Linux, computer operating system created in the early 1990s by Finnish software

engineer Linus Torvalds and the Free Software Foundation (FSF).

While still a student at the University of Helsinki, Torvalds started developing Linux to create
a system similar to MINIX, a UNIX operating system. In 1991 he released version 0.02;
Version 1.0 of the Linux kernel, the core of the operating system, was released in 1994. About
the same time, American software developer Richard Stallman and the FSF made efforts to
create an open-source UNIX-like operating system called GNU. In contrast to Torvalds,
Stallman and the FSF started by creating utilities for the operating system first. These utilities
were then added to the Linux kernel to create a complete system called GNU/Linux, or, less
precisely, just Linux.

Linux grew throughout the 1990s because of the efforts of hobbyist developers. Although
Linux is not as user-friendly as the popular Microsoft Windows and Mac OS operating
systems, it is an efficient and reliable system that rarely crashes. Combined with Apache, an
open-source Web server, Linux accounts for most of the servers used on the Internet. Because
it is open-source, and thus modifiable for different uses, Linux is popular for systems
as diverse as cellular telephones and supercomputers. Android, Google’s operating system for
mobile devices, has at its core a modified Linux kernel, and Chrome OS, Google’s operating
system that uses the Chrome browser, is also Linux-based. The addition of user-friendly
desktop environments, office suites, Web browsers, and even games helped to increase Linux’s
popularity and make it more suitable for home and office desktops. New distributions
(packages of Linux software) have been created since the 1990s. Some of the more well-known
distributions include MX Linux, Manjaro, Linux Mint, and Ubuntu.
History of UNIX :
It started in 1964 in New Jersey when some people of Bell Labs tried to create a multiuser
operating system (OS), they worked on it till 1969, after facing lots of failures they withdraw
the project. Then a group of five people including Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson
successfully created an operating system called UNICS(Uniplexed Information and
Computing Service), better known as UNIX. They publish this OS as open-source(free to use
and edit the codebase).
In 1975 a version of UNIX was released labeled “UNIX v6”, it became very popular. Some
companies tried to make a profit from it, so they made their own commercial version or flavor
of UNIX :
• IBM – AIX
• Sun Solaris
• Mac OS
• UP UX
Why Linux was created?
Linus Torvalds is the creator of the Linux kernel. In simple words, Linus Torvald created
Linux because he didn’t have money to buy UNIX. He was a student at the *University of
Helsinki*. In early 1991 he decided to do a project on UNIX, but free versions of UNIX were
too old and other commercials are too costly ($5000). So he thought of creating his own OS.
Now one question may arise that is Linux an exact copy of UNIX? Actually not, let us clear
this for you. For idea purpose, Linus did research on UNIX, but more than UNIX he did
research on MINIX OS. And no, Linux is not an exact copy of UNIX.
Linux Distributions
Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a Linux distribution based on Debian. It is developed by Canonical and a community
of developers. It has 3 official editions: Desktop, Server and Core, which can either run on a
computer or on a VM. More than 34% of the websites using Linux use Ubuntu, according to
W3Techs data. Its growth since 2010 has been amazing. It is also a popular distribution among
cloud computing projects.
Ubuntu License: GPL and other licenses.
Ubuntu Latest major release with long-term support (LTS): Ubuntu 22.04 LTS (Jammy
Jellyfish).
Debian
Debian is an open source operating system. This distribution was first announced by Ian
Murdock in 1993 as the “Debian Linux Release”. The Debian Project is a community of
developers and users that maintain the GNU OS based on open source software. Currently,
Debian systems use the Linux kernel or the FreeBSD kernel. However, they are also working
on providing Debian for other kernels. Primarily, GNU Hurd.
Debian License: BSD, GPL and other open licenses.
Debian Latest major release: Debian 11 (Bullseye).
CentOS Linux
CentOS Linux is a distribution based on the source code of the commercial distribution Red
Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL). It was launched in 2004 and is backed up by a growing
community. It is a safe bet for those looking for high-quality code. But CentOS 8 will be its
last version. In 2019, Red Hat announced that CentOS Linux would be replaced by CentOS
Stream — an upstream development platform for RHEL. New open source alternatives have
appeared due to this change of strategy. For instance, Rocky Linux, founded by Gregory
Kurtzer, founder of the CentOS project.
CentOS Linux License: GNU GPL.
CentOS Linux Latest major release: CentOS Linux 8.
CentOS Stream
CentOS Stream is an upstream development platform for Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL).
It is a midstream between Fedora Linux and RHEL. This platform aims to take advantage of
open-source innovation for shaping upcoming stable RHEL releases.
CentOS Stream License: GNU GPL.
CentOS Stream Latest release: CentOS Stream 9.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is a commercial Linux distribution developed by Red Hat.
It has a server version and a desktop version. As it uses open source software, published under
a General Public License, they make their code available to the public via CentOS. Red Hat
has sponsored the CentOS project since 2014.
RHEL License: GPL.
RHEL Latest major release: RHEL 9.
Gentoo
Gentoo is a Linux distribution that features a rolling release model. Gentoo Linux was
originally created by Daniel Robbins. It was named after the fast-swimming “gentoo penguin”,
to reflect its potential. It is an attractive choice for Linux users looking for full control of the
software. Gentoo users have great control over the services installed and running on their
computer. They can immensely customize and optimize their system.
Gentoo License: Free software.
Gentoo Releases: rolling release.
Fedora
Fedora is a Linux distribution developed by the Fedora Project — sponsored mainly by Red
Hat, with support from other companies. It is developed and maintained by the community and
it is an upstream source of the commercial RHEL distribution. Fedora usually has more modern
software versions, considered as “non stable”, that are later included in RHEL. There are
different Fedora editions available: Workstation, Server, CoreOS, Silverblue and IoT. Fedora
Linux was launched in 2003.
Fedora License: GPL and other licenses.
Fedora Latest major release: Fedora 36.
OpenSUSE
OpenSUSE is a Linux distribution sponsored by SUSE Software Solutions Germany GmbH
and other companies. It was formerly known as SUSE Linux. OpenSUSE has a rolling release
version, Tumbleweed, and a regular release version, Leap.
OpenSUSE License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
OpenSUSE Latest release: OpenSUSE Leap 15.4.
Scientific Linux
Scientific Linux is another Linux distribution based on RHEL’s free and open source software.
It is produced by Fermilab, CERN, DESY and ETH Zurich. In April 2019, they announced its
discontinuation. Nevertheless, its last version, Scientific Linux 7, will have maintenance
updates until June 2024.
Scientific Linux License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
Scientific Linux Latest release: Scientific Linux 7.
CloudLinux
CloudLinux is a Linux distribution developed by CloudLinux, Inc. It is based on CentOS and
uses the OpenVZ kernel and the RPM Package Manager. It is targeted to shared hosting
providers and data centers. It stands out for improving server stability, density and security.
The first version of CloudLinux OS was released in 2010.
CloudLinux Latest release: CloudLinux 8.6.
Elementary OS
Elementary OS is a Linux distribution based on Ubuntu. The OS is developed and maintained
by Elementary, Inc. It aims to be a fast, open and privacy-respecting alternative to Windows
and MacOS. It features a pay-what-you-want (PWYW) model.
Elementary OS License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
Elementary OS Latest release: Elementary OS 6.1 (Jólnir).
Linux Mint
Linux Mint is a community-driven Linux distribution based on Ubuntu. This distribution
started in 2006. The Linux Mint project was initially created by Clément Lefèbvre. Linux Mint
OS’ source code is available on GitHub. Most of the OS development is done in Python.
Linux Mint License: GPL.
Linux Mint Latest release: Linux Mint 20.3 (Una).
Arch Linux
Arch Linux is a Linux distribution based on 5 principles: simplicity, modernity, pragmatism,
user centrality and versatility. It features a rolling release model.
Arch Linux License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
Arch Linux Release: rolling release.
Manjaro
Manjaro is a free Linux distribution based on Arch Linux. It is specially focused on
accessibility and user-friendliness. It features a rolling release model. Its simplicity, stability
and performance makes it a suitable alternative OS to MacOS and Windows. It offers multiple
desktop environments.
Manjaro License: GPL and other open licenses.
Manjaro Latest release: Manjaro 21.3 (Ruah).
Oracle Linux
Oracle Linux (OL) is a Linux distribution packaged and distributed by Oracle; under GNU
GPL since late 2006. It was formerly known as Oracle Enterprise Linux (OEL). It is based on
RHEL’s source code. Oracle Linux is available with two Linux kernels: the Red Hat
Compatible Kernel (RHCK) and the Unbreakable Enterprise Kernel (UEK).
Oracle Linux License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
Oracle Linux Latest major release: Oracle Linux 8.
Slackware
Slackware is one of the oldest Linux distributions, created by Patrick Volkerding in 1993.
Many Linux distributions have been based on Slackware; for instance, the first versions of the
SUSE Linux distribution. It was originally based on the Softlanding Linux System (SLS), one
of the most popular original Linux distributions.
Slackware License: GNU GPL.
Slackware Latest major release: Slackware 15.0.
Mageia
Mageia is an open source, Unix-like operating system that started as a fork of Mandriva Linux
back in 2010. It was created by former employees of Mandriva S.A. and some members of the
Mandriva community. It stands out for being a secure, stable and sustainable OS. Besides, it
provides a really large software repository. Its first version, Mageia 1, was released in June
2011.
Mageia License: GPL and other licenses.
Mageia Latest major release: Mageia 8.
Clear Linux
Clear Linux is an open source Linux distribution created by Intel. It is updated following a
rolling release model. The OS is optimized for performance and security from the cloud to the
Edge; as well as for Intel products. Clear Linux’s main targets are IT, DevOps, Cloud and AI
professionals; it is not designed as a general-purpose distribution. Its source code is available
on GitHub.
Clear Linux License: GPL and other licenses.
Clear Linux Releases: rolling release.
Rocky Linux
Rocky Linux is an open source Linux distribution, based on the source code of the commercial
distribution RHEL. This Linux distribution is led by Gregory Kurtzer — founder of CentOS,
together with Rocky McGaugh. Rocky Linux aims to fill the gap CentOS will leave as a
community-supported, downstream of RHEL, after CentOS 8’s discontinuation by December
2021. As explained on Rocky Linux’s Wiki, this distribution aims to be “a solid, stable and
transparent alternative for production environments, developed by the community for the
community”. Stackscale provides two of its public mirrors in Madrid and Amsterdam.
Rocky Linux License: BSD and other licenses.
Rocky Linux Latest release: Rocky Linux 9.
AlmaLinux
AlmaLinux is a free, open source Linux distribution; compatible with RHEL. It is focused on
long-term stability and governed by the community; with regular releases. AlmaLinux OS is
sponsored by CloudLinux Inc. and supported by other sponsors. It is also a good alternative for
those who are currently using CentOS, after its discontinuation by the end of 2021.
AlmaLinux License: GPLv2 and other licenses.
AlmaLinux Latest release: AlmaLinux 9.
Asahi Linux
Asahi Linux is a Linux distribution that intends to port Linux to Apple Silicon Mac computers.
The goal is to make Linux run on Apple Silicon Mac computers so as to be used as a daily OS.
This distro is developed by a community of free and open source software developers. Asahi
Linux’s first Alpha version was released in March, 2022.
Asahi Linux License: General Public License v2 or MIT.
Asahi Linux Latest release: Asahi Linux Alpha Release.
Lubuntu
Lubuntu is a Linux distribution based on Ubuntu and developed by the Lubuntu community. It
stands out for being lightweight, fast and offering great compatibility with many formats and
applications. Besides, it offers a Software Center with a large number of free apps that can be
safely downloaded.
Lubuntu License: GNU GPL and other licenses.
Lubuntu Latest release: Lubuntu 22.04.
SUSE Linux
SUSE Linux, also known as SUSE Linux Enterprise Server, is a Linux distribution, adaptable
to any environment and optimized for security, reliability and performance. Originally based
on Slackware, its first version was released in 1994. As Slackware, SUSE Linux is one of the
oldest Linux distributions.
SUSE Linux Latest release: SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 15 SP4.
Knoppix
Knoppix is a free, open source Linux distribution based on Debian, developed by Klaus
Knopper. It was mainly designed to be used as a Live CD, but it can also be installed on a hard
disk like any other OS.
Knoppix License: free software licenses.
Knoppix Latest release: Knoppix 9.2.
VzLinux
VzLinux is a free and open source Linux distribution. It is a 1:1 clone of Red Hat Enterprise
Linux and offers an easy conversion from CentOS. It can also be used as a guest OS in
different hypervisors.
VzLinux Latest release: VzLinux 8 and VzLinux 9 Beta.
Peppermint OS
Peppermint OS is a lightweight Linux distribution based on Debian Stable. It is a beginner-
friendly distribution, intuitive and easy to use.
Peppermint License: free software licenses.
Peppermint Latest release: Peppermint OS 11.
Zorin OS
Zorin OS is a Linux distribution based on Ubuntu, designed as a powerful and secure
alternative to Windows and MacOS. Zorin OS is easy to use and its Appearance app allows
users to change the desktop layout to the OS environment appearance they are familiar with —
Windows, MacOS or Linux.
Zorin OS License: free software.
Zorin OS Latest release: Zorin OS 16.1.
BlackArch Linux
BlackArch Linux is an open source Linux distribution based on Arch Linux. It is especially
designed for penetration testers and security researchers and it provides a lot of cybersecurity
tools. The last version was released in September, 2021.
BlackArch Linux License: several licenses.
SUSE Liberty Linux
SUSE Liberty Linux is an enterprise-grade Linux distribution born to be an alternative to
CentOS, which has been replaced by a rolling release. It is focused on providing a secure
distribution for mixed Linux environments. This new distro is developed by SUSE, using its
Open Build Service tool. Besides, it is based on the SUSE Linux Enterprise Server kernel
(SLES kernel).
SUSE Liberty Linux Latest release: SUSE Liberty Linux 8
Navy Linux
Navy Linux is a minimalistic installation of the Linux OS, based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux.
This open source distribution was founded in January 2021 by UnixLab, as a replacement for
CentOS Linux. It is focused on minimizing hardware resources requirements to build a stable
and secure Linux distro.
Navy Linux License: GNU GPL.
Navy Linux Latest release: Navy Linux 8.5.
 B.Sc. Part –III Comp.Sci. (Sem– V) CourseCode: DSE-23E Computer Paper XI
Architecture of Linux -2nd topic: UNIT 1: Introduction to Linux Subject : LINUX Part I

Architecture of Linux operating system

The architecture of Linux is composed of kernel, shell and application programs that is
softwares.

APPLICATION PROGRAMS

SHELL
HARDWARE

KERNEL

HARDWARE: physical parts of a computer, such as central processing unit (CPU), monitor,
mouse, keyboard, hard disk and other connected devices to CPU.

KERNEL: A kernel is a computer program and is the central, core part of an operating system.
It manages the operations of the computer and the hardware, most notably memory and
CPU time. It is an integral part of any operating system.

SHELL: Shell is an environment in which we can run our commands, programs,

and shell scripts. It is a user interface for access to an operating system's services. (User
interface program execution, file system manipulation, input/output operations, communication, resource
allocation, error detection, security and protection)
 B.Sc. Part –III Comp.Sci. (Sem– V) CourseCode: DSE-23E Computer Paper XI
Architecture of Linux -2nd topic: UNIT 1: Introduction to Linux Subject : LINUX Part I

The diagram of kernel shell user relationship is as below:

THE KERNEL
1. Kernel is core (main) part of
Linux operating system.
2. It is collection of routine
communicate with hardware
directly.
3. It loads into memory when
Linux is booted.
4. Kernel provides support to
user programs through system
call.
5. Kernel manages Computer
memory, schedules processes,
decides priorities of processes
and performs other tasks.
6. Kernel does lot of work even if
no application software is running.
7. Hence kernel often called as application software gateway to the computer resources.
8. Kernel is represented by /boot/vmlinuz.

Shell
1. Shell is interface between user and kernel.
2. It is outer part of operating system.
3. A shell is a user interface for access to an operating system's services Shell is an
environment in which we can run our commands, programs, softwares
and shell scripts.
4. Computers do not have any inherent (मूळची) capability (क्षमता) of translating
commands into actions, it is done by Shell.
5. There can be many shells in action - one shell for each user who logged in.
 B.Sc. Part –III Comp.Sci. (Sem– V) CourseCode: DSE-23E Computer Paper XI
Architecture of Linux -2nd topic: UNIT 1: Introduction to Linux Subject : LINUX Part I

How Shell works?

When we enter commands through the keyboard, it gathers input from you and
executes programs based on that input. When a program finishes executing, it displays that
program's output. OR the shell thoroughly examines the keyboard input for special
characters. If it finds any, it rebuilds a simplified command-line, and finally communicate
with the Kernel to see that the command is executed.
To know the running shell, use echo $SHELL command in terminal.

Application programs/software

An application, or application program, is a software program that runs on your computer.

It is excited by user. Some inbuilt application programs in Linux are terminal, Firefox
browser, Libre office

System calls
There are over a thousand commands available in Linux operating system. These all
commands use a function to communicate with kernel - and it is called as system call.
System call is the interface between a process and an operating system or System
calls are the only entry points into the kernel system.

Ex. 1) a typical Linux writes a file with write system call. Same system call can access both
a file and device.

2) Open system call opens both file and device. These system calls are built into
kernel. And interaction through the system calls represents and efficient means of
communication with operating system.
Linux Installation

LINUX INSTALLATION
Linux Installation

Download LINUX

To install Red Hat, you will need to download the ISO

images (CD Images) of the installation CD-ROMs
from http://fedora.redhat.com
Download the i386 images for 32 Intel Processors,
PPC images for for Apple Macintosh and x86_64 for
for 64 bit AMD Processors
Burn the iso CD images on CDs and use these CDs
as Installation CDs (typically 4)
Linux Installation

What is a Partition?

Partitioning is a means to divide a single hard drive

into many logical drives.
A partition is a contiguous set of blocks on a drive
that are treated as an independent disk.
A partition table is an index that relates sections of the
hard drive to partitions.
Linux Installation

Why have multiple partitions?

Reduce the risk of system failure in case a partition
becomes full. Runaway processes or maniacal users
can consume so much disk space that the operating
system no longer has room on the hard drive for its
bookkeeping operations. This will lead to disaster. By
segregating space, you ensure that things other than
the operating system die when allocated disk space is
exhausted.

Encapsulate your data. Since file system corruption is

local to a partition, you stand to lose only some of
your data if an accident occurs.
Linux Installation

Partition Fields
Device: This field displays the partition's device name.

Start: This field shows the sector on your hard drive

where the partition begins.

End: This field shows the sector on your hard drive where
the partition ends.

Size: This field shows the partition's size (in MB).

Type: This field shows the partition's type (for example,

ext2, ext3, or vfat).

Mount Point: A mount point is the location within the

directory hierarchy at which a volume exists; the volume is
"mounted" at this location. This field indicates where the
partition will be mounted.
Linux Installation

Filesystem Types
ext2 — An ext2 filesystem supports standard Unix file
types (regular files, directories, symbolic links, etc). It
provides the ability to assign long file names, up to 255
characters. Versions prior to Red Hat Linux 7.2 used ext2
filesystems by default.
ext3 — The ext3 filesystem is based on the ext2
filesystem and has one main advantage — journaling.
Using a journaling filesystem reduces time spent
recovering a filesystem after a crash as there is no need to
fsck the filesystem.
swap — Swap partitions are used to support virtual
memory. In other words, data is written to a swap partition
when there is not enough RAM to store the data your
system is processing.
vfat — The VFAT filesystem is a Linux filesystem that is
compatible with Windows 95/NT long filenames on the
FAT filesystem.
Linux Installation
Recommended Partitioning
Scheme
Unless you have a reason for doing otherwise, it is
recommended that you create the following partitions:
/boot partition – contains kernel images and grub
configuration and commands
/ partition
/var partition
/home partition
Any other partition based on application (e.g /usr/local
for squid)
swap partition — swap partitions are used to support
virtual memory. In other words, data is written to a swap
partition when there is not enough RAM to store the
data your system is processing. The size of your swap
partition should be equal to twice your computer's
RAM.
Linux Installation

Disk Partition
IDE Disk Partitions
/dev/hda (Primary Master Disk)
/dev/hda1 (First Primary Partition)
/dev/hda2 (Second Primary Partition)
/dev/hdb (Primary Slave Partition)
/dev/hdb1
/dev/hdc (Secondary Master/Slave Partition)
/dev/hdc1
SCSI Disk Partitions
/dev/sda1, /dev/sda2
/dev/sdb1, /dev/sdb2
/dev/sdc1, /dev/sdc2
Linux Installation

Software RAID and LVM

▪ Software RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disk)

▪ RAID 0 (Striping)
▪ RAID 1 (Mirroring)
▪ RAID 5 (Striping with Parity)
▪ LVM (Logical Volume Manager)
Linux Installation

Boot Loader

In order for the BIOS to load an OS it looks for

instructions on the first sector of a hard drive.

On the first sector of the hard drive resides the master

boot record (MBR), and is where a boot loader is
initialized.

Depending on the boot loader, additional files may be

stored and read from a partition on the hard drive.

After this step the boot loader begins to start the

operating system, and is not used again until the next
boot.
Components of Linux System
Linux Operating System has primarily three components
• Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities
of this operating system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly
with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide
low level hardware details to system or application programs.
• System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using
which application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features.
These libraries implement most of the functionalities of the operating system
and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.
• System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized,
individual level tasks.

Kernel Mode vs User Mode

Kernel component code executes in a special privileged mode called kernel
mode with full access to all resources of the computer. This code represents a single
process, executes in single address space and do not require any context switch and
hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each processes and provides system
services to processes, provides protected access to hardware to processes.
Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User
programs and other system programs works in User Mode which has no access to
system hardware and kernel code. User programs/ utilities use System libraries to
access Kernel functions to get system's low level tasks.

Basic Features
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.
 • Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of
hardware in same way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their
installation on any kind of hardware platform.
• Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community
based development project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance
the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.
• Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access
system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
• Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple
applications can run at same time.
• Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which
system files/ user files are arranged.
• Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to
execute commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types
of operations, call application programs. etc.
• Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like
password protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Architecture
The following illustration shows the architecture of a Linux system −

The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers −

 • Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/
CPU etc).
• Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with
hardware, provides low level services to upper layer components.
• Shell − An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from
users. The shell takes commands from the user and executes kernel's
functions.
• Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of
an operating systems.

Linux Features
o Multiuser capability: Multiple users can access the same system resources
like memory, hard disk, etc. But they have to use different terminals to
operate.

o Multitasking: More than one function can be performed simultaneously by

dividing the CPU time intelligently.

o Portability: Portability doesn't mean it is smaller in file size or can be carried

in pen drives or memory cards. It means that it support different types of
hardware.

o Security: It provides security in three ways namely authenticating (by

assigning password and login ID), authorization (by assigning permission to
read, write and execute) and encryption (converts file into an unreadable
format).

o Live CD/USB: Almost all Linux distros provide live CD/USB so that users can
run/try it without installing it.

o Graphical User Interface (X Window system): Linux is command line

based OS but it can be converted to GUI based by installing packages.

o Support's customized keyboard: As it is used worldwide, hence supports

different languages keyboards.

o Application support: It has its own software repository from where users
can download and install many applications.

o File System: Provides hierarchical file system in which files and directories
are arranged.

o Open Source: Linux code is freely available to all and is a community based
development project.

Why Use Linux

Linux is completely different from other operating systems in many ways.

o It is an open source OS which gives a great advantage to the programmers as

they can design their own custom operating systems.

o It gives you a lot of option of programs having some different features so you
can choose according to your need.

o A global development community look at different ways to enhance its

security, hence it is highly secured and robust so you don't need an anti virus
to scan it regularly. Companies like Google, Amazon and Facebook use linux
in order to protect their servers as it is highly reliable and stable.

o Above all you don't have to pay for software and server licensing to install
Linux, its absolutely free and you can install it on as many computers as you
want.

o Its completely trouble free operating system and don't have an issue with
viruses, malware and slowing down your computer.

Next →← Prev

Unix Vs Linux
Today Linux is in great demand. You can see the use of Linux everywhere. It's dominating on ou
smartphones and even used in some electrical devices like refrigerators.

Some people think Unix and Linux as synonyms, but that's not true. Many operating systems w
like Unix but none of them got the popularity as Linux. Linux is the clone of Unix. It has several
Unix, still have some key differences. Before Linux and Windows, computer world was dominate
a copyrighted name and IBM AIX, HP-UX and Sun Solaris are only Unix operating system remain

Difference between Linux and Unix

Comparison Linux Unix

Definition It is an open-source operating system which It is an

is freely available to everyone. operating
system
 which can be
only used by
its
copyrighters.

Examples It has different distros like Ubuntu, Redhat, IBM AIX, HP-
Fedora, etc UX and Sun
Solaris.

Users Nowadays, Linux is in great demand. Anyone It was

can use Linux whether a home user, developer developed
or a student. mainly for
servers,
workstations
and
mainframes.

Usage Linux is used everywhere from servers, PC, It is used in

smartphones, tablets to mainframes and servers,
supercomputers. workstations
and PCs.

Cost Linux is freely distributed,downloaded, and Unix

distributed through magazines also. And priced copyright
distros of Linux are also cheaper than vendors
Windows. decide
different
costs for their
respective
Unix
Operating
systems.
Development As it is open source, it is developed by sharing Unix was
and collaboration of codes by world-wide developed by
developers. AT&T Labs,
various
commercial
vendors and
non-profit
organizations.

Manufacturer Linux kernel is developed by the community of Unix has

developers from different parts of the world. three
Although the father of Linux, Linus Torvalds distributions
oversees things. IBM AIX, HP-
UX and Sun
Solaris. Apple
also uses
Unix to make
OSX
operating
system.

GUI Linux is command based but some distros Initially it was

provide GUI based Linux. Gnome and KDE are command
mostly used GUI. based OS,
but later
Common
Desktop
Environment
was created.
Most Unix
distributions
use Gnome.
Interface The default interface is BASH (Bourne Again It originally
SHell). But some distros have developed their used Bourne
own interfaces. shell. But is
also
compatible
with other
GUIs.

File system Linux supports more file system than Unix. It also
support supports file
system but
lesser than
Linux.

Coding Linux is a Unix clone,behaves like Unix but Unix contain

doesn't contain its code. a completely
different
coding
developed by
AT&T Labs.

Operating Linux is just the kernel. Unix is a

system complete
package of
Operating
system.

Security It provides higher security. Linux has about 60- Unix is also
100 viruses listed till date. highly
secured. It
has about 85-
120 viruses
listed till date
 Error detection As Linux is open-source,whenever a user post
and solution any kind of threat, developers from all over the
world start working on it. And hence, it
provides faster solution.

Linux vs. Windows

Linux vs. Windows has always been one of the most frequently asked questions
related to the operating system. Users often get confused about which one is better
for them. There is diversity between the users as most users prefer the graphical
user interface (GUI) and most command-line interface (CLI). There are many
disagreements and acrimonious behavior among users, and it seems that it will be
forever.

In this section, we will discuss the differences between Linux and Windows by
considering several parameters such as performance, usability, security, ease of
use, and more to clear a picture of using both operating systems. Further, we
will see the advantages of Linux over other operating systems such as Windows and
Mac OS. This will help you to decide which one is better for you.

Difference between Linux and Windows operating

system
To understand the difference between Linux and Windows, let's see a brief
introduction to both operating systems. Later we will talk on their features and
security options.

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What is the Windows operating system?

Windows is a graphical operating system developed and marketed by Microsoft. It
is also referred to as Microsoft Windows. Several versions of Windows have been
introduced in the market; the current version is Windows 10. The first version of
Windows was introduced on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system
for MS-DOS.

Microsoft Windows is a family of various operating systems. It comes with two

versions, i.e., 64 bit and 32 bit. It facilitates both client and server versions. The
latest client version is Windows 10, and the server version is Windows server 2019.

Windows is a straight forward and simple to use. Generally, it is designed for users
having no programming knowledge. So, mostly it is used for business and
alternative industrial purposes.

What is a Linux operating system

Linux is an open-source operating system. As it is open-source, it is special and
different from other operating systems, which means that you can customize it by
editing source code. It provides programming as well as a graphical user
interface. Linux is built by Linux Torvalds because he wanted to create a free
operating system kernel that anyone can use.

Linux is a collection of operating systems that are based on Linux kernel. The first
version of Linux was released in the year 1991. The Linux system is most
commonly used for servers; however, it is available in desktop versions as well.

Ubuntu, Devian, and Fedora are some popular Linux distributions. Also, we
have SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) and RedHat Enterprise Linux for
the commercial distribution of Linux. As it is open-source, we can modify the source
code and make variations in the operating system.

Let's discuss some features and parameters to understand the difference between
both operating systems:

o File System
Windows uses different drives such as C, D, E, and more, having some folders to
store files.

But Linux uses a tree structure to store and organize files. Linux file structure
starts from the root directory, and it is considered as a start point of the file system.
It is represented by a forward slash (/). In Linux, everything (Directories,
devices, and files) is considered a file.

There are three types of files available in a Linux system.

o General files

o Directory files

o Device files

The general file system of Unix is as follows:

General files: General files or ordinary files are files that contain images, text, or a
program. These files are in ASCII text or Binary format. The General files are the
most common in any Linux system.

Directory files: Directory files are the depository for other files. A directory can
have a subdirectory file within it. For Windows, we can understand them as folders.

Device files: Windows represents the external devices (Pendrives, hard drives, and
CD-ROM) as letters such as E: F: But, Linux represents devices as files, such as the
hard drive's partitions are represented as dev/sda1, dev/sda2, and more
(depends upon the number of partitions). All the device files take place within the
directory /dev.

o Naming Conventions for file

Linux files are case sensitive; therefore, we can have two files having the same
name; one in upper case and other in lower case. Comparatively, the Windows files
are not case sensitive; we cannot have two files with the same name.

o Users

Windows supports four types of users:

o Administrator

o Standard

o Child

o Guest

Comparatively, Linux supports three types of users:

o Regular

o Administrative(root)

o Service

Regular User

In Linux, when we install ubuntu on our system, a regular account user is created.
By default, all our files are saved in the home directory (/home/). A regular user
cannot access the other user's directories.

Root User

Apart from the regular user account, a root user account is also created during
installation. The root account is also called as superuser as it can access the
restricted files, install the software and other utility, and has administrative rights.
For installing the software or editing the system files or any other administrative
task, we need the root access. For general tasks such as creating files, playing
games, browsing the internet, we don't need the root access.
Service user

The Linux system is widely used as the server operating system. The leading
service providers such as Apache, Squid, email, and more have their service
accounts to increase security. Linux service user can allow or deny access to various
resources depending on the service type.

Note: The Ubuntu Desktop version does not have a service account, and the
regular accounts are called standard accounts.
o Home Directory

Linux OS has a separate home directory for a user. The files and directories created
by a user are stored under a particular home directory. A user cannot store the files
under any other user's directory, as it is not allowed to access the other user's
directory. For example, the home directory of a user 'Alex' is automatically created
as "/home/alex/" at the time of installation.

The Windows OS also has different home directories for different users. It is as "C:\
documents or \settings."

o Other Directories

Linux systems have a tree structure to save the directories; comparatively, Windows
uses different drives to save the directories. In Windows, system and program files
usually take place in C drive. But in Linux, the system and program files take place
in their specific directory such as software files are stored in /bin, programs
and device files are in /dev, and boot files are stored in /boot directory.

o Kernel

The basic part of any operating system is its kernel. It interacts with hardware
devices and performs other functions such as process management, file handling,
and more. Different operating systems have different kernels.

Linux and Windows have a different kernel. The Linux kernel is monolithic, and it
consumes more running space. Comparatively, Windows uses the microkernel,
which consumes less running spaces. But, Windows running efficiency is less than
Linux. The key difference between Linux kernel and Windows kernel is that Windows
is a commercial software while Linux is open-source software.

o Pricing

Linux is an open-source operating system, so almost all the utilities and libraries are
entirely free. The GNU/Linux distribution can be simply downloaded for free.
However, some companies are providing paid support for their Linux distributions,
but the underlying software is still free.

Microsoft Windows licensed copy usually cost between $99.00 and $199.00.
Microsoft currently stops providing support for the earlier versions. The latest
version, Windows 10, is available at $139.
 Let's focus some head to head comparison between Linux and Windows.

Parameter Linux Windows

Access Users can access the source code of Usually, users cannot access the
kernel in Linux and can alter the kernel source code. However, members
according to need. of some groups can have access
to it.

Variety Linux has several distributions that are Windows have fewer options to
highly customizable. customize.

Command- The command line usually referred to as Windows also have a command
line Terminal, which is the most useful tool line, but it is not such effective as
of the Linux system. It used for a comparison to the Linux
administration and daily tasks. For the terminal. Most users prefer the
end-users, it does not look so effective. GUI options for daily tasks.

Installation The Linux installation process is a bit Windows OS is easy to install and
complicated to set up as it requires many set up on a machine; it requires
user inputs. It takes less time than fewer user input options during
Windows to install. installation. However, it takes
more time to install as compared
to Linux.

Ease of use The Linux OS is meant to be for the Windows comes with simple and
technical user because you must have rich GUI options, so it is easy to
some exposure to various Linux use it. It can be simply used by
commands. Users may take more time to technical as well as non-technical
be a handy user of Linux. The users. The troubleshooting
troubleshooting process is also process is also much easy than
complicated as compared to Windows. Linux.

Written in Linux is written in assembly Windows is written

language and C. in C++ and assembly language.
Reliability Linux is highly reliable and secure. It has Windows is not as much reliable
well-established system security, process as Linux. However, now Windows
management, and uptime. has improved reliability but still
has some security weaknesses
and system instabilities.

Support Linux has a Windows also provide good

support to its user. It provides
good support as it has a huge free as well as paid support. It has
community of user forums and online an easily accessible online forum.
search.

Update Linux provides full control to its users on Windows updates are annoying.
updates. A user can install the update The updates will come at any time
whenever needed. Also, it takes less and take too much time to install.
time to install an update. Sometimes, you power on your
machine, and updates are
automatically getting started.
Unfortunately, the user does not
have much control over updates.

Security Linux OS is more secure than Windows. Windows is less secure than Linux.
It is hard for the hackers and attackers Attackers primarily target the
to find a loophole in it. So, Linux is hard Windows for malware and virus.
to breakthrough. Windows is most vulnerable
without anti-virus.

License Linux is distributed under the GPL(GNU Windows is distributed under

General Public License) license. a Proprietary commercial
software license.

Linux Distributions (Distros)

Other operating systems like Microsoft combine each bit of codes internally and
release it as a single package. You have to choose from one of the version they
offer.
But Linux is different from them. Different parts of Linux are developed by different
organizations.

Different parts include kernel, shell utilities, X server, system environment, graphical
programs, etc. If you want you can access the codes of all these parts and assemble
them yourself. But its not an easy task seeking a lot of time and all the parts has to
be assembled correctly in order to work properly.

From here on distribution (also called as distros) comes into the picture. They
assemble all these parts for us and give us a compiled operating system of Linux to
install and use.

Linux Distributions List

There are on an average six hundred Linux distributors providing different features.
Here, we'll discuss about some of the popular Linux distros today.

1) Ubuntu
It came into existence in 2004 by Canonical and quickly became popular. Canonical
wants Ubuntu to be used as easy graphical Linux desktop without the use of
command line. It is the most well known Linux distribution. Ubuntu is a next version
of Debian and easy to use for newbies. It comes with a lots of pre-installed apps and
easy to use repositories libraries.

Earlier, Ubuntu uses GNOME2 desktop environment but now it has developed its own
unity desktop environment. It releases every six months and currently working to
expand to run on tablets and smartphones.

2) Linux Mint
Mint is based on Ubuntu and uses its repository software so some packages are
common in both.

Earlier it was an alternative of Ubuntu because media codecs and proprietary

software are included in mint but was absent in Ubuntu. But now it has its own
popularity and it uses cinnamon and mate desktop instead of Ubuntu's unity desktop
environment.

3) Debian
Debian has its existence since 1993 and releases its versions much slowly then
Ubuntu and mint.

This makes it one of the most stable Linux distributor.

Ubuntu is based on Debian and was founded to improve the core bits of Debian
more quickly and make it more user friendly. Every release name of Debian is based
on the name of the movie Toy Story.
 4) Red Hat Enterprise / CentOS
Red hat is a commercial Linux distributor. There products are red hat enterprise
Linux (RHEL) and Fedora which are freely available. RHEL is well tested before
release and supported till seven years after the release, whereas, fedora provides
faster update and without any support.

Red hat uses trademark law to prevent their software from being redistributed.
CentOS is a community project that uses red hat enterprise Linux code but removes
all its trademark and make it freely available. In other words, it is a free version of
RHEL and provide a stable platform for a long time.

5) Fedora
It is a project that mainly focuses on free software and provides latest version of
software. It doesn't make its own desktop environment but used 'upstream'
software. By default it has GNOME3 desktop environment. It is less stable but
provides the latest stuff.

Choosing a Linux Distro

Distribution Why To Use

UBuntu It works like Mac OS and easy to use.

Linux mint It works like windows and should be use by new comers.

Debian It provides stability but not recommended to a new user.

Fedora If you want to use red hat and latest software.

Red hat To be used commercially.

enterprise

CentOS If you want to use red hat but without its trademark.

OpenSUSE It works same as Fedora but slightly older and more stable.
Arch Linux It is not for the beginners because every package has to be installed by
yourself.
The Linux Kernel
The main purpose of a computer is to run a predefined sequence of instructions,
known as a program. A program under execution is often referred to as a process.
Now, most special purpose computers are meant to run a single process, but in a
sophisticated system such a general purpose computer, are intended to run many
processes simultaneously. Any kind of process requires hardware resources such
as Memory, Processor time, Storage space, etc. In a General Purpose Computer
running many processes simultaneously, we need a middle layer to manage the
distribution of the hardware resources of the computer efficiently and fairly
among all the various processes running on the computer. This middle layer is
referred to as the kernel. Basically the kernel virtualizes the common hardware
resources of the computer to provide each process with its own virtual resources.
This makes the process seem as it is the sole process running on the machine. The
kernel is also responsible for preventing and mitigating conflicts between different
processes. This schematically represented

below:
Figure: Virtual Resources for each Process
The Core Subsystems of the Linux Kernel are as follows:
1. The Process Scheduler
2. The Memory Management Unit (MMU)
3. The Virtual File System (VFS)
4. The Networking Unit
5. Inter-Process Communication Unit
The Linux KernelFor the purpose of this article we will only be focussing on the
1st three important subsystems of the Linux Kernel. The basic functioning of each
of the 1st three subsystems is elaborated below:
• The Process Scheduler: This kernel subsystem is responsible for fairly
distributing the CPU time among all the processes running on the system
simultaneously.
• The Memory Management Unit: This kernel sub-unit is responsible
for proper distribution of the memory resources among the various
processes running on the system. The MMU does more than just simply
provide separate virtual address spaces for each of the processes.
• The Virtual File System: This subsystem is responsible for providing a
unified interface to access stored data across different filesystems and
physical storage media.
Linux: Linux could be a free and open supply OS supported operating system standards. It
provides programming interface still as programme compatible with operating system
primarily based systems and provides giant selection applications. A UNIX operating
system additionally contains several severally developed parts, leading to UNIX operating
system that is totally compatible and free from proprietary code. Windows: Windows may
be a commissioned OS within which ASCII text file is inaccessible. it’s designed for the
people with the angle of getting no programming information and for business and
alternative industrial users. it’s terribly straightforward and simple to use. The distinction
between Linux and Windows package is that Linux is completely freed from price whereas
windows is marketable package and is expensive. Associate operating system could be a
program meant to regulate the pc or computer hardware Associate behave as an treater
between user and hardware. Linux is a open supply package wherever users will access the
ASCII text file and might improve the code victimisation the system. On the opposite hand,
in windows, users can’t access ASCII text file, and it’s a authorized OS. Let’s see that the
difference between Linux and windows:
S.NO Linux Windows

While windows are the not the

1. Linux is a open source operating system. open source operating system.

2. Linux is free of cost. While it is costly.

While it’s file name is case-

3. It’s file name case-sensitive. insensitive.

While in this, micro kernel is

4. In linux, monolithic kernel is used. used.

Linux is more efficient in comparison of While windows are less

5. windows. efficient.

While there is back slash is

There is forward slash is used for Separating used for Separating the
6. the directories. directories.

While it provides less security

7. Linux provides more security than windows. than linux.

While windows does not

Linux is widely used in hacking purpose based provide much efficiency in
8. systems. hacking.

There are 4 types of user

There are 3 types of user account – account –
9.
S.NO Linux Windows

(1) Regular , (2) Root , (3) Service account (1) Administrator , (2) Standard
, (3) Child , (4) Guest

Administrator user has all

Root user is the super user and has all administrative privileges of
10. administrative privileges. computers.

Linux file naming convention in case In Windows, you cannot have 2

sensitive. Thus, sample and SAMPLE are 2 files with the same name in the
11. different files in Linux/Unix operating system. same folder.
 Differences Between Linux and Other Operating Systems
It’s important to understand the differences between Linux and other operating systems, such
as Windows 95/98, Windows NT, OS/2, and other implementations of Unix for the personal
computer. First of all, it should be made clear that Linux will coexist happily with other
operating systems on the same machine: that is, you can run Windows NT and OS/2 along with
Linux on the same system without problems. There are even ways to interact between the
various operating systems, as you’ll see.

Why Use Linux?

Why use Linux instead of a commercial operating system? We could give you a thousand
reasons. One of the most important, however, is that Linux is an excellent choice for personal
Unix computing. If you’re a Unix software developer, why use Windows at home? Linux will
allow you to develop and test Unix software on your PC, including database and X applications.
If you’re a student, chances are that your university computing system runs Unix. With Linux,
you can run your own Unix system and tailor it to your own needs. Installing and running Linux
is also an excellent way to learn Unix if you don’t have access to other Unix machines.

But let’s not lose perspective. Linux isn’t just for personal Unix users. It’s robust and complete
enough to handle large tasks, as well as distributed computing needs. Many businesses are
moving to Linux in lieu of other Unix-based workstation environments. Linux has an excellent
price-performance ratio, is one of the most stable and powerful operating systems available,
and because of its Open Source nature, is completely customizable for your needs. Universities
are finding Linux to be perfect for teaching courses in operating systems design. Larger
commercial software vendors are starting to realize the opportunities a free operating system
can provide.

Linux Versus Windows 95 and 98

It’s not uncommon to run both Linux and Windows 95/98 on the same system. Many Linux
users rely on Windows for applications such as word processing and productivity tools. While
Linux provides its own analogs for these applications (for example, TeX), and commercial
software support for Linux is increasing, there are various reasons why a particular user would
want to run Windows as well as Linux. If your entire dissertation is written using Microsoft
Word, you may not be able to easily convert it to TeX or some other format (although the Star
Office suite for Linux can probably do the trick). There are many commercial applications for
Windows that aren’t available for Linux, and there’s no reason why you can’t use both.

As you might know, Windows 95 and 98 do not fully utilize the functionality of the x86
processor. On the other hand, Linux runs completely in the processor’s protected mode and
exploits all of the features of the machine, including multiple processors.

We could debate the pros and cons of Windows and Linux for pages on end. However, suffice
it to say that Linux and Windows are completely different entities. Windows is inexpensive
(compared to other commercial operating systems) and has a strong foothold in the PC
computing world. No other operating system for the PC has reached the level of popularity of
Windows, largely because the cost of these other operating systems is unapproachable for most
personal computer users. Very few PC users can imagine spending a thousand dollars or more
on the operating system alone. Linux, however, is free, and you finally have the chance to
decide.

We will allow you to make your own judgments of Linux and Windows based on your
expectations and needs. Linux is not for everybody. But if you have always wanted to run a
complete Unix system at home, without the high cost of other Unix implementations for the
PC, Linux may be what you’re looking for.

There are tools available to allow you to interact between Linux and Windows. For example,
it’s easy to access Windows files from Linux. Development is proceeding on the Wine
Windows emulator, which allows you to run many popular applications.

Linux Versus Windows NT

A number of other advanced operating systems are on the rise in the PC world. Specifically,
Microsoft’s Windows NT is becoming very popular for server computing.

Windows NT, like Linux, is a full multitasking operating system, supporting multiprocessor
machines, several CPU architectures, virtual memory, networking, security, and so on.
However, the real difference between Linux and Windows NT is that Linux is a version of
Unix and hence benefits from the contributions of the Unix community at large.

There are many implementations of Unix from many vendors. There is a large push in the Unix
community for standardization in the form of open systems, but no single corporation controls
this design. Hence, any vendor (or, as it turns out, any hacker) may implement these standards
in an implementation of Unix.

Windows NT, on the other hand, is a proprietary system. The interface and design are
controlled by a single corporation, Microsoft, and only that corporation may implement the
design. (Don’t expect to see a free version of Windows NT anytime in the near future.) In one
sense, this kind of organization is beneficial: it sets a strict standard for the programming and
user interface unlike that found even in the open systems community. NT is NT wherever you
go.

It seems likely that in the coming years, Linux and Windows NT will be battling it out for their
share of the server computing market. Windows NT has behind it the full force of the Microsoft
marketing machine, while Linux has a community of thousands of developers helping to
advance the system through the Open Source model. So far, benchmarks of Linux versus
Windows NT have demonstrated that each system has its strengths and weaknesses; however,
Linux wins hands-down in a number of areas, most notably networking performance. Linux is
also much smaller than Windows NT, has a much better price-performance ratio, and is
generally seen as more stable. (While Windows NT is known to crash quite often, Linux
machines run continuously for months.) It might seem amazing that “little” Linux gives
Microsoft serious competition, but it’s not surprising when you realize how effective the Open
Source development process really is.

Other Implementations of Unix

There are several other implementations of Unix for the personal computer. The Intel x86
architecture lends itself to the Unix design, and a number of vendors have taken advantage of
this, including Sun (with Solaris x86), SCO, and BSDI.

In terms of features, other implementations of Unix for the PC are quite similar to Linux. You
will see that almost all commercial versions of Unix support roughly the same software,
programming environment, and networking features. However, there are some major
differences between Linux and commercial versions of Unix. This stems primarily from
Linux’s roots as a “personal” Unix system, rather than one that runs only on large servers
(although Linux is perfectly at home in either environment).

First of all, Linux supports a much wider range of hardware than other Unix implementations,
simply because there is more demand under Linux to support every crazy brand of sound,
graphics, network, and SCSI board. Plus, under the Open Source model, anyone with enough
time and interest to write a driver for a particular board is able to do so. We’ll cover the
hardware requirements for Linux in the next section.

The most important factor to consider for many users is price. The Linux software is free if you
have access to the Internet (or another computer network) and can download it. If you do not
have access to such a network, you may need to purchase it via mail order on CD-ROM, and
such packages often include bundled documentation and support. Of course, you may copy
Linux from a friend who may already have the software or share the cost of purchasing it with
someone else. If you are planning to install Linux on a large number of machines, you need
only purchase a single copy of the software; Linux is not distributed with a “single machine”
license.

The value of commercial Unix implementations should not be demeaned: along with the price
of the software itself, you usually pay for documentation, support, and assurance of quality.
These are important factors for large institutions, but personal computer users may not require
these benefits. A number of companies, including Red Hat and LinuxCare, are now providing
commercial Linux support. Caldera, another Linux distributor, offers 24x7 support. In any case,
many businesses and universities are finding that running Linux in a lab of inexpensive
personal computers is preferable to running a commercial version of Unix in a lab of
workstations. Linux can provide the functionality of a workstation on PC hardware at a fraction
of the cost.

There are other free or inexpensive implementations of Unix for the x86. One of the most well
known is FreeBSD, an implementation and port of BSD Unix for the 386. FreeBSD is
comparable to Linux in many ways, but deciding which one is “better” depends on your own
needs and expectations. The only strong distinction we can make is that Linux is developed
openly (where any volunteer can aid in the development process), while FreeBSD is developed
within a closed team of programmers who maintain the system. Because of this, serious
philosophical and design differences exist between the two projects. The goals of the two
projects are entirely different: the goal of Linux is to develop a complete Unix system from
scratch (and have a lot of fun in the process), and the goal of FreeBSD is in part to modify the
existing BSD code for use on the x86.
Over the years, Linux has greatly evolved from having a simple server-
based architecture to now being used in the development of desktop
applications. Linux follows the guidelines that it has set strictly and thus
builds upon the idea of everything being free and open-source, making it an
extremely reliable and secure alternative to look at, keeping in mind all the
privacy issues that have taken root in the last couple of years.
In addition to this, it is silky smooth and has an immaculate performance
that does not eat up too much memory resource of your system, which, in
turn, has made it much faster and lighter compared to Windows. With so
many powerful features bundled inside of it, it is by no surprise to see it rise
so much in popularity among the desktop community.

The most fascinating thing about Linux appears to be the variety of

distributions out there that have been built on the Linux Kernel and
comprise all its major features along with having some of its own to
distinguish among themselves. Among these, the ones that have
dominated the Linux world have been the KDE and GNOME communities
which are the two go-to desktop environments for Linux.

Hence, in this article, we will be looking at their pros and cons and how
they both compare against each other.

What actually are KDE and GNOME?

KDE is one of the largest Linux communities out there, known for producing
some aesthetically beautiful and stable applications for both the desktop
and mobile. KDE has been a huge follower of the Linux philosophy of all
software to be free and open-source and easily available for the
community. This can be seen by their continuous work of holding events
like Akademy and Camp KDE as well as their participation in multiple
Google competitions.

The KDE community is renowned for their meticulous work in bringing

together large sets of professionals, each with a different role and
producing applications with eye-catching icons, glistering animations and
an extremely smooth looking interface which gives off a modern vibe. It has
also been established as the default desktop environment for many Linux
distributions including Plasma, Neon, Kubuntu, and so on.

GNOME is a desktop environment that, similar to KDE, also follows the

ideologies of Linux closely and thus is part of the GNU Project, making it
free and open-source. GNOME has been developed by the people working
at the GNOME Project, which is a large community comprising of several
collaborators that develop and publish free software. GNOME has been
established as the default desktop environment for several Linux distros,
the most notable ones include Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, CentOS, and Red
Hat, with the last one also being one of their largest contributors. GNOME
is widely known for its consistent and stable interface which is easy to use
and provides a large set of user-friendly tools for users to get their work
done, all of these attesting to the popularity that GNOME has achieved.

With the introductions out of the way, let us now look at how both of these
desktop environments compare with one another in detail.

1) Workflow
GNOMEs switch to GNOME 3 had completely changed its entire workflow.
In the old days, it had a layout reminiscent that of Windows, having a single
launcher that contained all the applications and settings. GNOME 3
introduced the GNOME shell which removed the launcher, menu, and icons
on the desktop and brought about an interface that hides all your
applications and only makes them appear when they are needed, keeping
the desktop clutter-free.
KDE focuses more on the aesthetic side of things, having a slight
resemblance to that of Windows. Unlike GNOME, KDE is extremely
customizable as you can move panels, add or delete components and it
even allows you to change the window borders.
2) Appearance
As mentioned above, KDE has an extremely beautiful design layout, vibrant
wallpapers, and sharp and crisp icons. It also offers an aesthetically
pleasing UI experience and several high-quality themes that are quite
attractive.

Icons:
Bottom Panel:

In KDE, you access most of the stuff from the launcher including your
applications which have been divided into different categories. This can be
seen in the following image:
GNOME, on the other hand, has changed its appearance from its former
self and now offers a more aubergine touch which gives a very modern
vibe.
Icons:
Top panel:

Additional Settings:
In GNOME, you can get the complete list of applications by clicking the
drawer in the bottom left of the screen.
3) Applications
Both GNOME and KDE do have applications that perform the same kind of
tasks, albeit with differences in design. KDE applications, however, tend to
be more robust in nature and are more feature-rich than its counterpart. Let
us look at those that offer similar features:

GNOME File Manager:

Dolphin:
GNOME Bash:
Konsole:
GNOME Text Editor and Kate:

KDE does have some other fascinating applications that GNOME misses
out on such as KDE Connect, Kontact, and KRDC.

4) Userbase
Both KDE and GNOME attract specific sets of users that align with the
features that they offer. GNOME has a much larger userbase, mainly due
to how popular Ubuntu has been among Linux users.

However, with many users dissatisfied with GNOME 3, many users are
switching to other alternatives which have made KDE once again extremely
popular, particularly among the beginners as they feel more home with the
Windows-like appearance that KDE has to offer.

So, KDE or GNOME?

GNOME & KDE both are among the most popular desktop environments of
Linux. They have been leading the race for quite some time and healthy
competition exists between the two. KDE offers a fresh and vibrant
interface that looks extremely pleasing to the eye, along with more control
and customizability while GNOME is well-known for its stability and bugless
system. Both are polished desktop environments that are top-notch choices
& satisfy the needs of their users.
What is GNOME
GNOME is a free and open source software that runs on Linux and most BSD
derivatives. It is the default desktop environments on many Linux distributions
such as Fedora, Debian, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, CentOS, Oracle Linux, Solaris
and Kali Linux.

Figure 1: GNOME

It was developed as part of the GNU Project by The GNOME Project. This project
has a large number of contributors. The main contributor among them is Red Hat.
The main objective of developing the GNU project was to develop frameworks
that support the software development. These frameworks help to program the
end user applications.

The official user interface of GNOME desktop environment is the GNOME shell. It
has features such as activities button, application menu, a clock and an integrated
system status menu. The application menu displays the name of the application.
It is also capable of providing access to the application’s preferences, closing the
application and creating a new application window. The status menu contains the
system status indicators, shortcuts to system settings and session actions such as
logging out, switching users, and suspending the computer.
What is KDE
KDE is a desktop environment that allows carrying out daily tasks without relying
on the Command Line Interface. Two common products of KDE are Plasma
Desktop and KDE frameworks. They are designed to run on Microsoft Windows,
Android, Unix Desktops, etc. It provides tools and documents for the developers
to write applications.

Figure 2: KDE

KDE is a central development hub for many applications such as Krita and Calligra
Suite. KDE Plasma provides a unified environment for running and managing
applications on desktops, netbooks, smartphones, and tablets. KDE applications
such as KTorrent and KDE Partition Manager are built on top of KDE frameworks.
KDE applications are portable between operating systems.

Difference Between GNOME and KDE

Definition
GNOME is a desktop environment composed of free and open source software
that runs on Linux and most BDC derivatives. KDE is a desktop working platform
with a GUI released in the form of an open source package.
Founders
Migual De Icaza and Federico Mena are the founders of GNOME while Matthias
Ettrich is the founder of KDE.

Development
The GNOME project developed GNOME while KDE community developed KDE

Initial Release
GNOME was released on 1999 while KDE was initially released on 1996.

Minimum System Requirements

Furthermore, the GNOME requires 700 MHz CPU and 768 MB RAM. KDE requires
1GHz CPU and 615MB RAM.

Written Programming Languages

While GNOME is written in C, C++, Python, and JavaScript, KDE is mainly written
in C++.

Usage
Although the GNOME provides simplicity, accessibility, and ease of
internationalization and localization, KDE provides basic desktop functions and its
applications to perform daily tasks. It also provides tools and documents for the
programmers to stand along applications.

Tool Kit
Tool kit GTK+ is used by GNOME while tool kit Qt is used by KDE

Complexity
GNOME is simpler than KDE.
User-friendliness
KDE is not very user-friendly as compared to GNOME.

Conclusion
Both GNOME and KDE are desktop environments. The difference between
GNOME and KDE is that the GNOME is a desktop environment that provides
simplicity, accessibility, and ease of internationalization and localization while KDE
is a desktop environment that provides basic functions and applications to
perform daily tasks.

Reference:
1. “GNOME.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Aug. 2018, Available here.
2. “KDE.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Aug. 2018, Available here.
Image Courtesy:
1. “Sabayon Linux-5.2-GNOME” By VARGUX – Own work (CC BY-SA
4.0) via Commons Wikimedia
2. “Kde-4.5.0 fi” By The original uploader was Skfin at Finnish Wikipedia. –
Transferred from fi.wikipedia to Commons by Olli using CommonsHelper.
Originally uploaded by Sasu Karttunen @ fiwikipedia (CC BY-SA
3.0) via Commons Wikimedia
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