Republic of Yemen ‫الجمهوريـــــــــــــة اليمنيــــــــــــة‬

University of Saba Region ‫جامعـــــــــــة إقليم سبأ‬

Faculty of Medicine ‫كليــــة الطب‬

Cell Growth and Division

Dr. Hasan Almansoub

Assistant Professor of Pathology and Pathophysiology
(Histopathology)
2023/9/4 1
 Cell Growth, Division and Reproduction
 WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE???
 To reproduce.
 To grow bigger.
 To repair injuries.
 To become more efficient.

2023/9/4 2
 Limits of Cell Growth
1. Volume grows faster than surface area

2. Therefore a larger cell has a more difficult time getting

stuff into (oxygen & nutrients) and out of (wastes) the
cell
3. SOLUTION: Cell Division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jw0ZHLJGVTY
2023/9/4 3
 Rates of Cell Growth
1. Vary depending on cell
type
2. E. Coli every 30
minutes
3. Some cells take much
longer to divide or
“stop” dividing for a
while
Prokaryotic Cell Division
Binary Fission –
asexual
2023/9/4 4
 Chromosomes
1. Chromosomes:
o “colored body” centromere
o seen only when the cell divides
o contain genetic info in the form of DNA
o are coiled chromatin
2. Composition of Chromatin Sister
o Make up chromosomes chromatids
o Composed of DNA and protein called histones (helps to
condense the DNA)
o DNA in a chromosome is 10,000x longer than the
chromosome itself
o Nucleosome: DNA coiled around histones (“ball with string”)
o Nucleosomes coil into supercoils – then into chromosomes
o Must condense in order to separate correctly during mitosis
2023/9/4 5
 Chromosomes
3. Chromosome Structure
o Can only see chromosomes during division
o Each chromosome replicates and is paired as sister
chromatids joined at a centromere
o Human cell = 46 chromosomes (2n)
1. “n” number = 23 = “haploid”
2. 2n = 46 = “diploid”
3. 4n = 92 (during interphase)
4. Body cells (aka somatic cells) = 2n = 46
MITOSIS
5. Sex cells (aka eggs & sperm) = n = 23 MEIOSIS
2023/9/4 6
 Cell Division: Mitosis & Cytokinesis
 Define mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Describe the cell cycle and the changes that take place
during interphase.
 Discuss the events and significance of mitosis.
The Process of Cell Division:
1. Growth, prepares for division, divides (anywhere from 6 hours to
100 days)
2. The CELL CYCLE
3 Parts
o Interphase
o Mitosis (PMAT): few minutes to several days
o Cytokinesis
2023/9/4 7
 Cell Division
 Two main stages of cell division:
Mitosis: nucleus divides, produces 2 nuclei identical to
parent cell and each other
Cytokinesis: cytoplasm divides, produces 2 cells

2023/9/4 8
 Cell Division

2023/9/4 9
 Cell Division
1- Interphase – 3 stages
 More than 90% of the life of a
cell is spent in this phase
 G1: cell growth, development,
and protein production (longest)
 S: “Synthesis”, DNA
replication
 G2: Organelles replicated
(shortest)
 Note: DNA exists as chromatin
(no chromosomes yet)
2023/9/4 10
 Cell Division
2- Mitosis - Prophase
 Longest phase of MITOSIS (50-60
% of total time required for
mitosis)
 Nuclear membrane starts to
disintegrate
 Chromosomes condense (become
visible) – seen as 2 identical
chromatids lying side by side held
together by centromeres
 Centrioles move to opposite poles
 Spindle fibers grow from
centrioles, attach at centromeres
2023/9/4 11
 Cell Division
3- Mitosis – Metaphase (hint
“M”=middle)
 Chromosomes attach to the
spindle fibers
 Chromosomes line up in the
middle (aka equator)
 Spindle fibers run from
centrosomes to centromeres
of the chromosomes

2023/9/4 12
 Cell Division
4- Mitosis - Anaphase
(hint “A” = away)
 Centromeres split
 Spindles retract and
pull sister
chromatids apart
 Chromosomes
move to opposite
poles (toward
centrioles)

2023/9/4 13
 Cell Division
5- Mitosis Telophase
 Chromosomes cluster
at poles
 Chromosomes uncoil
– back into chromatin
 Nuclear envelope
reforms around each
new nuclei
 Mitosis is done
 Cell membrane
begins to pinch in the
middle
2023/9/4 14
 Cell Division
6- Cytokinesis
 Cell membrane moves
inward and pinches in the
middle forming two
identical cells
 In plant cells – a cell plate
(eventually becomes the
cell wall) and cell
membrane appear
separating the 2 new cells
 There are now 2 identical
cells – same DNA, etc.
2023/9/4 15
 Controls on Cell Growth
1. Some cells rarely/never divide – nervous and
heart cells
2. Some cells divide daily – skin and digestive
tract cells
3. STOP switch: cells stop growing when they
bump into each other
4. ON switch: cut or break in tissue cause cells
to grow rapidly (but growth slows as healing
reaches completion)

2023/9/4 16
 Controls on Cell Growth

2023/9/4 17
 Regulating the Cell Cycle
 Cyclins – proteins that regulate the timing of the cell
cycle in eukaryotic cells by
 Regulatory Proteins
Internal Regulators – respond to event occurring
inside the cell (proceed only when certain
checkpoints have been cleared)
External Regulators – respond to events outside
the cell – direct cells to speed up or slow down the
cell cycle (embryonic development and wound
healing
 Apoptosis – Programmed Cell Death
When not occurring when needed, many disease can
result (cancer, AIDS, Parkinson’s)

2023/9/4 18
 Regulating the Cell Cycle

2023/9/4 19
 Uncontrolled Cell Growth
1. = CANCER
2. Cells have lost the ability
to control their own rate
of growth
3. Continue to divide until
nutrient supply is
exhausted (may invade
other normal cell’s space,
even if they bump into
each other, and use up
their nutrients)
2023/9/4 20
 Cancer

 Tumor – mass of cells NOT responding to “stop” signals

Benign – does not spread to healthy surrounding tissue
Malignant – cancerous tumors which spread to and
destroy healthy surround tissue
Metastasis – spreading
 Causes
Genetic Defects
Can be caused by lots of different factors (smoking,
TANNING, radiation exposure, viral infections,
defective genes…)
 Treatment Options …

2023/9/4 21
 Cell Differentiation
 Differentiation – process by which cells become
specialized and differentiate into many different types of
cells
 Stem Cells – cells that are totipotent (able to develop into
any type of cell in the body – fertilized egg and cells
produced by first few cell divisions)
Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent b/c
they produce the cells in the early embryo, can develop
into many different types, but not all types of cells
 Adult stem cells are considered multipotent b/c they
can develop into many different types of differentiated
cells (bone marrow cells can make different types of
blood cells, brain cells make neurons or nerve cells)
2023/9/4 22
 Question

Question: What happens when you cut your finger or break

your bone?
Answer: The cells bordering the injury will begin dividing to
fill in the gap in the tissues that have been torn or broken.
This is the process known as healing.
2023/9/4 23
 Meiosis - Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
In meiosis, there
are 2 divisions
of the nucleus:

meiosis I
&
meiosis II

2023/9/4 24
 Meiosis

2023/9/4 25
 Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction (Life Cycle)

2023/9/4 26
 Genetic Variation in Diploid Organisms
• Fusion of sperm and egg
results in unique
offspring.
• But not only because the
young are a product of
two individuals with
different genetic makeup.
• Meiosis “shuffles” the
genes so that the an
individual’s gametes are
genetically different from
one another.
Image: Meiosis diagram, Marek Kultys
2023/9/4 27
 Genetic shuffling of Meiosis I
In addition to a new combination of chromosomes resulting from fertilization,
there are also events in Meiosis I that shuffle the genes.
1. Crossing over in Prophase I.
2. Independent assortment in Metaphase I.
Crossing Over
• Homologues break at identical locations, then rejoin opposite
partners.
• This creates new combinations of the alleles on each
chromosome.
• Occurs randomly several times on every chromosome.
• Results in mixing of the genes you inherited from your
parents.
2023/9/4 28
 Crossing Over & Independent Assortment

Crossing Over Independent Assortment

2023/9/4 29
 Spermatogenesis
Males produce sperm throughout life, after the onset of puberty, about
1,500 sperm per second.

2023/9/4 30
 Oogenesis
Oogenesis in females is
probably complete
either before or shortly
after birth.

During oogenesis, three

polar bodies develop as
the mature ovum is
generated.

Polar bodies contain

little cytoplasm and
eventually degenerate.
2023/9/4 31
 Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
• 2n • 1n
• Clone • Daughter cells different from
• Same genetic parent cell and from each
information in other.
parent cell and • Daughter cells have ½ the
daughter cell. number of chromosomes as
• Give me another somatic cell.
one just like the • Shuffling the genes
other one! (Mix it up!)

2023/9/4 32
 Mitosis diagram & Meiosis diagram

Image: Mitosis diagram & Meiosis diagram, Marek Kultys From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

2023/9/4 33
 Quiz

1. What is the main goal of cell division?

2. What are the 3 phases of interphase?
3. What are the 4 phases of mitosis?
4. A cell has 12 chromosomes. At the end of cell
division how many cells will there be?
5. A cell has 12 chromosomes. At the end of cell
division how many chromosomes will there be in
each cell?

2023/9/4 34
 ‫‪Republic of Yemen‬‬ ‫الجمهوريـــــــــــــة اليمنيــــــــــــة‬
‫‪University of Saba Region‬‬ ‫جامعـــــــــــة إقليم سبأ‬
‫‪Faculty of Medicine‬‬ ‫كليــــة الطب‬

‫‪2023/9/4‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬