Unit 3a

Rock properties affecting Ground Water
The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock: porosity
and permeability. Porosity is the percentage of the volume of the rock that is open
space (pore space). This determines the amount of water that a rock can contain.
What factors affect the flow of groundwater?
Topography and geology are the dominant factors controlling groundwater flow.
Storability describes the property of an aquifer to store water. Hydraulic conductivity
is measured by performing a pumping test, i.e. by pumping one well and observing
the changes in hydraulic head in neighboring wells.
What types of rocks would be best for an aquifer?

Sandstone
Unconsolidated materials like gravel, sand, and even silt make relatively good
aquifers, as do rocks like sandstone. Other rocks can be good aquifers if they are
well fractured.
What 2 factors affect groundwater velocity?
The velocity of groundwater flow is proportional to the magnitude of the hydraulic

gradient and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. Groundwater flows faster
where the hydraulic gradient and/or hydraulic conductivity are larger.
What major factors control the movement of groundwater?
The two most important forces controlling water movement in rock are gravity and
molecular attraction. Gravity causes water to infiltrate until it reaches impermeable
zones where it is diverted laterally. Gravity generates the flow of springs, rivers, and
wells.
Openings in rocks
Groundwater occurs in the natural openings in the soils and rocks of the
Earth's crust. These spaces range from large caverns, which may have dimensions
of the order of tens or hundreds of meters, to pore spaces which may be less than 1
μ m in size between in the grains or crystals of rocks.
Porosity
Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock. It is defined as the ratio of the
volume of the voids or pore space divided by the total volume. It is written as either a
decimal fraction between 0 and 1 or as a percentage. For most rocks, porosity varies
from less than 1% to 40%.
What is primary porosity in geology?
Primary porosity describes the pore spaces between grains that are formed
during depositional processes, such as sedimentation and diagenesis.
Secondary porosity is formed from post-depositional processes, such as dissolution,
re-precipitation, and fracturing.
What is secondary porosity?
Primary porosity is the original porosity of the rock when it formed, and secondary
porosity is the pore space created by subsequent processes such as fracturing.
Permeability
An aquifer is a large body of permeable material where groundwater is present

and fills all pore space. Good aquifers are those with high permeability such as
poorly cemented sands, gravels, or highly fractured rock. An aquitard is a body of
material with very low permeability.
Specific yield
Specific yield is the amount of water that is actually available for groundwater
pumping, when sediments or rocks are drained due to lowering of the water
table. Specific yield depends on the distribution of pores, their shape, and grain size.
Specific retention
Specific retention is that volume fraction of water that is held back by adhesion
and capillary forces, when an aquifer is drained. Specific yield is the amount of
water that is actually available for groundwater pumping, when sediments or rocks
are drained due to lowering of the water table.
Ground water movement
Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is

generally slower than it would move in a stream because it must pass through the
intricate passageways between free spaces in the rock. First the groundwater moves
downward due to the pull of gravity.
Forces causing ground water movement
First the groundwater moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But it can also
move upward because it will flow from higher pressure areas to lower pressure
areas.
What is seepage of groundwater?
Seepage may be defined as the infiltration downward and lateral movement of

water into soil or substrata from a source of supply such as reservoir or
irrigation canal. Such water may reappear, depending upon the topographic
contours and water table rise due to seepage.
Capillary movement
Capillary action (capillarity) the process by which soil moisture may move in any
direction through the fine (i.e. capillary) pores of the soil, under the influence of
surface-tension forces between the water and individual soil particles. Soil moisture
in this state is known as capillary moisture.
Laminar flow
A smooth flow at relatively slow velocity, characteristic of the movement of

groundwater. Darcy's Law can be applied when laminar flow predominates. Why is
laminar flow important? Laminar flow describes natural groundwater flow conditions.
Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow is usually more rapid than laminar flow; eddies are formed and, as
a consequence, the resistance due to friction is greatly increased. The relationship of
velocity to flow is not linear, as flow varies with the square root of the loss in
hydraulic head.
Darcy's Law and Coefficient of Permeability
Darcy's law studied the laminar flow of fluid in a homogeneous soil profile and
demonstrated that the velocity of flow (v) is directly proportional to the
hydraulic gradient (i). i. e. Where k is a constant called coefficient of permeability.
Field measurement of permeability
Field permeability may be measured using pumping tests which provide a good
measurement of the permeability of an aquifer. Pumping tests provide an average
value of the coefficient of permeability at the test site.
Fluctuations in Ground water levels
Sinusoidal fluctuations of groundwater levels occur in response to tides. If the sea

level varies with a simple harmonic motion, a train of sinusoidal waves is propagated
in land from the submarine outcrop of the aquifer. Ground water levels as a result of
decreased recharge and increased withdrawal.
Causes of fluctuations
Groundwater-level fluctuation is an effect related to aquifer type, recharge,

abstraction and regional circulation of groundwater in the area. High rainfalls
above the mean are the most prominent sources of water that reach deep into the
aquifers through recharge either locally or through regional circulation.

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Unit 3a

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Rock properties affecting Ground Water

What factors affect the flow of groundwater?

What types of rocks would be best for an aquifer?

What 2 factors affect groundwater velocity?

The velocity of groundwater flow is proportional to the magnitude of the hydraulic

What major factors control the movement of groundwater?

What is secondary porosity?

An aquifer is a large body of permeable material where groundwater is present

Ground water movement

Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is

Forces causing ground water movement

What is seepage of groundwater?

Seepage may be defined as the infiltration downward and lateral movement of

A smooth flow at relatively slow velocity, characteristic of the movement of

Darcy's Law and Coefficient of Permeability

Field measurement of permeability

Sinusoidal fluctuations of groundwater levels occur in response to tides. If the sea

Groundwater-level fluctuation is an effect related to aquifer type, recharge,

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