BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY PROFESSSIONAL ENHANCEMENT TRAINING PROGRAM

College of Criminal Justice Education OCTOBER 2016 CRIMINOLOGISTS LICENSURE EXAMINATION

CRIMINOLOGY Department
City of Malolos, Bulacan

MODULE 4: CRIMINALISTICS

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

That branch of chemistry, which deals Are articles and materials which are
with the application of chemical principles in the found in connection with an investigation and
solution of problems that arise in connection with which aid in establishing the identity of the
the administration of justice. It is chemistry perpetrator of the circumstances under which
applied in the elucidation of legal problems. It is the crime was committed or which in general
chemistry used in courts of law. Chemistry assist in the prosecution of the criminal.
belonging to the court of law. A Forensic Encompasses any and all objects that can
Chemist is one who practices forensic establish that crime has been committed or can
chemistry. provide a link between a crime and its victims or
a crime and its perpetrator.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation

2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceeding.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings.
4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics,
questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.

ROLES OF THE FORENSIC CHEMIST IN THE SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

a. Determining whether or not a place / location is a clandestine laboratory

b. Examination of marked bills / suspects during entrapment (extortion case)
c. Taking Paraffin Test

ROLE OF THE CHEMIST IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Collection and reception of specimen for lab. Examination

a. sufficiency of sample
b. standard for comparison
c. maintenance of individuality
d. labeling and scaling
2. The actual examination of specimen
3. Communication of the result of examine
4. Court Apparatus

PRIMARY REASON WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISASTER OF EVIDENCE

1. Improper packing of specimen

2. Failure of identification of specimen
3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.

FOUR STAGES OF WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. Collection or reception of this specimen/evidence to be examined.

a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard specimen for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labeling and sealing
2. The actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of results of the examinations
4. Court appearance

PARTIAL PERSON TO COLLECT THE EVIDENCE

 Person capable of applying knowledge or theory to practice. Person by practice.

IDEAL PERSON TO COLLECT THE EVIDENCE

Perfect person. The forensic chemist.

STANDARD SPECIMEN
Are known specimens to compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a suspect’s
relationship to the crime under investigation.

SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

1. Go Slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take note consult others
4. Use imagination
5. Avoid complicated theories

BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD:

1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime.

2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim
survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

THE CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD

BLOOD

Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is refereed to as a highly complex mixture of
cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is
opaque. On the treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes transparent lake color. It is finally
alkaline. Normally pH is 7.35 – 7.45.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

1. (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:
a. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red cell per cc. of blood.
b. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
c. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)

2. (55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally
composed of:
a. Water ---- 90%
b. Solid ----- 10% ( largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin’s and
fibrinogen.

In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion will
concentrate on the RBC and blood serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma.
PLASMA The yellowish fluid of blood in SERUM A straw – yellow liquid formed
which numerous blood corpuscles are when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
suspended. A straw-yellow liquid formed when sometime and the clot contracts.
blood to which oxalate has been added to
prevent clotting is allowed to strand.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD:

1. where has to be searched for
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.

FLUID BLOOD:

Collect from:
 1. Victims of crimes of violence
2. Parent and child in case of disputed parentage.

DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS:

Collect from:

1. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops

2. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars
3. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles
4. Bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window frames
5. Clothing
6. Blood absorbed by the soil

THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD

THE FOUR TEST FOR BLOOD:

1. PRELIMINARY TEST 3. PRECIPITIN TEST
Determine whether the stain contains Determines whether blood is a human or
blood or another substance. Determines non-human origin, and if non human, the
whether visible stains do or do not contain specific animal family from which it
blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of originated.
blood.
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST
2. CONFIRMATORY TEST Determines the blood group of human
Determines whether bloodstain really
contains blood. Test that positively identifies
blood.

THE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD ( PRELIMINARY COLOR TEST)

1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test

2. Phenolphthalein Test ( also known as Kastle – Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test

BENZIDINE TEST

An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most
commonly used preliminary test for blood. The Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even when very
old, decomposed stain with all shorts of contamination is examined. The positive result is only indicative
that the blood maybe present.

REAGENT: Benzidine solution ( small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic
acid) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a
drop of benzidine solution and then drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color produced immediately

Limitation: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive results maybe obtained from
substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gun. The reaction is weaker and
produce faint coloration.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST

An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts. A
positive results with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is, therefore, valuable and is
conclusive as to the absence of blood.
 REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2 grams phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% KOH in
water added with one gram zinc powder heated until colorless) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained materia on a filter paper. Add a
drop of phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or permanganate coor.

LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

GUAIACUM TEST

A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilution. It may
not react to very old stains.

REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter) and 3% of
hydrogen peroxide or few drops of turpentine.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of
guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.

LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, gluten, potatoes,
perspiration and other oxidizing substances.

LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST:

Not as sensitive as the benzidine test

REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green solution ( 1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml.

glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250ml. water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of leucomalachite
green solution and after a few seconds add drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite green or bluish green

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD (BENZIDINE TEST,
PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST, GUAIACUM TEST AND LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST)

The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to
the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and
produces the characteristic colored compounds by OXIDATION.

PEROXIDASE

Enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by peroxide.

HEMOGLOBIN

The red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.

LUMINOUS TEST

An important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of luminol with blood result in
the production of light rather than color. By spraying luminol reagent onto a suspect item, large areas can
be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened
area while being viewed for the emission of light. (LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is extremely sensitive
test. It is capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy many
important blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited
only to seeking out blood invisible to the naked eye.

THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

 The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the presense of the characteristic of
the red blood cells of the blood.

THE THREE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD (OR THE THREE TEST TO DETERMINE IF STAIN
IS REALLY BLOOD)

1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test
3. Spectroscope Test

MICROSCOPIC TEST

Useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the distinction
between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of menstrual, lochial
and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS

Circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood cells larger, oval and
nucleated Amphibians-animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals,
oval and nucleated.

MICROCHEMICAL TEST OR MOCROCRYSTALLINE TEST:

a. Teichmann Hemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin Crystal Test

b. Haemochromogen crystal Test or Takayama Test
c. Acetone-Haemin Test

HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OR TAKAYAMA TEST

One of the two popular microchemical test. A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add 2 – 3 drops of
Takayama reagent. Cover with glass slip.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in clusters,
sheaves and other forms that appear within to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objectives.
To hasten result heat maybe applied.

REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated glucose
solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.

SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old
recent stains. tHis is performed by means of an optical instrument known as SPECTROSCOPE.

PRECIPITIN TEST

Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal origin

REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum

PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and exact with
saline solution. if the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test
tube and add extract with saline solution. allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the
solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human
antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.

POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the fluid that
appears immediately or within one or two minutes.

LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST; The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also
with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.
BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TESTING

BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD (Direct Technique Method) USING THE A-B-O
SYSTEM

THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS:

1. Group “O” 3. Group “B”
2. Group “A” 4. Group “AB”

AGGLUTINOGEN OR ANTIGEN

These are characteristic chemical structrs or “principles” that the found on the surface of each red
blood cells which stimulates the production of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two different
agglutinogens or antigens classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN B
OR ANTIGEN B.

ANTIBODY OR AGGLUTININ
These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which cause agglutination or
clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic substances within the body which reacts
when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two different agglutinins
classified as Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants.

We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two antigens A and B in the
RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.

BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINOGEN ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTINIES

PRESENT IN THE RBC PRESENT IN THE SERUM
A A ANTI-B
B B ANTI-A
AB A&B NO A & NO B or NONE
NO A & NO B or NONE ANTI-A & ANTI-B

(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC

(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC

THE BLOOD TYPING (M-N SYSTEM) OF BLOOD

There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines three types of blood. Namely: Type
M, Type N, and Type MN, thus:

THE THREE BLOOD TYPES ARE:

1. Type M
2. Type N
3. Type MN
(+) Means agglutination
(−) Means absence of agglutination

INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS

Knowledge of the gas of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood groups are predetermined by the presence and
absence of two facts or GENES called Gene A and Gene B. Before we understand the inheritance of
blood groups following are definition of items:
1. GENES genotypes, where O represents the absence
Any of the complex chemical units in the in the chromosomes of either the A or B
chromosomes by which hereditary gene.
characters are transmitted. Responsible for
the transmission of hereditary 2. PHENOTYPES
characteristics. They occurs in pair. There Term used to denote the expression of the
are two genes or factors called gene A and inherited characteristic as found in the
gene B. these are found in the individual. Actually the blood groups
chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in
pair, each of which carries or fails to carry 3. GENOTYPES
one of these genes. An individual’s called Are paired genes.
IMPORTANT APPLICATION OF BLOOD GROUP DATA
Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by means of the blood groups as
determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.

1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or could not
be its parent.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been
fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the
case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval
could or could not belong to a given set of parents.

SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID

Is a viscid whitish fluid of the male reproductive track containing spermatozoa suspended in
seerission of accessory glands.

PARTS OF SEMEN
1. seminal fluid
2. formed Elements Cellular
a. spermatozoa c. crystal and choline
b. epithelial cells

LOCATION OF SEMEN AND SEMEN STAIN AS EVIDENCE

1. Under clotting 5. Vagina
2. Clothing 6. Rectal contains of the victim
3. Skin 7. Around the genitals
4. Air

SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS EXAMINATION

There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test c. Acid-phospahtase Test
b. Barberio’s Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKING AND TRANSIT OF SPECIMEN:

1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible.
2. In packiging of wearing appearel there should be no friction between the apparel and the
stain.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by a few drops of 10%
solution of formalin during hot weather.

DETERMINATION OF SPERMATOZOA IN FRESH SEMEN:

1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip
3. Examine under the microscope
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa

ELEMENTS WHICH MAY OBSTRUCT DETECTION OF SPERMATOZOA:

1. Nature of fabric
2. Age of stain
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
4. Handling of the specimen
GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES
In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important problems may
arise, the problems of:
1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within pertinent period of time
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range, that is the distance the firearm was held from the body
of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date of last discharge.

TWO KINDS OF GUN POWDER

1. Black powder ( which is consist of or made of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO 3 or NaNO3.
When block powder explode

KNO3 + c + S K2S + N2 CO2

2. Smokeless powder ( which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined with cellulose
nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction occurs:

C12H14O4(NO3)6 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2

Cellulose nitrate

4C3H5(NO3)3 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2

Glyceryl Nitrate

POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND SMOKELESS POWDER

EXPLODE
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun

DIPHENYLAMINE-PARAFFIN TEST ( test to be determine the presence of nitrates, a test to determine

whether a person fired a gun or not.
1. Paraffin test ( Test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin.
2. Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test ( test that determines the presence and location of
nitrate chemical needed diphenylamine reagent . procedure to be taken up in the laboratory
V.S. blue specks if nitrates are present.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE INTERPRETATION OF DPA TEST RESULT:

1. Time of reaction 3. Location of specks
2. Number of blue specks 4. Character of speck
POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND NEGATIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF HE
ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN
1. Uses automatic pistol 5. Use of gloves
2. Direction of wind 6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the
3. Wind velocity nitrates
4. Excessive perspiration

POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND POSITIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF HE DID NOT
ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN

1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the
barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some instances result in the implanting of
powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun..

HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residues, singeing, burning,
smudging and powder tattooing.

DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE TIME THE GUN HAS BEEN FIRED

 In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the
specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues examined
under the microscope.

1. Rust
❖ Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good indication of the
determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired.
❖ If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun.

❖ If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron
salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.

2. NITRATE

Presence of nitrate (NO2) is determined by addition of diphenylamine (DPA) reagent. If the color
becomes blue nitrates are present, and we may say thjat the firearm could have been fired recently.

3. NITRATES

Presence of nitrates (NO3) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color
turned yellow green, nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearms could have been fired but not
recently.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

1. Length of the barrel of the gun 5. Distance of firing
2. Type and cal. Of ammunition 6. Nature of firing
3. Wind velocity 7. Humidity
4. Direction of firing

EXPLOSIVE

Is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. A
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING CHARACTERISTICS

1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES materials themselves explode and the explosion
Are combustible materials containing results whether the are confined or not.
within themselves all oxygen needed for their
combustion that burn but do not explode and Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide
function by producing gas that produces
explosion. 3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES
Explode under the nfluence of the shock of the
Examples: Black powder, smokeless explosion of primary explosive. They do not
powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics function by burning, in fact not all of them can
be ignited by a flame and in small amount
2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS generally burn tranquilly and can be
extinguished easily. If heated to a high
Explode or donate when they are heated temperature by external heat or by their own
or subjected to shock. They do not burn. combustion, they sometimes expode.
Sometimes they do not even contain the
elements necessary for combustion. The Examples: Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite,
nitroglycerine, picric acid, plastic explosives.

HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS

Hair
Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human body
except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. Hair is not completely round but maybe oval
flattened. Its width is not always the same along its length. It start out pointed and narrow and then
strays more or less the same.
TWO KINDS OF HAIR (AMONG MAMMALS INCLUDING HUMAN BEING)
1. Real hair ( generally along and stiff
2. Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly

PARTS OF HAIR

1. Roots ( portion embedded in the skin

2. Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin. The most DISTINCTIVE part of the hair.
3. Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.

PARTS OF SHAFT

1. Cuticle ( outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal
cells, which overlaps like the scales on a fish.
2. Cortex ( the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the and is composed of elongated,
spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion
depending on the type of hair.
3. Medulla or Core ( the most characteristics portion of the hair. It si the central canal of the hair
that maybe empty or may contain various sots of cells more or less pigmented and begins
more and less near the root.

Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:
1. hair without medulla
2. hair with medulla

HUMAN HAIR

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR

1. Color
a. With naked eye
b. Under the microscope
Melanin ( brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the chemical responsible for
the color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only to the amount of melanin.
2. Length by actual measurement
3. Character of hair ( whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width (breadth)
5. Character of hair tip if present
6. Manner by which hair had been cut
7. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair
TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

1. Living Root – often found on hair in full growth

2. Dry Roots – dead roots

8. Character of cuticle ( the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale
9. Character of cortex ( structural features are studied under the microscope.
Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is the color, shape
and distribution of these granules the provide the chemist with important points of comparison
between the hairs of the different individuals.
10. Presence of dye in hair
Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a
dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual
pigment granules stand more sharply.
11. Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled
12. Character of medulla
THE MEDULLA

The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more distinguishing
qualities, thus they yield the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis of hair.
Medulla or core or the central canal of th hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is continuous in
large number of animals, very often interrupted in human, monkey, horses. Medulla’s diameter can be
absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The diameter of the medulla if very little
importance but the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair
his of great importance.

MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I ( is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter
of the whole hair. Its determination is performed under a microscope with micrometer eyepiece.

HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) ( belongs to human

HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) ( belongs to hair of cow, horse, others.
HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) ( almost all animals belong to this

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR

HUMAN
1. M.I. is less than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one overlaps the other more than 4/5
4. Pigment granules are fine

ANIMAL

1. M.I more than 0.5

2. Medulla always present
3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
4. Pigment granules are coarse

OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

DETERMINATION OF:
1. Characteristic by race
2. Characteristic by sex
3. The religion of the body from which the human hair has been removed
4. The approximate age of individuals
NEGROID RACE HAIR:
1. contains heavy pigment distributed
unevenly CAUCASIAN RACE:
2. a thin cross section of the hair is oval in 1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment,
shape and more evenly distributed than is found in
3. hair is usually kinky with marked variation in Negro or Mongolian.
the diameter along the shaft 2. Cross section will be oval to around in
shape
MONGOLOID RACE: 3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky
1. hair contains dense pigment distributed
more or evenly the Negroid race hair CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX
2. cross section of the hair will around to oval 1. Male hair is generally larger in diameter,
in shape shorter in length, more wiry in texture than t
3. hair is coarse and straight with very little hat of a female
variation in diameter along the shaft of the 2. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of
hair an inch in diameter, female hair averages
4. usually contains a heavy black medulla or approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter.
core.

THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN REMOVED:

1. Scalp hair (they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
2. Beard Hair (coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section
3. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and
eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
4. Trunk hair (very in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to head
hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
5. Limb hair (similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually contain less
pigment.
6. Axillary Hair (is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in diameter along
the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure. Looks
like public hair but the ends are shaper and the hair is not so curly.
7. Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not appear bleached. More wiry, have
more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla. Has many broken ends the
clotting rubs.

THE APPROXIMATE AGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL THOUGH HAIR EXAMINATION

Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and are rudimentary in chapter. Children’s
hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and hair but cannot be definitely
differentiated with certainly. If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it
can be stated that the hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely
gray or white hair(head hair) but not body hairs. The root of hair from an aged person may show a
distinctive degeneration

TEXTILE FIBERS

Textile fibers-fibers that can be converted into yarns. Yarn-made of fibers which have been
twisted together, linked thread.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS

TWO DIVISIONS OF FIBER:

1. Natural fiber 2. Synthetic or artificial fiber

THREE SUBDIVISIONS OF NATURAL FIBERS:

1. Vegetable fibers ( made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or bast fibers, leaf
fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers.
2. Animal fibers ( made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
3. Mineral fiber ( example is asbestos)

TWO KINDS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS

1. organic fiber
a. Cellulosic (example rayon)
b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber

2. Inorganic fiber
a. mineral fiber (examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber (examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads.

TEST FOR FIBERS:

1. Burning test or ignition test
2. Fluorescence test
3. Microscopic test
4. Chemical test
a. staining test
b. dissolution test

BURNING OR IGNITION TEST ( A simple preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that determines
whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the
following are noted:
a. manner of burning
b. odor of fumes
c. appearance of burnt end
d. color of ash
e. action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
f. effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate
FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs. It is
not reliable for positive identification of fiber.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In general it is the
most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBERS

1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis; central canal is
uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a thick, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fibers taper
gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous, smooth except for
occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking.
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a sharp
point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber to appear
jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin filament
held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure.
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross markings.
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found on silk or
any of the vegetable fibers.

CHEMICAL TEST

A. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine
solution.

Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed

Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
Picric acid ) cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
Silk + million’s reagent --------------------- brown
Wool + million’s reagent ------------------- brown
Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
B. Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following chemicals. If
dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute
potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the following and reaction observed.

1. 10% NaOH
2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Half saturated oxalic acid
4. Concentrated sulfuric acid
5. Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
6. Concentrated nitric acid
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT
An original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or used as proof of something
else.

PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF EVIDENCE/DOCUMENTS

1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.

2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines. Place it in a
Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white paper in folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possibly mark them.

THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF PAPER

The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil or
writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the
presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION / ANALYSIS OF PAPER

1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.

2. Determine of probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of paper.

COMPOSITION OF PAPER

Paper is made of three components namely:

1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper

EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is form the name papyrus, that
the word paper was derived.

FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified form the standpoint of their basic fiber
composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:

a. mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture.

b. Soda-sulfite mixture
c. Rag sulfite

SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are rosin,
casein, gelatin, starch.

LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers of
the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.

THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER

The four test for paper:

1. Preliminary Examination 3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change 4. Chemical Test

I. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR PAPER

The test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are observed:

a. folds and creases

b. odor
c. impressions caused by transmitted light
d. presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light.
WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or WIREMARKS – marks produced on paper by
design placed in the paper at the time of its the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the
manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll. dandy roll that carries the watermark.

PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

A test applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the original appearance of the
document.
a. Measurement of length and width e. Texture
b. Measurement of thickness f. Gloss
c. Measurement of weight/unit area g. Opacity
d. Color of the paper h. Microscopic Examination
OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevents dark objects
from being seen through the paper.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION CAUSING A PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

This is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper authorization from the court is
acquired this can be done.

a. bursting strength test or “POP” test

b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
d. absorption test

CHEMICAL TEST - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing material
used in the paper.

FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used and
nature of processing.

LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and then the ash
examined.

SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution treated with
tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol evaporated and the
residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is determined by addition of dilute
iodine solution; case in is determined by addition Millon’s reagent.

INK

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are:

1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of the same
documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical ink, or inks of
different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show the
natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one
time under identical conditions.

TYPES OF INK

1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age maybe determined. Today the
most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for business purposes.
Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can penetrate into the
interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its removal more difficult to
accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of potassium
dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate. Phenol is
added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does not corrode steel pen. Will not wash off
the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in water. It
easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with little difficulty. It is
best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Made of carbon in the
form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be
washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs
dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing
more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol, glycol or
oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of ink.

TEST FOR INK

1. Physical Test 3. Paper Chromatography Test
2. Chemical Test or Spot Test

DISCUSSION OF TEST

1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures, destruction
of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope.

2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the ink
strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes in the ink is
observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2% NaOH, 10% NaOC1, C1 2,
H2O, KCNS, water.

3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and compare
ballpoint pen ink.

DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT

1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when the color is
black, because on the observation that within a few hours, the color of ink writings becomes darker
because the dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or
alkalinity of the paper.

There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink writing and apparently
these methods depend upon:

1. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the standard colors of with
itself over a period of time.

2. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the ink has
been on the paper.

2. Age of paper

a. through watermarks
b. in certain case from the composition of paper
OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read usually made on
checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript of record.

SOME ILLIGIBLE WRITINGS

1. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically or mechanically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking material.
3. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of paper
underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable.
6. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with some
writings.

GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES

GLASS

A supercooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic
substance.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO 2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus pentoxide
(P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is
made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity.
Glass like window and plate that are made in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. These
may contain incidental impurities and the presence of these substances in invaluable for the identification
and comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has also presence of trace elements which
maybe sufficient to establish or negate the fact of a common source of two samples of glass.

ANALYSIS / TEST FOR GLASS

1. Spectrographic analysis/test 4. Ultraviolet light examination
2. X-ray diffraction analysis/test 5. Polish marks examination
3. Physical properties examination

DISCUSSION OF TEST
SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental differences of composition in glass samples and
method of analysis that determines the presence it depends upon the study of the physical
of trace element. Shows the constituent properties of glass. Properties like specific
elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient gravity or density, refractive index.
information to establish the origin of the samples
examined. A rapid examination and an
adequate method for glass analysis since it ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION –
requires only a small amount of sample. determines the differences in the appearance of
their fluorescence thus indication of physical and
X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as chemical differences.
effective as the spectrographic analysis.
Determines the type of pattern of glass. The POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine
type of pattern depends upon the composition of glassware are usually polished. In the polishing
glass. of glass fine marks are often left on the surface
that can sometimes serve as a basis of
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the comparison.
most sensitive method of determining

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of violence.

Note: SEE TOPIC ON “HOW GLASS BREAKS”

ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle for
that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with
the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.

HOW GLASS BREAKS (HOW GLASS FORMS CRACKS WHEN A BLOW OR PRESSURE IS
APPLIED ON ONE OF ITS SURFACE)
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass first bends
a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass breaks along radial lines
starting from the point where the destroying force is applied originating form the opposite surface of the
glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front
surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle
between the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the
glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in
concentric cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving
the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired
from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed around the
hole.

2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the right.
3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the
left.

BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING PROJECTILE

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the
principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.

THE PRINCIPLE OF 3Rs RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK

3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.

THE PRINCIPLE OF RFC RULE FOR CONCENTRIC CRACK

RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side” that is the side from
which the blow came, rather than the rear side.

PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a
triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be
adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as possible to the point of
impact.

WHERE THERE ARE TWO BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW PANE

(ONE FROM EACH SIDE)

The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who is the aggressor. It
will be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete, especially the radial cracks,
whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-stopped at points where they intersect
those from the first.

FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS

Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck sharply.
Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not extend to the side of
impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.

MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING TECHNICS

Casting material – is any material w/c can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid condition
is capable of use as casting material.

The following are the criteria on which the value of casting material is assessed.

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass
3. must not be deformable nor shrink
4. must be easy to apply
5. must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
6. should have of fine composition and surface
7. should not inquire the impression
8. should be easily obtainable
9. should be cheap.

CLARAS -- recommend the following formulas

 1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
2. retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten part water to be
used in making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated
solution of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for
sometime. It is then removed and dried.

TOOLS IMPRESSIONS MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASSES:

1. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the
area only once in producing the impression.

a. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of tool is the area of

contact, for example: the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a
tool across the surface such as those produced by cutters jimmy or axe.

2. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a repeated strokes
over the same area.

Cost of Human Body it is important that the temperature of the negative material should be below
110OF (43.3OC) a temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

Casting Materials

Cost of the human body is made by the use of Negocoll and Hominit or Celert.

Degocoll – is a rubbery gelatinous material consisting essentially of colloidal magnesium scaps.

Hominit – is a resinous material used for making positives from Negocoll negatives. It is a flesh color
and is used for external surfaces.
Celerit – is brown and is used for backing and strengthening the hominid.
DENTAL COMPOSITION AND WOOD METAL

Negroid race:

a. Hair is usually kinky with marked variations in the diameter along the shaft.
b. Contain heavy pigment distributed an eely.
c. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape.

CHAPTER SEVEN
METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)

METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical and physical
knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of metals and
alloys.

APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery 5. Nail Examination
2. Theft 6. Counterfeit coins
3. Hit and run 7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
4. Bomb and explosion

COUNTERFEIT COINS

COUNTERFEIT COINS – coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.

TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS:

CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An impression of genuine coin
is taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin
are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature
metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected. The
surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.

STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by means of dies.
Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of
steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may
all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine should be
made.

Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.

RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.

ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching fluid depends on
the structure of the metal bearing the original number.

ETCHING FLUIDS

1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride + alcohol and
Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for copper, brass, silver,
and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION AND TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBER:

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance into the
substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the
punch have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to this surface, the disturbed or strained
particles of the metal differ in the rate of solubility than those of the undisturbed particles and this
difference in solubility makes it possible in many cases, to restore the number to such an extent that they
can be read and photographed.

TRACE METAL DETECTION TECHNIQUES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT CAT. NO. TMDT100

INTRODUCTION:

A difficult problem in law enforcement is that of linking weapons ( particularly undischarged

firearms), tools, and like object to specific individuals. The essential need for such identification in cases
involving homicide, suicide, assault, burglary, robbery, and civil disorders has resulted in the
development of a specific technique which shows whether an individual has been in contact with a
particular metallic object. The technique can be conducted by police officers using simple equipment and
the procedures described in this publication. Research has determined that metal object leave traces on
skin and clothing surfaces in characteristic patterns with intensities proportional to the interaction of
weight, friction, or duration of contact with metal objects.
 The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) makes such metal trace patterns visible when skin
or clothing is treated with a test solution and then is illuminated by ultra violet light. Examination by
ultraviolet light of the metal trace patterns which appear as fluorescent colors on the hands or clothing of
the suspect allows a police officer to determine whether a suspect has been in contact with certain metal
objects, the type of metal or metals in the objects, and also to infer what type of weapon or metal object
was probably involved.

The patterns fluorescent colors can be analyzed with refference to the circumstances requiring
the use of TMDT and with other related information to provide an initial source of evidence. Physical
evidence obtained by the use of TMDT, however, should be use as an adjunct to complete investigation.

SELECTION OF TEST AREAS

The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the circumstances, the suspect item
(handgun, rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to the normal handling, use, possession, or concealment of
the suspect item. For example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in addition to the hands those areas of
clothing which may have been contact with the weapon and the skin areas directly beneath should be
examined. In the latter case, metal traces and patterns are sometimes found to have penetrated clothing
to the skin area beneath.

APPLICATION OF THE TMDT TEST SOLUTION

The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test solution. a spray container is
generally the most suitable for this purpose. Whenever possible, the surface should be in a vertical
position while being sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the TMDT test solution is
nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be taken to avoid spraying the
solution into the subject’s eyes. If spray does get into the eyes, the subject should immediately flush his
eyes with water for at least ten minutes and obtain medical acid.

DRYING THE TEST AREA

The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes. The drying time of hands can
be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight, breeze, and hot air also shorten the drying process. Th
areas on clothing and other materials should be allowed to dry thoroughly before examination.
EXAMINATION OF THE TEST AREA BY ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT

The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those parts of the test are that have not
been in contact with metal object. This pale yellow flourescence provides a background for metal trace
patterns seen on parts of the test area that have been in contact with metal objects. The metal trace
patterns will give off fluorescent colors that are unique to types of metal and appear as silhouettes
against the light yellow fluorescent background of the test area. Examples of fluorescent colors produced
by various metals are: steel/iron (blackish purple),. Brass/copper (purple), galvanized iron (bright
yellow), aluminum (mottled dull yellow), and lead (buff, flesh tone, or tannish). The officer first should
identify the types of metal that have been in contact with the test area by the fluorescent color that
appear under the illumination of the ultraviolet light.

Essential to the officer’s ability to make this identification is his knowledge and experience of what
fluorescent colors are produced by metals such as steel, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, tin chromium,
iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be contained in metal objects. After determining the
presence of metal traces in the test area and identifying the metals, the officer can next determine the
pattern of the metal traces revealed by the fluorescent colors.

The location, size, and shape of metal traces on the hand from patterns that are characteristic of
the size and shape and the normal way in which weapons, tools and other metal objects handled and
used. The recognition of these patterns in conjunction with the determination of what metals left traces
on the skin are the basis for identification of metal objects. In this way the officer can ascertain if the
pattern is pertinent to a suspect item to its having been in the possession of a suspect.

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF METAL OBJECTS ON THE HANDS

The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of contact, and the use of the metal
object all combine to produce the location and intensity of metal traces and their patterns on the hands.
 SHAPE AND SIZE OF METAL OBJECT

On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s shape and the size (more or less)
of the hand that comes in contact with the metal surface. The intensity is also proportional tot he actions
and forces involved in using a tol, striking blows with weapons, and the recoil from the discharge of
firearms. In addition, the intensity is incresed when the suspect resists action to disarm him.

DETECTION OF METAL OBJECTS ON CLOTHING

As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing surfaces. Therefore, the suspect’s
clothing should be examined by TMDT. In particular, the areas to be examined are: gloves, hats, pocket,
lining of coats, shirts, areas used for concealment, and other areas of clothing where the suspect item
may have been carried, concealed, or otherwise been in contact. The spray is applied to the test areas
placed in a vertical p[position whenever possible. Clothing and other materials vary in their absorbency,
therefore some of these test areas may require a heavier application of spray or two or more spraying to
produce the maximum fluorescence and appearance of metal traces and patterns.

The maximum appearance is obtained when a repeated spraying does not produce a brighter
fluorescence that the previous spraying and drying of the test area. Metal traces sometimes penetrate
clothing to the skin areas beneath. For example, metal traces may be found on the hands even though
gloves have been worn while metal objects have been handled. Skin areas directly beneath clothing
areas where metal traces have been found should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted
the plastic, leather and rubber materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.

PROCEDURES FOR THE DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF HANDGUNS BY TMDT

Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave characteristic pattern and distinct
signatures on the hands that are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons.
The police officers, with knowledge and experience in identifying the characteristic patterns and
signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect has had a handgun in his possession and
the signature of the handgun by the following procedures.

SPRAYING THE HANDS

The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with the palms in a vertical position
and the fingers and thumb separated and extended. The officer should make certain that the entire
surface of the front and back of the hands are covered by the spray.

EXAMINATION OF HANDS

The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under ultraviolet light. He should make a
written record of the following observations and analysis of the suspect’s hand:

1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that make up the pattern for th
purpose of identifying th metallic content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors differing from the light yellow
fluorescent color produced by TMDT test solution) on those parts of th hand that come in
contact with the gun: th index finger which rested on the trigger, the remaining fingers and
thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm, and the degree of protrusion of the gun into the
area between and beyond the junction of the thumb and index finger. (Extensive protrusion of
metal traces beyond this area are made by the overhang at the top of the back edge of the
handles of automatics, which is common to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern which may have been made
by screws, protrusions, ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal parts of the gun. Compare
these observations with the suspect handgun or, if it has not been recovered, with a Catalog
of Handgun “Signatures.” This comparison serves to identify the signatures of the handgun or
possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand under illumination by
ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension of the suspect or shortly
after his arrest (it has been found that detectable metal traces may be found up to 38 – 48
hours after contact with metal objects), the pattern of the handgun should be produced on a
 subject who has not recently handled a gun. The patterns on the subject’s hands should be
examined side-by-side under ultraviolet light to determine whether or not the handgun has
been in the possession of the suspect. Photographs should be taken as evidence.
7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the suspect’s hand should be
compared with the photographs of handgun patterns entered in a Catalog of Handgun
“Signatures”. A photograph of the pattern on th subject’s hand should also be taken and
compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible identification of the type of gun the
suspect has had in his position.

CATALOG OF HANDGUN SIGNATURES

It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or “signatures” which are specific to
types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. It is important that police officers develop a
thorough knowledge and permanent record of these signatures. For this purpose a catalog of signatures
should be prepared of as many types, models, makes, and calibres of specimen handgun that can
possibly be obtained. The signatures of these handguns can be produced on the hands of subjects and
examined under ultraviolet light as described in Section 3 above. A photograph of each signature is then
entered ultraviolet light and the type, make and model of the specimen handgun.

DETECTION OF TOOLS AND METAL OBJECTS

Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are characteristics of their shape, normal
handling and use (for example: pliers, wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while other tools and metal
objects may leave patterns that are similar because they are alike in shape and diameter (for example:
crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and determination of patterns on suspect’s hands
depend upon relating the above factors to circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon
the technician’s experience and skill in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in obtaining such experience and
skill, the technician should prepare a catalog of patterns and metal traces produced by tools and other
metal objects.

CONTACT WITH NON-SIGNIFICANT METAL potential “false positives” and learn to

OBJECTS discriminate accordingly.

The hands of individual may have metal EXPOSURE OF HAND TO SOAP AND WATER
traces from contact with metal objects such as
handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of Exposure to water after contact with metal
the traces will be proportional to the force and objects does not affect an examination of the
duration of contact with these metal objects. In hands. Repeated hand washing with abrasive
some cases, the metal traces will be faint soap or rubbing with dirt after contact with
because of momentary and light contact with the metals will reduce the amount of traces
objects, but in other cases the traces from no deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to
significant metal traces and distort the patterns remove metal traces. However, it has been
of significant metal objects. found that metal trace patterns may be found on
the hands up to 36-48 hours after when the
DISASSEMBLY OR ASSEMBLY OF A suspect has followed a normal routine of daily
HANDGUN hand washings.

If the suspect has handled a handgun for FLUORESCENCE BRIGHTNESS OF METAL

these purposes, metal traces will be left on the TRACES AND PATTERNS
hands which do not form the pattern ordinarily
produced by the weapon. However, if the The maximum fluorescence brightness of
suspect held the weapon in the usual way for a metal m traces and patterns that can be
period of time, the technician may be able to obtained in a TMDT examination depends not
detect the specific pattern left by the handgun. only upon the amount of metal that has been
( It should be noted that gun oils give off a deposited on a skin or clothing surface but also
mother-of-pearl appearance under ultraviolet upon the following factors: (1) adequate
light.) application and coverage of the TMDT test
solution, (2) a strong source of ultraviolet
SIMILAR PATTERNS F METAL OBJECTS illumination, (3) exclusion of all other
illumination from the test area, and (4) the
Some metal objects may leave metal traces proximity of the ultraviolet light to the test area.
and patterns that are similar but not identical to
the metal traces and patterns of the significant
object. The officer should be mindful of such
 duration of the contact of the metal object with
USE OF TMDT IN THE FIELD AND OR the surface on which it rests. When
GROUP SCREENING consideration is given ot the use of TMDT for
this type of detection, the officer should conduct
The successful use of TMDT in the field a test to determine if trace metal deposit can be
for checking on a suspect or screening a group produced on the surface in question.
of individuals for previous possession of
weapons or other significant metal objects
depends on whether the circumstances and PRECAUTIONS
conditions are suitable for such examination.
The acquiescence or subjugation of the subject Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to
must be obtained to perform the examination. the eyes. Do not look directly into the light or
Sources of environmental light must be greatly shine the light into an individual eyes. Protective
reduced or eliminated in order to produce goggles are commercially available that prevent
adequate fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, passage of shortwave ultraviolet but transmit
finally, field personnel must have sufficient thew visible fluorescent light which is not
experience and skill to ascertained whether an injurious to the eyes.
individual has been contact with a weapon or
significant metal object and whether an
individual should be held for further detailed FLUORESCENCE PHOTOGRAPHY
examination by TMDT. Studies should be
carried out by police officers to determine the It is commonly believed that ultraviolet
conditions and circumstances that prevent or are photography is also fluorescence photography.
conductive to valid use and result of TMDT in Actually two types of photography are involved.
the field. The main purpose of ultraviolet photography is
to record information about the objects that have
the property of either absorbing or reflecting
ADDITIONAL USE OF TMDT ultraviolet light or about objects in which two or
more of its elements will absorb or reflect
Another possible use of TMDT is the ultraviolet light to different degrees. These
determination that a metal object has rested on effects can be recorded photographically to
another, non-metal object. For example, a show differences between objects or between
research experiment involving the successful areas of the same object. Whether or not the
application of this use determined that (1) a pair objects emit fluorescence does not enter into the
of scissors no longer present had rested on the purposes of ultraviolet photography. If a source
paper lining in a drawer and (2) coins no longer of ultraviolet light is used to excite fluorescence
present had rested on a paper document in the in an object, photographing the fluorescent
bottom of a storage container. In the latter case, object is known as fluorescence photography.
the duration of contact of the undisturbed coins This type of photography is used for recording
was sufficient to show which side of each coin fluorescent metal trace patterns produced by
had rested on the document. Since friction is not TMDT.
involved, results depend of the weight and

A. PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES

1. Illumination. Efficient sources of ultraviolet light, placed as close to the subject as practical,
should be used to excite the maximum fluorescence brightness of the object. The incidence of
illumination of the object should be at an angle of about 45 degrees. Two sources (one on each
side of the object) will provide twice as much light and prove more practical in photographing
three dimensional objects.
2. Barrier Filter. This filter is placed in front of the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet light
radiation transmitted by the exciter filter and to transmit only the fluorescent given off by the
object. An efficient barrier filter is the Kodak Wratten Filter No. 2A if th exciter filter transmits
ultraviolet light only.
3. Exposure Determination. Because of the very low brightness of fluorescence, the proper
exposures for photographing fluorescent metal trace pattern will have to tbe determined by tests.
The bigenner should take a number of photographs of subjects at various exposures. At fixed
lens aperture, exposure time should be increased by a factor of two in successive steps over a
wide range of increasing shutter speeds. A record of all exposure conditions should be made
including: subject, ultraviolet source and its distance from the subject, filter, shutter speed, and
lens opening. With a record of such officer can develop the know-how and skill in estimating the
exposures for photographing subjects.

An extremely sensitive exposure meter can be used for determining exposures. However,
its cell should be covered with a barrier filter to absorb ultraviolet light reflected from the subject
 which, if higher in brightness that the fluorescence of the subject, will give erroneous exposure
settings on the camera. If the use of an exposure meter is feasible, the tests described above
may not be needed to determine exposures.

B. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

The black and white films used in fluorescence photography should have panchromatic sensitivity
and high speed. Eastman Kodak co., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., GAF, and Polaroid
Corporation all manufacture film of this type.

C. COLOR FILMS

The advantages of using color films to record fluorescent metal trace patterns ar obvious. The
patterns are produced in fluorescent colors which are examined and analyzed as such.
Photographing the patterns with color film records their actual appearance, whereas black and
white films record the patterns, interruptions in the patterns, and incomplete coverage by the
TMDT solution as varying shades of gray as easily as they can distinguish different colors.

The advantages of using color films, however, are offset by their lower ASA/ISO numbers,
although some can be pushed to higher speed by special development to allow shorter exposure
times. Again, as in the case of black and white films, the beginner should conduct tests to
determine exposure using these films.

SOIL

(PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)

PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and identification of
rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and
other such materials, both natural and artificial.

TYPES OF SOIL

1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to the
lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the
decomposed particles moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF EVIDENCE

1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and
furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference.

CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents
PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most
composed rock fragments ranging from stone variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar
down thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important importance in the identification of soil.
minerals include quartz (silica), calcite
(limestone, CaCO3), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several
Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica. methods of petrography analysis that are being
use in the laboratories to establish the identify of
CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition two or more samples of soil. There is no
of primary minerals found in nearly all soils and procedure that is specially recommended. It all
is the major constituents of most heavy soil. It depends on the availability of the apparatus.
imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and The DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is a
becomes hard and adherent on heating. simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure in
determining the identity or non-identity of soil
samples based on the density distribution. The The value of soil as evidence depends
procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various
completion. It is sensitive to small changes in characteristics over the surface of the earth.
composition. This difference makes it possible to establish the
identity or non-identity of two soil samples.
OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL

X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and

thermal analysis are methods extensively used
in commercial and private laboratories as
general procedure.

APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO

SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION

DUST AND DIRT

DUST AND DIRT – has been described as GRIME (heavy dirt) – when dust is mixed with
“matter in the wrong place”. The study of such the sweat and grease of the human body this is
piece of evidence may often provide the formed.
investigator with clues as to the occupation or
previous whereabouts of a person under COMPOSITION OF DUST
investigation. Whatever is the origin of dust and
DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided wherever it is found it always contain
form substances of plant and animal origin and
MUD – dust mixed with water substances of mineral origin.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE DUST

For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their source.
a. Dust Deposited from the Air −− Extremely factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves
fine dust particles present in the air everywhere. industrial processes like grinding, milling or
More in thickly populated and industrial region. beating for the purpose of producing finely
Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on powdered ultimate products which in the process
any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection impart a pronounced local character to the dust
is significant. on the neighboring roads and buildings.

b. Road and Footpath Dust −− produced by the d. Occupation Dust −− Some of the fi8nely
wear and tear of the road surface be vehicular powdered material maybe found on the clotting
and pedestrian traffic together with particles of and foot wears of employees engaged in such
soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining industries. Aside from this for example, coal
regions. miner will have coal dust on his clothes,
bricklayer will yield brick duct, sand and lime on
c. Industrial Dust −− Industries ;like cement, his clothes.
button, powdered gypsum and plaster of Paris

From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of occupational dust is of great
importance. In criminal investigation, the identification of the person through the articles of clotting left in
the scene of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus to distinguish from the
great majority of other persons. Such observation does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth
from all other persons.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT SPECIMEN

1. Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be left in site. The
whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and hipped to the laboratory.

2. If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresses, the specimen
maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large quantity.

3. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in the dust
sack to collect the dirt.

ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT

 If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic analysis maybe employed. If
the amount of specimen is sufficient the following is employed.

1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light

2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.

a. observe of aqueous drop with hand lens
b. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension and proportion that settles
rapidly.
c. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)

3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NHCl.

a. Note evolution of gas c. Note changes in color
b. Note formation of precipitate d. Note materials dissolved by acid

4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol

a. Note color of alcohol drop

b. Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that in alcohol
solution.
c. Note other changes