and cooled to a temperature of
about 40-44 oC.

The culture is then added from the top side of the tank. The cultures added are

Yoflex and Frresh Q4. The culture is about 200units/2500L and the protective culture is
100/2500L.

The argitator is put off and fermentation is allowed to take place in the fermentation tanks. The
temperature of the product in the tank is about 43oC. The incubation time is 4 to 6 hours while
monitoring the pH. Fermentation involves the degradation of milk sugars (lactose) and
destabilization of milk protein (casein) to attain an isoelectric pH of 4.6.

The yoghurt is considered ready if the pH drops to about 4.450-4.7. below a pH of 4.2, the
yoghurt will sower and if the curd is broken at a lower pH though in range, it may also sower
before packing. A sample is picked at different time intervals and taken the quality control lab
for analysis.
On breaking the curd, the argitator is turned on at a speed of 4rpm for 10 seconds. If the argitator
remains on after this time, the yoghurt will loose its body (it will become watery)

For pouched yoghurt, cooling of the product is necessary during the process of packing. This is
because cold yoghurt is thicker making it hard for it to be packed.

It is cooled to a temperature of about 25 oC.

The yoghurt is then packed and stored in the cold rooms at a temperature of 3 to 5

LABORATORY TESTS FOR DAIRY INDUSTRY

The tests include: organo leptic test, somatic cells count, density, temperature, pH, Alcohol test,
Batter fat, Titratable Acidity, clot on Boiling (COB), Resazurin test, Antibiotic test, adulterants,
added water, sediment test, solid non fat, proteins, lactose, salts, formalin.

1 Titratable Acidity .
This test is done to analyze the percentage of lactic acid in the milk sample. The normal milk
titratable acidity is 0.14-0.17% Lactic acid. When it is beyond that range, the milk will be too
acidic and increase in acidity may lead to:

Change in the test of the milk i.e it will have a sour test due to reduced pH

The low pH in the milk sample favours optimum conditions for growth of microorganisms i.e
lactic Acid Bacteria that grows best at low pH levels

Requirements: Petri dish, pipette, phenolphthalein indicator, 0.1M sodium hydrxide, 0.1M
hydrochloric Acid, retort stand, dropper.

Procedure for Titratable Acidity analysis.

 1ml of the sample is pipetted and poured onto the Petri dish.
  The initial volume of the standard solution of a 0.1M sodium hydroxide in the buirrete is
noted
 drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added and then titrated with a standard solution of
a 0.1M sodium hydroxide untill When color of the milk in the petri dish has just changed
from white to purple
 The volume of sodium hydroxide reacted is calculated and the value of titratable acidity
(X −x) ×0 . 1× 0 . 09× 100
is calculated from TA= where X is the final buirrete reading
volume of milk pipetted
and x is the final buirette reading. 0.09 is the titration constant of the analysis.

3.3.1.2 Alcohol test.

This test is done in order to determine the stability of the proteins toward heat. If the stability of
the proteins is low, they will coagulate during processing. it is more likely to happen during
pasteurization and sterilization because this is where heating takes place during processing . i.e.
they will separate into casein and whey.

Requirements : buirette, pipette, petri dish, retort stand 70% or80% alcohol

Procedure for Alcohol test.

 2ml of the milk to be analyzed are pipetted and transferred onto the petri dish.
 2ml of 70% or 80% alcohol are also pipetted and added to the milk on the petri dish.
 When the milk does not coagulate, it shows that the proteins are stable on heating and is
recorded as negative (-ve)
 When it coagulates, it shows that the proteins are unstable on heating and is recorded as
(+ve)
 The milk that shows a positive on 80% alcohol, can not be sterilized. This simply means
that it cannot be used to process ultra high temperature products.
 The experiment can be done using an alcohol gun. When dipped vertically in the milk
sample, it can automatically measure 2ml of the sample and then pours both alcohol and
the milk in equal ratios.
Figure 3 Alcohol gun

3.3.1.3 Resazurin Test

This test is done to determine the microbial load in a sample. It is done using resazurin solution

On further incubation, it provides information about the rate of change of microbial load in a
sample.

The Resazurin test can also allow us know wether there are adulterants. Note: Resazurin
solution;

 Can spend a maximum of eight hours from the time of preparation. This is simply
because it will lose its effectiveness
 Should be kept in light since it is light sensitive. This is because it gets oxidized when
exposed to light.

Procedure.

 The Resazurin solution is first prepared by dissolving one tablet of resazurin in 50mills of
distilled water. The solution is kept out of reach of light.
 The test tubes are rinsed using the milk samples in order to prevent contamination.
 10ml of the milk samples are pitteted into the test tubes.
 They are then heated in the water bath at a temperature of 38 for 5minutes.
 The samples are then removed and added 1ml of resazurin solution.
 The mixture is shaken very well so that they are homogeneous.
 They are then heated in the water bath at temperature of 38 for 10minutes.
  When the time has elapsed, the samples are removed from the water bath and the color
change is observed.
 The number of Rez is determined by compairing the color of the samples with a chart
 The number of Rez range from 0 to 6.
 The milk that that is accepted is of Rez 6 and Rez 5
 When no colour change is seen after 20 minutes of warming, it implies that there
adulterants.
 This is because adulterants tend to bind the microorganisms making it impossible for the
reaction to take place during the test hence the number of Rez will be constant at 6.

Table 1 Resazurin colour chart

Resazurin disc No. Colour Milk grade Action taken

6 Blue Excellent Accept

5 Light blue Very good Accept

4 Purple Good Reject

3 Purple-pink Fair Reject

2 Light pink Poor Reject

1 Pink Bad Reject

0 White Very bad Reject

3.3.1.4 Batter fat test

This is done to determine the amount of batter fat in the milk. .

Requirements: Butyrometer, 91% Sulphuric Acid, Garber’s pipette, Gerber’s centrifuge, Amyl
Alcohol,

Procedure
10ml of sulphuric acid 91% concentrated is pipetted into the butyrometer.

This is followed by 10.75ml of the milk sample using a Garber’s pipette. This is done in order
for the sulphuric acid to digest the milk sample. It breaks the components of the milk into smaller
particles

1ml of amyl alcohol is then added to the mixture in the butyrometer. Amyl alcohol is added to
separate the layers i.e the fat layer from the rest

The mixture is shaken gently and then centrifuged using a garber’s centrifuge for 4minutes.

The butyrometer is then removed from the centrifuge and the two layers formed can be
distinguished.

The amount of the fat can be read off from the graduated part of the butyrometer

Note; The butyrometers in the centrifuge are in pairs and in opposite direction.

Figure 4 Gerber centrifuge

3.3.1.5 pH test
This is done in order to determine the lactic acid concetration of the milk. The pH of the raw
milk should just be slightly acidic.

Low pH leads to detoriation of fresh milk

If the pH is low, the quality of the milk is poor which affects the growth of the culture hence
causing a longer fermentation.
Low pH affects the protein by breaking them down. The proteins will then be unstable hence
cant form a stable gel. A stable gel is one that gives a firm body or texture

A low pH makes the milk sour.

A high pH is also an indication of adulterants, udder diseases

Figure 5 pH meter

3.3.1.6 Density
The density of the milk is determined using a lactometer

The density of row milk is between 28 to 36.

When there are adulterations by water, the density of the milk is low

When there are adulterations by powders and starches, the density of the milk is high.

Procedure.

 A sample of milk whose density is to be determined is poured into a measuring cylinder.

 A lactometer is then dipped into it and left to settle vertically.
 The lactometer readings for the temperature t and density D are noted
 The lactometer is calibrated at 29oC therefore the value measured is not considered final.
 The temperature at which the density is measured is recorded as t.
  The change in temperature dt is got by dt=29-t
 Then the calibration factor F is got by F=0.2xdt
 Then density=D-F for temperatures below calibration temperature and density=D+F for
temperatures above calibration temperature.

3.3.1.7 Antibiotics test.

This basically tests for Beta lactams, sulfonamides and tetracyclines.

When taken, antibiotics may cause anti biotic resistance in humans.

Milk containing antibiotics hinders fermentation (slow it down or even preventing it). this is
because they prevent growth of microbial cultures.

Anti biotics are tested using a milk antibiotic residues rapid test kit.

Procedure

200microlitres milk sample is pipetted into the reagent microwell and mixed well i.e by pipette
up and down.

The Microwell is put on the incubator and incubates for 3minutes at 38-42oC

The dipstick is inserted into the microwell after first incubation. Incubation for another 6minutes
at 38-42oC is allowed to take place.

The dipstick is taken out from the microwell and the sample pad is removed at the lower end and
the results are interpreted.

The interpretation is done according to the diagram below.

Figure 6 Anti biotics kit

Figure 7 Anti biotics strips

3.3.1.8 Somatic Cell count

This is done in order to check for any infections of the udder. Infections of the udder hinders
fermentation.

It may also raise the pH of the milk making it more alkaline.

This test is done using test strips and an activator solution. An activator solution is added to
activate the presence of the cells (increase there traceability).

To 1 drop of the milk sample is added 3 drops of the activator solution.

The color of the mixture id determined using a colour chart or a digital somatic cell count reader
wich measures in x1000cells per mill.
Figure 8 Somatic cell counter

3.3.1.9 Solid Non Fat (SNF) .

This is a value that can be calculated using the values of the batter fat and the density.

SNF shows the amounts of the solids in the milk that are not fats. Their proportion in the milk
also determine the quality of the milk.

density
SNF=Batter fat × 0.22+ + 0.72
4

Likewise the components of the solids non fat (proteins, lactose, salts) can be calculated.

Proteins= SNF ×0.367

Lactose= SNF ×0.55

Salts= SNF ×0.083

Figure 9 Lactoscan
NOTE, The following can be got automatically using a lactoscan.

3.3.1.10 Adulterants .
The adulterants detected include formalin, Detergents, sodium chloride, sugar, glucose, hydrogen
peroxide, skim milk powder, Alzarin, Urea, starch and Nuetralizers.

Adulterants are detected using the milk adulteration test kit

Adulterants may raise the pH of the milk making it more alkaline.

Procedutre to taste for formalin

1. Take 2ml of raw milk sample in test tube

2. Add 2 drops of reagent FM-1 and mix well
3. Add 1 ml of reagent FM-2 to the side of the test tube slowly
4. Observe the color of the ring formed at the junction and compare with the colour
chart.

Results reading

Absence of neutralizers = Brownish yellow colored ring

Presence of neutralizers = Purple/violet colored ring

Neutralizers testing procedure

1. Take 1ml of raw milk sample in test tube

2. Add 1ml of reagent N-1
3. Add 3 drops reagent N-2
4. Observe Color change of the solution and compare with the colour chart

Results reading

Absence of neutralizers = Light orange

Presence of neutralizers = Reddish pink

Note: The violet coloration does not appear usually when large of formalin present

3.3.1.11 Sediment test:

This is a test is used to determine the presence of foreign matter using a filter under pressure.
This is carried out on incoming raw milk from trucks or already within the silo and pasteurized
milk.
Procedure

Take 500ml of milk sample and adjust the temperature to 40oC and then cool to 20oC
Clean the sediment tester thoroughly with filtered water
Place a clean filter pad, with the name of the supplier into position
Pour the 500ml milk sample into the tester and let all the milk pass through the sediment
disc/pad.
Remove the filter pad and place it on a clean surface (parchment paper) to dry in a dust
free environment for at least 10 minutes.
Grade the milk using the standard grading card.

3.3.1.12 Temperature;
The desired temperature for raw milk to be offloaded is 2-8oC.

Temperature beyond 8 will favour microbial growth.

Very low temperature are not desired since they can lead to freezing hence affecting the structure
of the proteins.

This is measured using a thermometer at the corresponding value is recorded directly.

3.3.1.13 Clot on boiling test (COB)

This is done in order to determine the stability of milk proteins, whether it can withstand heat
treatment. It is carried out on incoming raw milk in the trucks and on the already existing milk in
the silo.

PROCEDURE:

1. Pour the milk sample in the aluminum/ stainless steel container.

2. Using a pair of tongs to hold the container, heat the milk sample over the flame of the
Bunsen burner or any available heat source.

Observations/results
 If the milk clots, it is COB positive and hence cannot withstand heat treatment
  If it does not, then it is said to be COB negative and can further be processed into final
products

3.3.1.14 Freezing point and added water

The freezing point of milk is regarded to be the most constant of all measurable properties of
milk that is a small adulteration of milk with water will cause a detectable elevation of the
freezing point of milk from its normal average value of -0.54 oC close to 0oC. The addition of
water to milk not only reduces its quality, but also leads to spoilage or contamination that can
present a health hazard. The milk freezing point is measured using the Thermistor Cryoscope.

Requirements

Thermistor, Cryoscopy tubes, Graduated pipette (2-5 ml), Suitable cooling liquid for the
Cryoscope (33% aqueous solution of propylene glycol), Tube rack, Absorbent paper,

Calibration solution for the machine and anti-freeze solution: Calibration Standard “A” solution
(distilled water (-0.000°C freezing point)), Calibration Standard “B” solution (sodium chloride
solution (-0.600°C freezing point)). Put approximately 12 g of sodium chloride into an oven at
300°C for 5 hours or at 130°C for at least 24 hours. Cool down the sample in a desiccator.
Weigh exactly 10.161 g and dissolve into distilled water, bringing the volume up to 1,000 ml.
Let the solution stabilize for 24 hours,

Figure 10 Cyoscope
3.3.1.15 ORGANOLEPTIC TEST CHARACTERISTICS
This test permits rapid detection and segregation of poor quality milk at the milk reception. This
test is exclusively subjective therefore the analyst should have a good sense of sight, smell, and
taste. It is cheap because no equipment is required and the test results are obtained instantly.

Note: Milk which cannot be adequately judged Organoleptically was always rapidly subjected to
more sensitive tests.

Steps followed in performing an organo leptic test

Once the sample has been availed in the laboratory, immediately observe and smell the milk. If
still unable to make a clear judgment, taste the milk, but do not swallow it instead spit the milk
sample into a sink and flush with water. The colour of the milk ranges from white to yellow
according to the coloration (carotene content) of the fat.

DAIRY MICROBIOLOGY

Microbiology is one of the essential analytical procedures that are put in place at JESA FARM
DAIRY. This is done to ensure that the products released to the market for sale are free from
microorganisms

The microorganisms of interest and there appearance :

 Yeast and molds

Yeasts are green and molds are blue
 Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus appears violet
 Ecoli and coliforms
E.coli appears deep green(black) and coliforms are
deep red surrounded by gas.
At JESA farm dairy, Rapid plate count plates are used for plating the microorganisms.
Rapid yeast and mold count plate (YMC) is used for enumeration of yeasts and molds.

Staph Express count plate (STX) is used for enumeration of Staphylococcus aures. If the
colonies are different from violet, a staph express disk.
 E.Coli / Coliform count plate (EC) is used for enumeration of E.Coli and Coliforms.

The Petrifilm Aerobic Count plate (AC) for enumeration of aerobic bacteria.

Optimum temperatures for growth

Yeasts and molds grow at room temperature, therefore they are incubated at a
temperature of about 25oC for 48hours

Staphylococcus aures, coliforms and E.Coli, and Aerobic microbes are incubated at 38 oC
for 48hours.

Microbiology analysis is done on the raw materials, products and the personnel in the
industry

3.3.2.1 General Procedure for plating

The rapid plate is removed from the pack

Its then labeled properly with the correct information i.e

product name, manufacturing date, expiry date and the date of plating.

A syringe is used to get 1ml of a sample and then transferred to the plate at a faster rate.

Microbiology analysis is done on

Personnel.

Microbiology analysis is done on the personnel in the industry every after a month.

This is done by taking samples from the people by swabbing using swabs.

The swaps are plated on all the plates i.e EC, AC, STX and YMC.

Air
Microbiology analysis is done on the air the production rooms. This is because Air can be can be
circulated with yeasts and molds which may contaminate the products therefore air plate counts
is done.

This is done by exposing the plate in air for like 30minutes and then incubated for 48hours.

Note: Yeast and molds can lead to bulging of the products even if they are taken to the cold
rooms.

If we find out that the air is circulated with microorganisms (yeasts and molds), fumigation is
done to kill them

Packaging material

We do plating of all the microorganisms of interest at JESA Farm Dairy..

This is done by swabbing the material.

The swab contains dry mass of microorganisms, so it is dissolved in peptone water and then
plated.

Different products produced

Ultra High Temperature (UHT) Milk. We only do Total plate counts on UHT. This is because
its produced under aseptic environment. The few microorganisms that exist may be due to;

 Contamination by the packaging material.

 Errors by the microbiologist during the processes of plating and other interactions with
the sample
 Cleaning in place (CIP) was not perfect.

Yoghurt (all flavors)

Yoghurt contains a very high load of microorganisms because it is a cultured product. This is
why Total plate counts is not applicable to it. so we are interested in:
  Yeasts and molds
 Coliforms and E.Coli

Note: Due to the high cost of the staph express count plate,

we only do microbiology analysis of staphylococcus aureus on batter and cream. This is because
they are packed manually.

3.3.2.2 Details for the analysis

Procedures for microbiology analysis of staphylococcus aureus

Remove the STX petrifilms from their pack and for each sample to be analysed, label the STX
plate with the correct following sample information;

 Product name
 Production date
 Expiry date
 Pack size
 Time the sample was picked
 Date of plating
1. For both butter and fresh cream, using a 50ml beaker, weigh 1g of the sample and add
butterfield’s buffer sterile water to make a total of 10g. Then carefully stir the mixture
using a spatula that has been sterilised under UV light. From the mixture, draw 1ml using
the 3ml sterile syringe and aseptically transfer it to the STX petrifilm.

2. Place the plastic spreader on top of the inoculated petrifilm and spread the sample across
the 20cm2circular growth area.
3. Repeat steps 1-3 for all the samples that were picked

4. Place the inoculated plates in the incubator at a temperature of 35oC for 48 hours after
which the counting of the colony forming units is done.

Procedure for microbiology analysis of Aerobic bacteria

Its done on Pasteurised milk (skimmed, semi-skimmed, full cream), UHT milk and juices,
Fresh, cream, Hand swabs, Equipment swabs and Final rinse water

Remove the AC petrifilms from their pack and for each sample to be analysed, label the AC
plate with the correct following sample information;
 Product name
 Production date
 Expiry date
 Pack size
 Time the sample was picked
 Date of plating
(a) For pasteurised milk, final rinse water, UHT milk and juices, using a 3ml sterile syringe,
draw 1ml of the sample and aseptically transfer it to the AC petrifilm.
(b) For Fresh cream, using a 50ml beaker, weigh 1g of the sample and add
butterfield’s buffer sterile water to make a total of 10g. Then carefully stir the
mixture using a spatula that has been sterilised under UV light. From the mixture,
draw 1ml using the 3ml sterile syringe and aseptically transfer it to the AC
petrifilm.
(c) For both the equipment and hand swabs, using a 50ml beaker, weigh 10g of
the butterfield’s buffer sterile water and place the cotton area of the swab into the
water to dissolve the contents on the swab. Then draw 1ml of the solution using
the 3ml sterile syringe and aseptically transfer it to the AC petrifilm.

Place the plastic spreader on top of the inoculated petrifilm and spread the sample across
the 20cm2circular growth area.
Repeat steps 1-3 for all the samples that were picked
Place the inoculated plates in the incubator at a temperature of 35 oC for 48 hours after
which the counting of the colony forming units is done.
Microbiology analysis of Yeasts and molds

This is done on Pasteurised milk (skimmed, semi-skimmed, full cream), Yoghurt, Fresh
cream, Butter (unsalted and lightly salted), Hand swabs, Equipment swabs, Final rinse
water

Remove the RYM petrifilms from their pack and for each sample to be analysed, label the RYM
plate with the correct following sample information;

 Product name
 Production date
 Expiry date
 Pack size
 Time the sample was picked
 Date of plating
(a) For pasteurised milk and final rinse water, using a 3ml sterile syringe, draw
1ml of the sample and aseptically transfer it to the RYM petrifilm.

(b) For yoghurt, butter and fresh cream using a 50ml beaker, weigh 1g of the
sample and add butterfield’s buffer sterile water to make a total of 10g. Then
carefully stir the mixture using a spatula that has been sterilised under UV light.
From the mixture, draw 1ml using the 3ml sterile syringe and aseptically transfer
it to the RYM petrifilm.

(c) For both the equipment and hand swabs, using a 50ml beaker, weigh 10g of
the butterfield’s buffer sterile water and place the cotton area of the swab into the
water to dissolve the contents on the swab. Then draw 1ml of the solution using
the 3ml sterile syringe and aseptically transfer it to the RYM petrifilm.

NOTE: Don’t exceed the given volume of the sample as this may cause
spreading growth.
 Place the plastic spreader on top of the inoculated petrifilm and spread the sample
across the 20cm2circular growth area.
Repeat steps 1-3 for all the samples that were picked

NOTE: Remember to disinfect the hands with 70% ethanol in between the
steps to avoid cross contamination.

Place the inoculated plates in the incubator at a temperature of 25 oC for 48 hours

after which the counting of the colony forming units is done.

Coliform plate count (CC)

This is a type of plate that is used to count all coliforms in the sample without differentiating
between genera. Coliforms by definition are a member of the family Enterobacteriacae which
ferments lactose to produce gas.

Basically, this count is used as a measure of fecal contamination in dairy products. This is
because fecal material is the major source of Coliforms. It is made up of a violet red bile lactose
nutrient, TTC indicator and a cold water soluble gelling agent.

Organisms can ferment lactose to produce gas bubbles trapped in gel net to the colonies. The bile
salts in the medium selects for the family Enterobacteriacae and the TTC indicator assists in
visualizing the colony.

The coliform count plate is applied on:

 fresh milk
 yoghurt
 cream
 butter.
Incubation is at 35⁰C for 48hours.

4. E.Coli Coliform count plate. (EC)

The EC plate counts all coliforms in a sample and differentiates E.Coli from Coliforms. E.Coli is
differentiated from other Coliforms by the BCIG reaction which colors E.Coli blue. The plate is
usually identical to the CC plate except that it has BCIG chromogens (color producing) indicator.

E.Coli is an indication of faecal contamination in dairy products.

This plate is applied on

 yoghurt,
 fresh milk, cream, butter.

Incubation is for 48 hours at 35⁰C.

3.3.2.3 LAMINAR AIR FLOW (LAF)

PROCEDURE:

Cleaning

1. Cleaning the outer surfaces daily with a clean dry cloth.

2. Cleaning of the inside of the LAF before and after every operation
 Switch on the UV lamp and the airflow for half an hour before starting work
 Switch off the UV light and decrease the airflow.
 Clean the workbench with a clean cloth and spray with 70% alcohol.
Operations

• Switch on the visible light

• After the completion of operation, wipe any spills and any residues.
Precautions

• Take care to prevent any damages to the integrity of the filter during cleaning.
• Switch on the airflow and UV light 30 minutes before of microbiological testing.
• Clean the LAF after every operation.
Do not work when the UV light is on as it may cause damage to skin and eyes

PREREQUISITE PROGRAMMES AT JESA

Quality system policy.

Purpose. This program defines how management will insure products produced are safe, comply
with regulations, and meet customer expectations.

Expectations

Programmes should include but not limited to:

Management commitment to quality and food safety

Crisis management

Notification of change

Continous Improvement (KAIZEN)

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) at JESA.

These activities are quality measures that help assure safe products are being produced
consistently. These aid the organization, mantainance, and operation of sanitary process and
environment in the industry.

They encompass a wide range of food safety procedures related to the dairy products.

All the plant personnel, vistors, maintenance , and outside contractors are made aware of them.

Expectations of GMPs.

Program should include but not limited to:

Personnel hygiene/ hand washing.

Infectious / communicable diseases and wounds.

Employee practices i.e.

 Personal Protective equipments requires e.g hairnets, beard guards, gloves,shoes,

uniforms, earplugs.
 Eating, drinking, smoking.
 Jewerly and personal dress.
Facilities and ground expectations.

Storage of personal and food items.

Locker rooms

Daily housekeeping or cleaning to minimize contamination.

Food safety and Quality systems at JESA.

This is done at JESA in order to ensure raw materials and finished products meet all local and
federal food safety regulations as well as specifications.

Expectations

An assigned person or position responsible for maintaining the program.

Certificate of Analysis (COA) or certificate of comformance (COC).

 Facility should not allow chemicals, raw materials, or label material to be used in the
process without being accompanied by a guarantee that specification is met.
 A procedure addressing materials receipt and missing documents

Letters Of Guarantee (LOG)

An assurance is supplied stating that finished products meets regulatory compliance for specified

Documentation and Record control.

This control program ensures current and accurate information is distributed via documentation
throughout the plant. A document control policy is put in place and audited at JESA.

Expectations:

 Document retention times is defined.

 Good record keeping practices is followed.
 Documentation is adequately secured to reduce the risk of tampering.

Internal Audits
The industry follows a strict documented self auditing program of quality and food safety
programs, which involves the participation of all managers to be audit ready and in compliance.

Expectations:

 An assigned person or position responsible for managing the program.

 A written procedure and audit check list.
 The audit frequency
 A written report and documented corrective actions.
 Key performance indicators for the plant

Other prerequisite programs include.

 Traceability and recall

 Pest control programs
 Allergen Awareness or management program
 Foreign material and defect control, e.t.c

3.4.6 HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS (HACCP) At JESA

HACCP: is a systematic approach to ensure food safety by examining every step in a

food operation , identifying hazards and assessing their severity and risks and controlling
the hazards.

Benefits of HACCP.
It offers a rational approach to the control hazards in foods.
It avoids the many weaknesses inherent in inspectional approach.
It increases confidence in the food supply.
Its application reduces risk of foodborne diseases.
It leads to increased market access and reduction in production cost since there is reduced
recall or wastage of food.
Harzard analysis at JESA is therefore:
The identification of the potential hazards.
The risk of hazards (microbiological, chemical and physical) occurring, considering
 Potential sources and specific points of contamination
 The probability that microorganisms will survive and or multiply during
production, processing, storage and preparation for consumption
 The assessment of risks and severity of hazards identified.

NOTE. All the steps of HACCP are clearly followed at JESA

Critical Contol Point CCP.

A critical control point is a location, practice, procedure or process at which
control can be exercised over one or more factors which, if controlled, could
minimizes or prevent a hazard.

The CCPs at JESA include;

Pasteurization at 85oC
Sterilization at 140 oC
Maintaining the cold room temperatures at below 4 oC.
Sanitizing the shoes at the point of entrance to the industry