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Polymer Technology

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Polymer Technology

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Richard K
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| LAS =H ‘Write on both sides ofthe eta Semul ple Ee ren ae Registration Number Questi Qu Pye 5 18 nd jnaped- a : nh pile Ted) ‘ pumesivon oT nr a pres 7 Th = faa Ingenio enfant et eel ids a pnt (Mw Fa Y q b eel Tis me . - enter = Puke Te roant Mt Few Tam ~ pb jeer Fond a in Tau Jaan oo Ciesla) IN. ut read pecs eatin Ke —P By eile : i = fms Tpels legraidnn S> uestion| aa Gan wlll Leld doh [= e/a4n, | U Chef lye Sort torn bwx 4 CEevrearm eke i. repeating unit é 2 wea meade coc ome! cee ee —ct+—c—c— fF FF a (oe ri alee vinyl chloride poly(vinyl chloride) Condensation polymers result from condensation (bond formation with loss of small molecules) between the monomers. The resultant polymers are also called step-growth polymers. a oe cH,—0—C: —O—CH, + HO—CH.— OH mtTA, dimethyl terephthalate ethylene glycol 9 1 d O—CH—CHy-O—C Dacron?® polyester (D) Homopolymers and copolymers Homopolymers are made up of identical monomer units Copolymers are made by polymerisation of two or more different monomer units together. Example is Saran®, made from vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride H cl H. a a Cl Nee + Nal Se eee cis yoN 7 Ne cei am H H H H cy, vinyl chloride vinylidene chloride . Saran® Acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene and are polymerized to give ‘ABS plastic’ a strong, tough, and resilient material used for making articles that must resist heavy impacts, e.g. bumpers and crash helmets, Sub- ions of copolymers Random copolymer: the different monomer units are distributed along the molecule randomly. MyM2M\M1M2M;MiM)M\M2MyMiM2MiM1 Alternating copolymer: M\M.M \ 1M2M1M2M,M,M\M,M\M,M,M,M\M. iM, Block copol; lymer: sections MMM. made up of on G 1M,{M,M,M\M\M,M,M,M,M ; a alternate with sections of another. M2... Graft copoly: lymer: a branch of oni eM, MENA EM is grafted to a chain of another kind M,M,M)M,M)M) € i i : wy a tactic, syndiotactic and atactic polymers rs can be classifi ientati sbi fied based on stereochemistry (orientation) of monomeric units in Isotacti ymer: tactic polymer: polymer in which a particular function: al group is directed in a consistent oriention H cn, Note the orientation of the methyl groups: Syndiota ctic polymer: polymer with a regularly alternating orientation of @ given functional group (or substituent) HCH; 14 particular groups: Atactic polymer: polymers with random orientations of (FE) Thermoplastic polymers Linear and Branched Polymers may be more or less crystalline and used as fibres (e.g. nylon); polyalkenes (PVC, polyethylene, polystyrene, these polymers soften and become mouldable. They are, thus, called thermoplastics. (G)_— Thermosetting ‘Space-network polymers (or resins) are highly cross-linked to form a rigid but irregular three-dimensional structure, e.g. phenol-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde resins. When heated, these polymers do not soften; instead the polymer may harden due to formation of more bonds, Such polymers are called thermosetting polymers. include some materials etc). On heating Addition Polymers Many alkenes undergo chain-growth polymerisation when treated with a suitable initiator. ‘There are three approaches of carrying out chain-growth polymerisation: (a) free-radical polymerisation; (b) cationic polymerisation (c) anionic polymerisation. The table below shows some examples of addition polymers ym chymer Uses Monomer Form polyethylene beatles. b 285s Hee Le polypropylene " laser. oe = fe etn fibers y : oe < i cnt Eh polystyrene plastics, foam insulation ay aaa A ji XC —tcn,-c—+4 om oy an specialized rubbers poly(vinyl chloris ide) vinyl plastics, films, water pipes 1 " c Orion®. Acriin® fibers NeacZ * | wv —ten.—cfH a poly(methyl a-methaerylate) acrylic fibers, HO fib e Plexiglas®, Lucite® paints aw oe cH.—-c I H “och \ coock, Sn poly(methy! e-cyanoacrybite) “super” glues a1.-€ coocts | RF poly(tetrafluoroettiylene) ‘Teflon® coatings, PTFE plasties yea, +r, CF ¥ F Free radical polymerisation Initiators are usually peroxides, ¢.8- benzoyl peroxide acts as an initiator for the polymerisation of styrene when heated at 100 °C. H a 5 : c-0: vole ow ZN e+ 200, ; benzoyl peroxide carboxyl radicals voH phenyl radicals Machanism of free-radical polymerisation Three major steps involved; initiation, propagation and termination Initiation step: start a chain. ‘The initiator forms free radicals that react with the monomer to OtntQ —= 44 benzoyl peroxide oe radical se 9 H Pl ON, y a os £ H oH r, \, H Propagation stage: other molecules of the monomer add to the chain resulting in a bigger a — mo: | | = Termination: The reaction chain is terminated by steps that consume but do not form free-radicals: combination or disproportionation of two free-radicals. ES Or disproportionation isproportionation f Qn 1. Polystyrene formed with isotopically labelled AIBN as initiator was found to contain two initiator fragments per molecule of the polymer. (CH) C-N=N—C(ICH), —> Ni + oh Azoisobutyronitrile (AIBN) ‘What termination reaction is implied by these results? Chain branching Chain branching may result from abstraction ofa hydrogen atom inthe middle of a chain by the free radical at the end of another chain resulting in a free-radical in the middle point of the chain. A new chain grows from the free-radical in the middle of the chain. HoH HU HoH H H fit RL wo o| Lit - c—c—c—C—Cc—-C + c—C—¢—-¢ _ ri otil 1 oi H | \ HoH OU Hou OH HoH OU middle of a polyethylene chain growing end of achain (1° free radical) HoH OH ; 4 | c-c-€ | yy; iid \ hou HHH chain with 2° free radical terminated chain in the middle CH, H HOH H yn nt LL Bee ay Yh kd re growing branch =e few chaiti growing SADWIYIIYI at the branch point original chain Effects of chain branching Th A ¢ polymer formed is amorphous and less orderly compared to linear polymeric units. Example of branched polymers is low density poly(ethylene) or LDPE which is soft and imsy. Inhibitors Inhibitors are substances added to stop and terminate the polymerization process. Many of such compounds are capable of reacting with the growing free-radical chain to generate a new free radical that is not reactive enough to add to a monomer. Examples of inhibitors include amines, quinones and phenols. ~-CH: + Inhibitor ——> -~CH,CH, + Inhibitor- Unreactive: cannot initiate new chain Assignment 1: (a) Write short notes about chain-transfer. (b) What are the effects of using chain-transfer agents? Cationic Polymerisation Very similar to free-radical polymerisation except that it uses carbocation intermediates. Strongly acidic catalysts are used as initiators. Examples include BFs (a Lewis acid) with traces of water or methanol as co-catalysts. Mechanism of cationic polymerisation nde pes Too aide colt prosnaten hemor ating n= CET : H cH, 4 Ne i CH ee a \p7 Leet BN gee lt — pada + FB Th — r—B—of act I fe Poe ty 7 CH, i cH, I : a isobutylene initiated chain ropagation step: ‘Another molecule of monomer adds to cationic end of the chain. seriary carbocation CH, i H CH, H Hs = el . .CHy = fig poet - RHE 1 cH, ; ‘ HOCH OH oJ, polymer ‘growing chain isobutylene ‘elongated chain ‘The counter ion ensures electrical neutrality of the final product. ization: The monomer should be capable of One major requirement for cationic polyme 1 of 3°> 2°> 1°. forming a stable carbocation. Stability of carbocation is in the ordet Good monomers for cationic polymer H Rt e Cc 7 + a eo. (good) HOH | H H growing chain styrene benzylic carbocation H HO _/CHy CH, Rt + Pa — R—-Cc-C. (good) H CH, I CH, growing chain isobutylene tertiary carbocation y Poor monomers for cationic polymerization u H 4 H Rt + c=c’ — +=R-C— cf (poor) Hn” Nu 1 “uy H growing chain ethylene primary carbocation H CN Rt + Neale nee we He OH growing chain acrylonitrile cin aie watt dens ) Study question (¢ ues ) ‘well on treatment with BF. (o) methyl a-cyanoacrylate Suggest which of the following monomers might polym (a) vinyl chloride (b) propylene Anionic polymerization ent such as organolithium or Grignard reagent. Initiated by a strong carbonion-like reag acrylonitrile in the presence of n-butyllithium as the Example is the anionic polymerisation o| catalyst. Initiation step: The initiator adds to the monomer to form an anion. H - 8 HUN ies CN Bui + Cee: — p—c—c& Lit tO Ny Aa batyllithium acrylonitrile stabilized anion Propagation step: Another molecule of monomer adds to the chain. " ° Hen aa (ee _ —C a ra " ky ongata chain polymer ‘growing chain acrylonitele Other bases such as K’NHz' can also be used to initiate the anionic polymerisation. NH,-K* + ole cab a gets Sach, NH,-CH;-CH-CHr-CH-K* —> «tc. boo Group I metals (e.g. Li and Na) in the presence of naphthalene can also be used as catalysts. Read about the mechanism involved here. (Hint: blue solutions of group I metals in ammonia) Anionic polymerisation can take place with epoxides as well. For example the ethylene oxide can polymerise in the presence of catalytic amount of a methoxide. CH;O- + CH,—CH, —> CH;0—CH,—CH,0- No” CH;O—CH,—CH,0- + CHT CHa —> CH;O—CH;—CH,—O—CH;—CH,0~ 0° Epoxy Resins and modern glues Most modern glues constitute epoxy adhesives. They often from copolymerisation of an epoxy with bisphenol A. CHy 0 Ho: R-N—CH HC --CH~_cham 1} ~~ \ u 7 a won onan) Hi v —s RENT CH, CHO Ci CH—(ahain 2] —> > | i {chain 1] Cross-linking CH, 0 — ut cHy CH Son {chain 2 CH, CH “Hp chain) chain T chain middle of chain Study question a aiymerized, even by weak bases: Draw a 0 aad why this polymerization goes Methyl a-cyanoacrylate (Super Glu d iymerization, and explain mechanism for its base-catalyzed pol so quickly and easily. fe _COOCHs mt CN methyl a-cyanoacrylate Assignment Write short notes about ‘living polymers’ and explain with an example how block hat ways can ‘living pol copolymers may be made by use of ‘living polymers’, In WI ‘killed’? ymers’ be Coordination Polymerisation, the Ziegler-Natta Polymerization When Ziegler-Natta catalyst is used, an isotactic polymer can be produced. Tic, AIR Two major advantages of using Ziegler-Natta catalysts: 1) Polymerization is stereoselective. Either isotactic or syndiotactic forms may be produced by selecting a proper Ziegler-Natta catalyst. 2) Very little hydrogen abstraction occurs and the resulting polymer linear and with almost no branching. 3) sity poly(ethylene) can be produced with almost no With Ziegler-Natta catalyst high den: chain branching and much greater strength than low-density poly(ethylene). yy adding a solution of TiCly to a solution of A typical Ziegler-Natta catalyst can be formed by heated to ‘age’ for about one hour. (CHjCH2)sAl (triethyl aluminium). The mixture s General mechanism Exchange of alkyl group and chloride ion between the metals Ticy+ AIR; ——> ChTr—-R * cL—AIR2 rormation of Ti-t complex wit eae dei oft ee the first molecule of the monor mer (¢.g. propene) and ther n x Clti—R eo eg ce aon —- oy : Insertion of the n ext monomer, whi result i ic , Which is a repeat i i of an isotactic polymer, [in this case i star te revi step. This continues with the ) sen CA ale Condesation Polymerization Polyamides; Nylon ‘ il if a Canin Hap Le kon uk . 2 (-coNnit ) Sid ib the common name of polyamid prdiuc id) u Examples: Nylon 6,6 is made by reaction a six-« an ‘diacid ae Teas with a six-carbon diamine (c.g, 1,6-hexanediamine) yf 9 9 § i —bicH, C—O" HO—C—(CH,,—C—OH + HN—(CH,)—- NH os iCace HN—(CH)), NH, adipic acid hexaunethylene dining ayton salt Ib-lyxannboc avd) fe v oO oO oO I i i i CCH), NH (CH, y-—NH—C—(CH CF NACH —NH F Its noms ie espirty 1 be one OB rauctonks bas 1 Nyfon can also be made from a single monomer having an amino grouP at one end and an acid at the other end (polymerisation IS similar to formation of proteins from a-amino acids) Nylon 6 is made from 6-aminohexano'? acid a process that starts with the eyeli¢ compound called e-caprolactam (6 - aamirs - 1 paxnrie pu sy nyo (ub) corr £7 al cnyr 25 8 kai) g. cons CA) MEG fan -1) B® nna —> faa COMICS <8, TF Bohs o 2 ~oy -~=O IBN -ktts)s On ° Se TEM NCH), —C—0- ‘caprolactam €-aminocaproic acid ‘heat, -H,O 9 ° ° ? I | “~NH—(CH,);—C—NH—~(cy 1); —C-+-NH—(CH,),—C NH—(CH,),—C- Poly(6-aminohexanoie acid), called nyion 6 of Perlon® A Assignment a) List the properties of ( b) Give the different uses of () Nylon 6,6 and i) Nylon 6 ©) Draw the molecular structure of; @ Nomex” made from meta (i) Kevlar® made from terep! diaminobenzene ln —brtv ; i fhe aud tas ten cee ke fooclis}, woe ey rel Puy tit » nme -L)t0 n recy A IbNE)) NL 7 lye, nap? ian 1) th? 7? RB sone ea gt 7 tds pea oles 2= Y dol 7 bat f 10H cHO—C C) C—OCH, + HO—CH,CH,—on anes dimethyl terephthalate (i) Nylon 6,6 and Nylon 6 Phthalic acid and meta-diaminobenzene hthalic acid (para-phthalic acid) and para- ethylene glyco! Oo 0 fe 1 z q ? Pe C- ‘O—CH,CH,—O—C- C+O—CH.CH O—-- solviethvlene tereohthalate) or PET. also called Dacron® ouvese ‘Mylar® film ey Whn 9 2 pic av ath pie cm alrilt,m a wv tc + When Ie Aen grr oe sh pci hee = datreeflc ad va nid as a ie a ( FN [gro ubohsd —> wte Xo co =o-uhth-o 40 Assignment (an qd fae) the Kodef® is made by transesterification of dimethyl terephthalate with 1,4-di- (hydroxymethyl)cyclohexane, Draw the structure of Kodel’®. Glyptaf” makes a strong, solid polymer matrix for electronic/electrical parts. It is made from made from terephthalic acid and glycerol. Draw the structure of Glyptal®. Polycarbonates Carbonic acid (a diacid) and its derivatives can polymerise with suitable diols to form polyesters called poly(carbonate ester). Example: Lexan® polycarbonate is a strong, clear, and colourless material that is used for bulletproof windows and crash helmets 0 7 cu i 7 heat los of 2H1C1 ci—¢—ca + HO ‘ oT phosgene | J ° CH cH | i Rte c oO 0 f -0- | Polyurethanes Polyurethanes are made from reactions of diols with diisocyanates (e.g. toluene diisocyanates). The reaction process is exothermic. Volatile liquids such as butane are often added to the reaction mixture and the heat evolved by the polymerisation vaporizes the volatile liquid produces bubbles, hence converting the viscous polymer to a frothy mass of polyurethane foam. Note: the trade names of Crest foam, Royal foam, Eurofoam x Lime eat {Hy Do cds Css NEO =CH—CH—=cI TCH CHa + n(CHa=CH) atyrens {CHy—CH=CH—CHs —CH:—CH4, “_buna-$ (butadiene styrene rubber) (ii) Condensation polymers The polymers which are formed by the combination of monomers with the elimination of smat! molecules such as water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride etc., are known as condensation po g,, nylon 6,6 is formed by the condensation of hexamethylene diamine with adipic acid. nH,N(CH,),NH, + nHOOCCH,),COOH —> -{NH(CH,),NHCO(CH,),CO Jy + #H.0 nylon 6,6 Classification of Polymers Based on Molecular Forces 1. Elastomers These are rubber like solid polymers in hich the polymer chains are held togéther by weakes! intermolecular forces, e.g., natural rubber, buna-S, buna-N ete . The weak binding forces permit the polymers to_be stretched. ‘A few ‘cross links’ are introduced in between the chains, which help the polymer to retract to its original position after the force is released as in vulcanised rubber. 2. Fibres Fibres belong to a class of polymers which are thread-like and can be woven into fabrics. These are widely used for making clothes, nets, ropes, gauzes, etc. Fibres possess high tensile > strength because the chains possess. strong intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding. The fibres are crystalline in nature and have sharp melting points. A few examples of this class are nylon-66, terylene and polyacrylonitrile www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) 3. Thermoplastics These arc linear pol; elastomers and in the fibres. When heated, they melt and frre ferrahich sets into 2 hard mass on cooling. Thus, they can be cast into different sh: : iting suitable moulds, e.g., polyethene and polystyrene. Peete tua (Plastcizers ae high boiling esters or haloalkanes. ‘These are added to I plastics 0 ™ 4, Thermosetting plastics These are normally semifluid substances with low molecular masses. When heated, they become hard and infusible due to the cross-linking between the polymer chains. As a result, they also become three dimensional in nature. A few common thermosetting polymers are bakelite, melamine-formaldehyde resin and urea formaldehyde resin. ake Types of Polymerisation 1. Chain Growth Polymerisation or Addition Polymerisation It involves format i i ica ion. tion of reactive intermediate such as free radical, a carbocation or a carbanio For this polymerisation monomers used are unsaturated compounds like alkenes; alkadienes and their derivatives. Depending upon the nature of the reactive species involved. chain rowth polymerisation occurs by the following mechanisms: + Free-radical addition polymerisation + Cationic polymerisation + Anionic polymerisation (i) Free radical addition polymerisation The monomers used are generally monosubstituted alkenes. The most commonly used catalysts are benzoyl peroxide, hydrogen peroxide or t-butyl peroxide etc. Mechanism The reaction involves the following steps , peroxide undergoes homolytic fission, c.g., benzoyl Step I Chain initiation step In this step, peroxide on heating produces pheny! initiator free radical. oO oO i CH,—C—0| > 2CH; + 2C0, Cll + CHy=CH, —> CH,—CH,—CHy (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) www.ncerthelp.com age Step II Chain propa ation st rl . . to form a larger free 6 ep The new free radical adds to another molecules of monomer radical, CoH CHCH, SHS O55 cu on cHcm, nCH,=CH, . a! ——— 3 Ot; CH, —CH,), CH, —CH,, Step III Chain termination step There are three ways of chain termination: Coupling reaction, disproportionation reaction, chain transfer reaction. One mode of termination of chain is shown as under: CHs(CH,—CH,), CH, CH, f C,H,(CH,—€H)), cua C,H, 1CH,CH,), CH,CH,CH,CH,(CH,—CH,), Cols polymer (ii) Cationic polymerisation It involves formation of carbocation which are generated by Lewis acids (like BF, AICIs, SnCly, etc.) and protonic acids such as HzSO., HF, etc. Higher the stability of carbocation intermediate, more is the reactivity of monomers towards cationic addition polymerisation. It involves the following steps: Step L. Initiation Step 7 HO, <— Ht +HSO; BR, +H,0 =~ H'+BROH) cy Zocor, 8 + (CH; )C* carbocation Step UL. Propagation (0S + CH=CICH, —+ (CHy) —C—CH,C'(CHa) CH, = C(CH,), RCHa= CCH) (opp) C—[CHy—C(CH) al —CHa “O° (CH) Step Ill. Termination (CH, )sCICH, -C(CHy )y], CH,C"(CHy)a} =, (CH,),CICH, - C(CH)y], CHy=C(CHy) www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) 6 Page Ives fort bani volved in this t involves formation of a cal banion, Steps invol ed (iii) Anionic polymerisation I process are Step I Initiation Strong bases act as initiator KNH, —> K’ +NHz © —+ H,N—CH,CHCN carbanion ° CH,-=CHCN +NH, Step U0 Propagation HN CH,CHCN+ nCH,=CHCN 5 HyN— CH, —CH(CN) ACH2 _—CHCN } CH, CHCN Step UII Termination . H,NCH,CH(CN}[CH,CHCN], —CH,CHCN 4°, NH,CH,CH(CN)[—CHCHCN], —CH,CHiCN Step Growth Polymerisation merisation which occurs in a stepwise manner with elimination of some ctc., is concemed with step growth yylenediamine phenol and formaldehyde etc., Condensation polyn smaller molecules like HO, NH3, HCI, ROH, polymerisation, e.g., adipic acid and hexameth undergo step Growth Polymerisation isation and Step Growth Polymerisation Distinction Between Chain Growth Polym) Sa [it proceeds ty a chain mechanism] tt Sroceeds by an equilibrium | step characterised by initiation, chain mechanism. The step growth process is propagation and chain termination. | usually much slower than chain growth ft poyrerisation, >. TOnly one repeating unit is added ata time. | Any two spocies present can react with ee 8 Re [eligioion soe Reaction mixture contain only monomers, | All the molecular species are present a polytners and the growing chain. every stage of polymerisation, Molecular Mass of Polymers ‘The growth of the polymer chain depends upon the availability of the monomers in the reaction. Thus, the polymer sample contains chain of varying lengths and hence, its molecular mass is always expressed as an average molecular mass. www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) jumber-Average Molecular Mass M, IfN, molecule: x iad 5; 3 have molecular mass M, cach, N; molecules have molecular mass M; each, jsmolecules have molecular mass M; each and so on, then, M, = = Nj Mj/E Nj; It is determined by osmotic pressure method. Mass-Average Molecutar Mass (/,,) Supposing, as before that N,,Nz-N etc, molecules have molecular mass M,,Mz,M, ete., respectively, then, Mm, =2NiME =N(M, It is determined by light scattering and ultracentrifugation method. PoLydispersity Index It is the ratio of the mass average molecular mass to the number average molecular mass PDI = Mw/ My For natural polymers, PDI is usually equal to one which means that they are monodisperse. In other words, such polymers are more homogeneous. On the contrary, synthetic polymers generally have PDI > ! which means that they are less homogeneous. Polyolefins ‘These are obtained by the addition polymerisation of ethylene and its derivatives 1. Polythene Polymer of ethylene or ethene. (i) Low density polythene (LDP) 350 K-670 K 1000 to 2000 atm (Traces of oxygen or a peroxide initiator) CH) —[CHy—CH str LoP www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) 81Page 4 onductor pf electricity. It has Itis tough, flexible, transparent, chemically inert as well as poor © moderate tensile strength but good tearing strength. e of queeze bottles, toyes ILis used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufactur’ and flexible pipes. (ii) High density polyethylene (HDP) 333-343 K 6-7 atm (Ziegler Natta catalyst) n(CH,=CH,) ~€CHy—CHy Jy by has high density due to close packing. It is also chemically inert and more tougher and arder. Itis used for making containers, house wares, bottles, toyes, electric insulation etc. 2. Polystyrene olystyrene (Styrone) The monomers are styrene molecules. It is thermoplastic. It is used for making toys, radio and TV cabinets a cet (Cyt COO, n|CH=CH, —CH—CH,— | Benzoyl peroxide | [ Ces CH, i styrene 3. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) et ¥ - Dibe: A n|CH)=CH, + |i Ga peroxide a. a}. chioroethene PVC (vinyl chloride) It is used for making rain coats, toys, electrical insulation. It is hard and resistant to heat and. chemicals. me aoe 4. Polypropylene (PP) Itis obtained by polymerising propylene in the presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst. www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) page Sl pt Polymerisation a ve ————cccmeeea | onal — ey te HOH | RE Propylene polypropylene (PP) 5. Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon) Catalyst a(CF,=CF,) —“S"_, Cc utr High pressure ome on Itis chemically inert and resistant to attack by corrosive reagent. It is used in making oil seals, gaskets and also for non-stick surface coated utensils. 6. Polyacrylonitrile CN n(CH,=CHCN) Seer, oH, CH ye — acrylonitrile (Peroxide catalyst) potyserylonitrile or orion It is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan, Polyamides The polymers which contain an amide linkage in chain are known as pOlyamide, ¢.g., nylon-6, 6. 1. Nylon-66 It is obtained by the condensation of adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine with the elimination of water molecule ? fe} { nHN(CH)),NH, + a HO—C—4CH,),—C--OH — -—> * poxamethylenediamine uilipic nerd ~ nO | \ ll \ NCH) 1; —N—C{CH,), —C 4, rvlon-66, weww.ncerthelp.com {Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) 7 10[Page .rs refer to the number of carbon atoms The polyamides are identified by numbers. These number See gina are 6 in eoeh EA, in diamine and in the dibasic acid. As in the above case, t therefore the product is described as _nylon-66. Properties and uses . resistance to Nylon-66 is a linear polymer and has very high tensile strength. It shows good : hes and in abrasion. Nylon-66 is usually fabricated into sheets, It is used in bristles for brus| textile 2. Nylon-6 Nylon-6 is obtained by heating caprolactam with water at a high temperature. ° NOK | Oxidation NH,OH HyS0, oO; (Beckmann rearrangement) cyclohexanone cyclohexanoxime i He Sy ie HeC\ CH, Guy , caprolnctum 9 1 H.C~ yn $ H,0 Ges Tien” HeNCH,),Coon 2. LN) HyC._-CH, Paton’ CH, caprolactum: Resins 1. Phenol-Formaldehyde Polymer (Bakelite and Related Polymers) [page These polymers are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of either acid or a base catalyst. The reaction involves the formation of methylene bridge at ortho, para or both ortho and para positions. A linear or cross linked material is obtained depending upon the condition of reaction OH CH,OH o ao) satalyst_ catalot = Cy ‘O OH fee CHOH p-hydroxymethy! phenol =e {OO o-hydroxy- linear polymer mothylphenol (Wovolae) OH - ee Polymerisation Py Sgt a aah a CH, A © O ( ) ~CHy C a AC a OH OH OH cross linked polymer (bakelite) 321 Page hes etc. Soft bakelites ical swite Bakelite is used for making combs, photograph records, et ai wooden plants, in with low degree of polymerisation are used as binding glue for lat varnishes and lacquers. 2. Melamine-formaldehyde Resin rocyclic triamine) Itis a copolymer formed by the polymerisation of melamine (which is a hete and formaldehyde as follows : SeNWLZNN UNI Hos NN NHCH208 ee + HCHO — 1 ‘SY UN formaldehyde Na T NH, NHg melamine (intermediate) [Polymerisation —tigt—1in-NS NHC mee) T ‘ we CH melamine polymer Properties and Uses at importance these days particularly in making ped from a height. It is very hard and tough. It has as crockery. They do not break 3. Urea-formaldehyde Resin 0 I Heat NH,—C—NH, + 2HCHO ——> wa formaldehyde HOCH,—NH—C—NH—CH,OH { Potymerisaton ee (—CH,—NH—C—NH—CH,—), urea-formaldebyde resin www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) y. Natural Rubber Natural.rubber is a coiled linear 1, 4-polymer of isoprene. cH, CH,=C—CH=CH, isoprene the residual double bonds are located between Cz and In the polymer chain of natural rubber, figuration, and thus natural rubber C; of the isoprene unit, All these double bonds have cis con is cis-I,4-polyisoprene. CHy H CHs #H —={ CH, CHa HC CHe CH, CHa CH, oH ‘A cection of the polymeric chain of natural rubber colar substituent. The only intermolecular forces are van der ves the polymeric chain of natural rubber a coiled ed by the application ofa force. When the force is original coiled shape. In the natural rubber, there is no p Waals’ type. The cis-configuration gi structure. As a result, it can be stretch removed, the chain returns back to Natural rubber is soft and sticky. It can be used only in the temperature range 10°C-50°C. At higher temperature, it becomes soli 2 low temperature, it becomes brittle. It has higb water absorption capacity. It is attacked by oxidising agents and organic solvents. As such, it cannot be used very extensively for commercial puposes. Vulcanisation of Rubber The properties of natural rubber can be modified by introducing -S-S- polysulphide crosslinks in its structure. This process of introducing -S-S- crossInks in the structure of natural rubber by heating with sulphur at 110°C is called vulcanlsation of rubber. Vulcanisatlon is carried out by adding sulphur (3-5%) and zinc oxide to the rubber, and then heating the object at about 110°C for about 20-30 minutes. Zinc oxide accelerates the rate of vulcanisation. Vulcanisation introduces polysulphide (-S-S-) bonds between the adjacent chains. These crosslinks tend to limit the motion of chains relative to each other. 5. Neoprene Polymer formed by polymerisation of chloroprene is neoprene or synthetic rubber. www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) cl | ay as (CH, —C=CH—CHo}- a(CH, me CCH CH,) + ary a Iis used for the manufacturing conveyers belts, gasket and hoses: 6. Buna-N Itis a copolymer of buta-I, 3-diene and acrylonitrile. It is formed as follows nCH,=CH—CH=CH, + nGH=CHs buta-1,3-diene CN acrylonitrile Polymerisation ara a eas ‘N Qbuna-N) Properties and Uses Itis insulator in nature and is used for making conveyor belts and printing rollers. Polyesters The polymers which contain an ester linkage are known as polyester, c.g., dacron. ‘1. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) Itis prepared by the polymerisation of methylmethacrylate in the presence of suitable organic peroxide. Hy oy Or i nxide n|CH,=C—COOCH, | — =~" |—cH,— C— | i coo¢H, methylmethacrylate PMMA te The polymer is known by several commercial names such as lucite, acrylite, plexiglass and perspex. Properties and uses www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) Page {tis a hard and transparent polymer and is qj to Ff ht, heat and agein, n is quite resistant to the effect of lig] igeing. tis used, in the manufacture of unbreakable lights, protective coat ings, dentures, and in : making windows for aircrafts. 2. Glyptal Itis a polyester having crosslinks. It is a thermosetting plastic. It is obtained by condensation of ethylene glycol and phthalic acid or glycerol and phthalic acid HOOC COOH He nHO—CHy—CH)—OH + n crag ethylene glycol phthalic acid td O—CH,—-CH;-O-€ € j slyptal When its solution in a suitable solvent is evaporated, it leaves a tough but non-flexible film. [t is, therefore, used in the manufacture of paints and lacquers. 3. Terylene (Dacron) It is a condensation product of ethylene giycol and terephthalic acid. Polymerisation is carried out at 420 to 460 K in the presence of catalyst mixture of zine acetate and antimony trioxide. Lol HOCH,CH,[OH + nHOLC C—OH ethylene glycol terephthalic acid {[Potymerisation 0 0 1 i 0—CH,CH,O—C c terylene or dacron www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) 16|Page Properties and uses cal agents. Its fibres are quite Terylene is highly resistant to the action of chemical and biologi g ics of desired strong and durable. It can also be blended with wool or cotton to obtain fabrics composition. i and Terylene is used in the manufacture of a variety of clothes such as terycot, teryuicol ordi terysilk as a result of blending with other yerns. [t is also used for preparing magne! tapes, conveyer belts, aprons for industrial workers etc. Biopolymers and Biodegradable Polymers Synthetic polymers are mostly non-biodegradable ice, it is very difficult to dispose off the polymeric waste, e.g., polythene bags. Nature has provided us a variety of polymers which can be produced by the biological systems in plants and animals. These are called biopolymers, e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, etc. In the biological system, these polymers decompose or hydrolyse in the Presence of different enzymes. This means that they are biodegradable. Aliphatic polyesters are the common examples of biodegradable Polymers. Itis a copolymer of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3-hydroxypentanoic acid. H H CH, —CH—CH,COOH + CH,—-CH,—CH—CH,COOH —> | Shydroxybutanoic acid Shydroxypentanoic acid i at eet — CH, CH, 0}, 2. Nylon-2-Nylon-6 It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine (HjN-CH,-COOH) and amino caproic acid (H;N(CH2) sCOOH] and is biodegradable. Some More Impotant Polymers I. Saran is a copolymer of vinyl chloride and Isused for wrapping food materials. 2. ASS rubber is a copolymer of acrylonitrile, buta-1, 3-diene and styrene. 3. Bubble gum contains styrene butadiene rubber. www.ncerthelp.com (Visit for all ncert solutions in text and videos, CBSE syllabus, note and many more) . Epoxy resins are used In makin, ji fs adh a of epichlorohydrin and bee such as araldite, etc. These are the copolymer . Thikol is another variety of synthetic rubber which is a copolymer of ethylene chloride ; syi ic rub: s oes ubber which . Dynells a copolymer of vinyl chloride and acrylonitrile and is used for making human hair wigs. . Silk Is a thread like natural polymer which is obtained from cocoons of sIlk worms. Itis a natural polyamide fibre. . Thermocol Is a foamed plastic obtained by blowing air through molter polystyrene or polyurethane. _ Superglue is a polymer of methyl a-cyanoacrylate and is obtained by anionic polymerisation of monomer. Seucture of Metals is UC hee i Ge ae DORA 1.93 a BONDING NON ag ee The arrangeme afilar er 2 coins in a material determines the i Pecctor ean: Most of the materials wed inthe eontooton of eee Bonding na a7 mels. tn ahs chaper, we will seuss the various (pes of ‘of discusses the bonding twpes in more detail. EO 12 STATE the fiy r s: he five types of bonding that oceur in materials and heir characteristics. Alomic Bonding Matter, as we know it, exi s in three common siates. These three states are solid, liquid, end gas. T! ae z eS es ce be atomic or molecular interactions that occur within a substance determine its state. Ia is chapter, we will deat primarily with solids because solids are of the most concem in engineering applications of materials. Liquids and gases will be mentioned for comparative purposes only. Solid matter is heid together by forces originating between neighboring atoms or molecules. These forces arise because of differences in the clectror Touds of atoms. In other words, the valence electrons, or those ia Gr shell, of atoms determin€ their attraction for their neighbors. When physical attraction berween molecules or atoms of a material is great, the material is held tightly together. Molccuies in solids are bound tightly together. When the attractions are weaker, the subsiance may be in a liquid form and free to flow. Gases exhibit virtually no attractive forces between atoms or molecules, and their particles are fiee to move independently of each other. The types of bonds in a material are dew together. Figure | illustrates several types of honds and their characteristics are listed below. b a. Tonic bond - In this type of bond, one or more electrons are wholly transferred from an atom of one clement wo the atom of the other, and the elements are held together by the force of attraction due to the opposite polarity of the charge ared electrons. Electrons are shared when Suter shell and can share those electrons ‘of both atoms and both shells are b. Covalent bond - A bond formed by shi an atom nceds electrons t complete its with its neighbor. The electrons are then part filled Structure of Metts BONDING DOE-HDBK-1017/1-93 ange elect ©. Metallic bond - In this type of bond, the atoms do not share OF sxetianes electrons to bond together. Instead, many, electrons. (roughly one for each atom) are, ee € throtighout the metal, so that each electyon can interact with or less tr lec hie (LUE # niany of the fixed atoms ( strons of neutral atoms spend more time in one ry_weak charge will exist. The molecule will This is sometimes called the van der Waals or d Molecular bond - When the region of their orbit, a tempora weakly aitract other- molecules. n bond - This bond is similar to the molecular bond and occurs due to the e wi rydrogen atoms are willing to give up an electron to atoms of en. fluorine, or nitrogen. az. Some examples of materials and their bonds are identified in Table | ABLE 1 Examples of Materials and Their Bonds Bond Sodium chloride Tonic Diamond Covalent Sodium Metallic Solid Molecular Ice Hydrogen The type of bond not only determines how well a material is held together, but also determines what microscopic properties the material possesses. Properties such as the ability to conduct heat or electrical current are determined by the freedom of movement of electrons. This is dependent on the type of bonding present. Knowledge of the microscopic structure of a material allows us to predict how that material will behave under certain conditions. Conversely, a material may be synthetically fabricated with a given microscopic structure to yield properties desirable for certain engineering applications et ey Structure of Metals an nai DOE-HDBK- In 7.93 BONDING ©@O®@ Eom Q) one 4 COVALENT BOND (DIAMOND) METALLIC BOND (Sopiux) @ © OURS, BORD (SOLID Hy) © @ @L@® @ @ ee HYDROGEN BOND (Ice) inure | Randing Types q Siructure of Metals On rin Microstruclures Solids have eater interatomic attractions than liquids and gases. However. there are wide ariations in the properties of solid materials used for engineering purposes. The properties of materials depend on their interatomic bonds. These same bonds also dictate the space between the configuration of atoms in solids. All solids may be classified as either amorphous or crystalline. Amorphous Amorphous materials have no regular arrangement of their molecules. Materials like glass and paraffin are considered amorphous. Amorphous materials have the properties of solids. They have definite shape and volume and diffuse slowly. These materials also lack sharply defined melting points. In many respects, they resemble liquids that flow very slowly at room temperature Crystalline ZZ In a crystalline structure, the atoms arg arranged in a three-dimensional array called a lauice. The lattice has a reSalar vepeftng configuration in all directions. A group of particles from one part of’a crystal has exactly the same geometric relationship as a group from any other part of the same crystal. Quamelng nie Naa ve ow in prolwahn yocels ene Qar eta af fee Rev. 0 Page 4)

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