530 C HAPT ER 21 Stellar Explosions

Energy
Proton Helium-4

Proton �
� ��"�" -
Helium-4

�
Helium-4
•
Q
P"""/ carbon-

o Neutri nos
•
Proton ... F I G URE 21.15 H"lium Fusion Diagram of the basic tri ple-alpha
heli um-burning reaction occurring in post-main-sequence stars. Three
... F IGU RE 21.14 Proton Fusion Diagram of the basic
helium-4 nuclei combine to form carbon-12
proton-proton hydrogen-burning reaction. Four proton,s combine
to form a nucleus of helium-4, releasing energy in the process.

elements are generally much less abundant than lighter Carbon Burn i ng and Helium Capture
elements. However, the many peaks and troughs evident in
the figure also represent important constraints. At higher and higher temperatures, heavier and heavier nuclei
can gain enough energy to overcome the electrical repulsion
Hydrogen and H e l i u m Burning between them. At about 600 million K (reached only in the
cores of stars much more massive than the Sun) , carbon nuclei
Let's begin by reviewin g the reactions leading to the produc­
can fuse to form magnesium, as depicted in Figure 2 1 . 16(a):
12C + 12 C 24M g + energy.
tion of heavy elements at various stages of stellar evolution.
->
Look again at Figme 2 1 .6 as we discuss the reactions in­
volved. Stellar nucleosynthesis begins with the proton­ However, because of the rapidly mowlting nuclear
proton chain studied in Chapter 16. 00 (Sec. 16.6) Provided charges--that is, the increasing nwnber of protons in the
that the temperature is high enough--at least 10 million
K-a series of nuclear reactions occurs, ultimately forming a

Carbon-12
nucleus of ordinary heliwn (4He) from four protons eH):

4e H) -> 4He + 2 positrons + 2 neutrinos + energy.

� Energy
Recall that the positrons immediately interact ,vith
nearby free electrons, producing high-energy gamma rays
.�
Carbon-l�
through matter-antimatter annihilation. The neutrinos rap­
idly escape, carrying energy with them, but playing no direct
e
role in nucleosynthesis. The existence of these reactions has
been directly confirmed in nuclear experiments conducted
• Magnesi �
in laboratories around the world dming recent decades. In (a)
massive stars, an alternate sequence of reactions called the

Carbon-12
CNO cycle, involving nuclei of carbon, nitrogen, and oxy­

Energy
gen, may greatly accelerate the hydrogen-burning process,
but the basic four-protons-to-one-helium-nucleus reaction,
illustrated in Figure 2 1 . 14, is unchanged.
As heliwn builds up in the core of a star, the bllrning
.� / ��
�
ceases, and the core contracts and heats up. When the tempera­
ture exceeds about 100 million K, heliwn nuclei can overcome
to
Helium-
•
Oxyge�
their mutual electrical repulsion, leading the triple-alpha
reaction, which we discussed in Chapter 20 CIO (Sec. 20.2):

can
->
3(4 He) 12C + energy. (b)

The net result of this reaction is that three helium-4 nuclei ... F I G U R E 21.16 Carbon Fusion Carbon form heavier elements
(al by fusi on w ith other carbon nudei or, more commonly, (b) by fusion
are combined into one carbon- 1 2 nucleus (Figure 2 1 . 1 5),
with a helium nucleus.
releasing energy in the process.
 SECTI O N 21.4 Formation of the Elements 531

nuclei-fusion reactions between any nuclei larger than car­ Thus, as the star evolves, he-wier elements tend to form
bon require such high temperatllres that they are actually quite through helium capture rather than by fusion of like nuclei.
uncommon in stars. The formation of most heavier elements As a result, elements with nuclear masses of 4 units (i.e.,
occurs by way of an easier path. For example, the repulsive helium itself) , 12 units (carbon), 1 6 lmits (oxygen), 20 units
force between two carbon nuclei is three times greater than the (neon), 24 units (magnesium), and 28 units (silicon) stand
force between a nucleus of carbon and one of helium. Thus, out as prominent peaks in Figure 2 1 . 13, our chart of cosmic
carbon-helium fusion occurs at a lower temperature than that ablmdances. Each element is built by combining the preced­
at whidt carbon--<:arbon fusion occurs. As we saw in Section ing element and a heliwn-4 nucleus as the star evolves.
20.3, at temperatures above 200 million K, a carbon- 12 nucleus Helium capture is by no means the only type of nu­
colliding with a helium-4 nucleus can produce oxygen-16: clear reaction occurring in evolved stars. As nuclei of
12C + 4He -'> 160 a
+ energy.
many different kinds accumulate, great variety of reac­
tions become possible. In some, protons and neutrons are
If any helium-4 is present, this reaction, shown in Figure freed from their parent nuclei and are absorbed by others,
2 1 . 1 6(b), is much more likely to occur than the carbon­ forming new nuclei with masses intermediate between
carbon reaction. those formed by helium capture. Laboratory studies con­
Similarly, the oxygen-16 thus produced may fuse with firm that common nuclei, such as fluorine- 1 9, sodium-23,
other oxygen- 1 6 nuclei at a temperature of about 1 billion K phosphorus-3 1 , and many others, are created in this way.
to form sulfur-32: However, their abundances are not as great as those
160 + 1 6 0 -'> 32S + energy. produced directly by helium capture, simply because the
helium-capture reactions are much more common in
However, it is much more probable that an oxygen- 1 6
stars. For this reason, many of these elements (those with
nucleus will capture a helium-4 nucleus (if one is available)
masses not divisible by four, the mass of a helium nucleus)
to form neon-20:
1 60 + 4He -'> 20 Ne + energ
are found in the troughs of Figure 2 1 . 1 3 .
y.

The second reaction is more likely because it occurs at a lower I ron Formation
temperature than that necessary for oxygen-o�:ygen fusion.
Arolmd the time silicon-28 appears i n the core of a star, a
competitive struggle begins between the continued cap­
ture of helium to produce even heavier nuclei and the
tendency of more complex nuclei to break down into sim­
pler ones. The cause of this breakdown is heat. By now, the
star's core temperature has reached me unimaginably
large value of 3 billion K, and the gamma rays associated
with that temperature have enough energy to break a nu­
cleus apart, as illustrated in Figure 2 1 . 1 7(a) . This is the
same process of photodisintegration that will ultimately
accelerate tlle star's iron core in its final collapse toward a
Energy �
Type II supernova .

... FI G URE 21.17 Alpha Process (a) At high temperatures, heavy

nuclei (such as silicon, sheMIn here) can be broken apart into
helium nuclei by high-energy photons. (b) Other nuclei can capture
the helium nuclei-or alpha particles-thus produced, forming heavier
elements by the so-called alpha process. This process continues all the
wilj to the formation of ni ckel-56 (in the iron group).
(a)

Heli um -4

• •
Helium-4 Helium-4 Helium-4 Helium-4 Helium-4 Helium-4

\ \ \ \ \ +\ \
� � � � � � �

(b) S i l icon-2 B Sulfur-32 Argon -36 Calcium-40 Titanium-44 Ch rom i um -4B Iron-52 Nickel-56
532 C HA PTER 21 Stellar Explosions

Under the intense heat, some silicon-28 nuclei break becomes unstable and then decays radioactively to form a
apart into seven helium-4 nuclei. Other nearby nuclei that stable nucleus of some other element. The neutron-capture
have not yet photodisintegrated may capture some or all of process then continues. For example, an iron-56 nucleus can
these helium-4 nuclei, leading to the formation of still capture a single neutron to form a relatively stable isotope,
heavier elements (Figure 2 1 . 1 7b). The process of photodis­ iron-57:
integration provides raw material that allows helium cap­ 56Fe + n -'> 57Fe.
ture to proceed to greater masses. Photodisintegration
continues, with some heavy nuclei being destroyed and This reaction may be followed by another neutron capture:
others increasing in mass. In succession, the star forms sul­
fur-32, argon-36, calciwn-40, titanium-44, chromium-48,
iron-52, and nickel-56. The chain of reactions building
from silicon-28 up to nickel-56 is Thus, another relatively stable isotope, iron-58, is produced,
and this isotope c.l n capture yet another neutron to produce
285i + 7(4He) -'> 5�i + energy. an even heavier isotope of iron:

This two-step process-photodisintegration followed by the 58Fe + n -'> 59Fe.

direct capture of some or all of the resulting heliwn-4 nuclei
(or alpha particles)-is often called the alpha process. iron-59 is known from laboratory experiments to be ra­
Nickel-56 is llllstable, dec.
lying rapidly first into cobalt- dioactively wlstable. 1t dec.1YS in about a month into cobalt-59,
56 and then into a stable iron-56 nucleus. Any wlstable which is stable. The neutron-capture process then reswnes:
nucleus will continue to decay until stability is achieved, and Cobalt-59 captures a neutron to form the llllstable cobalt-60,
iron-56 is the most stable of all nuclei (Figure 2 1 .6). Thus, which in turn decays to nickel-60, and so on.
the alpha process leads inevitably to the buildup of iron in Eacll successive capture of a neutron by a nucleus
the stellar core. typically takes about a year, so most unstable nuclei have
Another way of describing Figure 2 1 .6 is to say that plenty of time to dec.1Y before the next neutron comes
iron's 26 protons and 30 neutrons are bound together more along. Researchers usually refer to this "slow" neutron­
strongly than the particles in any other nucleus. Iron is said capture mechanism as the s-process. It is the origin of the
to have the gre.1test nuclear binding energy of any element­ copper and silver in the coins in our pockets, the lead
more energy per particle is required to break up (wlbind) an in our car batteries, and the gold (and the zirconium) in
iron-56 nucleus than the nucleus of any other element. This the rings on our fingers. As mentioned earlier, similar
enhanced stability of iron explains why some of the heavier slow neutron-capture processes involving nuclei of lower
nuclei in the iron group are more abundant than many mass are responsible for many of the elements intermedi­
lighter nuclei (see Table 2 1 . 1 and Figure 2 1 . 1 3): Nuclei tend ate between those formed by helium capture. These reac­
to "accumulate" near iron as stars evolve. tions are thought to be particularly important during the
late (asymptotic-giant branch) stages of low-mass stars.
Making E lements Beyond I ron co (Sec. 20.3)

If the alpha process stops at iron, how did heavier

elements, such as copper, zinc, and gold, form? To form
Making the Heaviest Elements
them, some nuclear process other than helium capture The s-process explains the synthesis of stable nuclei up to,
must have been involved. That other process is neutron and including, bismuth-209, the heaviest-known nonra­
capture: the formation of heavier nuclei by the absorption dioactive nucleus, but it cannot account for the heaviest
of neutrons. nuclei, such as thoriwn-232, uraniwn-238, or plutoniwn-242.
Deep in the interiors of highly evolved stars, conditions Any attempt to form elements heavier than bismuth-209 by
are ripe for neutron capture to occur. Neutrons are pro­ slow neutron capture fails because the new nuclei decay
duced as "by-products" of many nuclear reactions, so there back to bismuth as fast as they form. Accordingly, there must
are many of them present to interact with iron and other be yet another nuclear mechanism that produces the very
nuclei. Neutrons have no charge, so there is no repulsive heaviest nuclei. This process is called the r-process (where r
barrier for them to overcome in combining with positively stands for "rapid;' in contrast to the "slow" s-process just
charged nuclei. As more and more neutrons join a nucleus, described). The r-process operates very quickly, occurring
its mass continues to grow. (we think) literally during the supernova explosion that
Adding neutrons to a nucleus-iron, for example-­ SigllalS the death of a massive star.
does not change the element. Rather, a more massive isotope During the first 15 minutes of the supernova blast, the
of the same element is produced. Eventually, however, so nwnber of free neutrons increases dramatically as heavy
many neutrons have been added to the nucleus that it nuclei are broken apart by the violence of the explosion.
 SECTION 21.4 Formation of the Elements 533

Unlike the s-process, which stops when it runs out of stable Second, the presence of one particular nucleus­
nuclei, the neutron-capture rate during the supernova is so technetium-99--provides direct evidence that heavy ele­
great that even unstable nuclei can capture many neutrons ments really do form in the cores of stars. Laboratory
before they have time to decay. Jamming neutrons into measurements show that the technetium nucleus has a ra­
light- and middleweight nuclei, the r-process is responsible dioactive half-life of about 200,000 years, a very short time,
for the creation of the he.wiest-known elements. The heavi­ astronomically speaking. No one has ever fOWld even traces
est of the heavy elements, then, are actually born after their of naturally occurring teclmetiwn on Earth, because it all
parent stars have died. However, because the time available decayed long ago. The observed presence of technetium in
for synthesizing these heaviest nuclei is so brief, they never the spectra of many red-giant stars implies that it must have
become very abundant. Elements heavier than iron (see been synthesized in their cores through neutron capture­
Table 2 1 . 1 ) are a billion times less common than hydrogen the only known way in which technetiwn can form-within
and helium. the past few hundred thousand years and then transported
by convection to the surface. Othenvise, we would not

Observational Ev idence fo r observe it. Many astronomers consider the spectroscopic

evidence for technetium as proof that the s-process really
Stel lar N ucleosynthes i s
does operate in evolved stars.
The modern picture of the formation of the elements Third, the study of typical light curves from Type I su­
involves many different types of nuclear reactions occurring pernovae indicates that radioactive nuclei form as a result of
at many different stages of stellar evolution, from main­ the explosion. Figure 2 1 . 18(a) (see also Figure 2 1 .8) displays
sequence stars all the way to supernovae. Elements of the the dramatic rise in luminosity at the moment of explosion
periodic table from hydrogen to iron are built first by fusion and the characteristic slower decrease in brightness. De­
and then by alpha capture, with proton and neutron capture pending on the initial mass of the e.xploded star, the lumi­
filling in the gaps. Elements beyond iron form by neutron nosity takes from several months to many years to decrease
capture and radioactive decay. Ultimately, these elements are to its original value, but the shape of the decay curve is
ejected into interstellar space as the stars in which they form nearly the same for all exploded stars. These curves have two
reach the ends of their lives. distinct features: After the initial peak, the luminosity de­
Scientific theories must continually be tested and clines rapidly; then it decreases at a slower rate. This abrupt
validated by experiment and observation, and the theory cllange in the rate of luminosity decay invariably occurs
of stellar nucleosynthesis is no exception. ex> (Sec. 1 . 2) Yet about 2 months after the explosion, regardless of the inten­
almost all of the nuclear processes just described take sity of the outburst.
place deep in the hearts of stars, hidden from our view, We can explain the two-stage decline of the luminosity
and the stars responsible for the heavy elements we see curve in Figure 2 1 . 18(a) in terms of the radioactive decay
today are all long gone. How, then, can we be sure that the of unstable nuclei, notably nickel-56 and its decay product
sequences of events presented here actually occurred (and cobalt-56, produced in abwldance during the early mo­
are still occurring today)? The answer is that the theory of ments of the supernova. From theoretical models of the
stellar nucleosynthesis makes many detailed predictions explosion, we can calculate tile amounts of these elements
about the numbers and types of elements formed in stars, expected to form, and we know their half-lives from
affording astronomers ample opportunity to observe and laboratory experiments. Because each radioactive decay
test its consequences. We are reassured of the theory's produces a known amount of energy, we can ti1en deter­
basic soundness by three particularly convincing pieces of mine how the light emitted by these unstable elements
evidence. should vary in time. The result is in very good agreement
First, the rates at which various nuclei are captured and with the observed light curve in Figure 2 1 . 1 8(b)-the lu­
the rates at which tiley decay are known from laboratory ex­ minosity of a Type I supernova is entirely consistent with
periments. \"'hen these rates are incorporated into detailed the decay of about 0.6 solar mass of nickel-56. More direct
computer models of the nuclear processes occurring in stars evidence for the presence of these wlstable nuclei was first
and supernovae, the resulting elemental abun<i.1nces agree obtained in the 1 970s, when a gamma-ray spectral feature
extremely well, point by point, with the observational data of decaying cobalt-56 was identified in a supernova ob­
presented in Figure 2 1 . 1 3 and Table 2 1 . 1 . The match is re­ served in a distant galaxy.
markably good for elements up through iron and is still
fairly close for he.wier nuclei. Although tile reasoning is CONCEPT CHECK
indirect, the agreement between tileory and observation is V' Why are the elements carbon, oxygen, neon, and magnesium,
so striking that most astronomers regard it as very strong whose masses are multiples of four, as well as the element iron,
evidence in support of the entire theory of stellar evolution
so common on Earth?
and nucleosynthesis.
534 C HAPTER 21 Stellar Explosions

21.5 The Cyc l e of Ste l l a r Evol uti on

The theory of stellar nucleosynthesis can naturally account
for the observed differences in the abundances of heavy ele­
ments between the old globular-cluster stars and stars now
forming in our Galaxy. ex> (Sec. 20.5) Even though an
evolved star continuously creates new heavy elements in its
interior, changes in the star's composition are confined

o 2
largely to the core, and the star's spectrum gives little indica­
tion of events within its core. Convection may carry some
(a) Time (years)
reaction products (such as the technetiunl observed in many
red giants) from the core into the envelope, but the outer
layers largely retain the star's original composition. Only at
the end of the star's life are its newly created elements re­
leased and scattered into space.
Thus, the spectra of the youngest stars show the most
heavy elements, because each new generation of stars in­
creases the concentration of these elements in the interstel­
lar clouds from which the next generation forms. Accord­
ingly, the photosphere of a recently formed star contains a
much greater abundance of heavy elements than that of a

o 2 star that formed long ago. Knowledge of stellar evolution al­

Time (years) lows astronomers to estimate the ages of stars from purely
(b)
spectroscopic studies, even when the stars are isolated and
are not members of any cluster. ex> (Sec. 20.5) In the last
iliree chapters, we have seen all the ingredients that make up
the complete cycle of star formation and evolution in our
Galaxy. Let's briefly swnmarize that process, which is illus­
trated in Figure 2 1 . 1 9:

1. Stars form when part of an interstellar cloud is com­

pressed beyond the point at which it can support itself
against its own gravity. The cloud collapses and frag­
ments, forming a duster of stars. The hottest stars heat
and ionize the surrounding gas, sending shock waves
tllrough the surrounding cloud, modifying the forma­
tion of lower-mass stars, and possibly triggering new
rounds of star formation. = (Sec. 1 9.6 )
2.
.. F IG U R E 21.1 8 Supernova Energy Emission (a) The light curve of
Within tlle cluster, stars evolve. The most massive stars
evolve fastest, creating the heaviest elements in their
a Type I supernova, showing not only the dramatic increase and slow
decrease in luminosity, but also the characteristic change in the rate cores and spewing them forth into the interstellar
of dec"1 about 2 months after the explosion (the time indicated by mediwn in supernovae. Lower-mass stars take longer
the arrow). This particular supernova occurred in the faraway galaxy to evolve, but they, too, can create heavy elements and
Ie 4182 in 1938. The crosses are the actual observations of the contribute significantly to the "seeding" of interstellar
supernova's light. (b) Theoretical calculations of the light emitted space when they shed their envelopes as planetary neb­
by the radioactive decay of nickel-56 and cobalt-56 produce a light
ulae. Roughly speaking, low-mass stars are responsible
curve similar to those actually observed in real supernova
for most of the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that make
explosions, lending strong support to the theoty of stellar
nucleosynthesis. (c) This is a composite image of the remains of the life on Earth possible. High-mass stars produced the
Kepler supernova-the last such object seen to explode in our Milky iron and silicon that make up Earth itself, as well as
Will Galaxy, in 1604. The bubble-shaped debris field resides about the heavier elements on which much of our technology
3000 pc away, is 4 pc across, and is expanding at 2000 km/s. X-ray is based.
data are blue and green; infrared data are red; optical data are yellow.
3. The creation and explosive dispersal of newly formed ele­
(NASA)
ments are accompanied by furtller shock waves, whose
 Chapter Review 535

� Interactive
r;;; . formation and evolution
F IGURE 21.19 Stellar

� continuously replenishes our Galaxy

Recycling The cyde of star

Q with
e
n""" heavy elements and
provides the driving force for the
creation of new generations of stars.
dockwise from the top are an interstellar
cloud (Barnard 68� a star-forming region
(ROO 38� a massive star ejecting a "bubble"
and about to explode (NGC 7635), and a
supernova remnant and its heavy-element
debris (N49). Earth and humani1y are both
direct consequences of this truly grand
cosmic cycle. (ESO; NASA)

Stellar evolJtiOO

pass.1ge through the interstellar mediwn simultaneously the preceding generation had. From the old globular clus­
enridles the mediwn and compresses it into further star ters, which are observed to be deficient in heavy elements
formation. E.1m generation of stars increases the concen­ relative to the SUll, to the young open clusters, containing
tration of heavy elements in the interstellar douds from much larger amounts of these elements, we observe this en­
whidl the ne>.1 generation forms. As a result, recently richment process in action. Our Sun is the product of many
formed stars contain a much greater abundance of heavy sum cycles. We ourselves are another. Without the elements
elements than do stars that formed long ago. synthesized in the hearts of stars, neither Earth nor the life it
harbors would exist.
In th.is way, although some material is used up in each
cycle-turned into energy or locked up in low-mass stars-­
CONCEPT CHECK
the galaxy continuously recycles its matter. Each new round
V' Why is stellar evolution important to life on Earth?
of formation creates stars with more heavy elements than

S U M M A RY

A nova (p. 518) is a star that sud­ drawing hydrogen-rich material from its companion. The gas spi­
denly increases greatly in brightness, then rals inward in an accretion disk (p. 518) and builds up on the
slowly fades back to its normal appear­ white-dwarfs surface, eventually becoming hot and dense enough
rulee over a period of months. It is tile for the hydrogen to bum explosively, temporarily causing a large
result of a white dwarf in a binary system increase in the dwarf's luminosity.
536 C H A P T E R 2 1 Stellar Explosions

'(
I
-\
2 Stars more massive than about 8

:��: ��: : �:�� ;;:� :: : ! :: :�;

e
s
t c s
i n
o
a
�" � . ..� 4 Theory predicts that a supernova visi­
ble from Earth should occur within our
Galaxy about once a century, although

--..---­
more rapid pace. As they do so, their none has been observed in the last 400
cores form a layered structure consisting years. We can see evidence of a past super
of burning shells of successively heavier elements. The process nova in the form of a supernova remnant
stops at iron, whose nudei can neither be fused together nor split (p. 526)--i\ shell of exploded debris surroWlding the site of the
to produce energy. As a star's iron core grows in mass, it eventu­ explosion and expanding into space at a speed of thousands of
ally becomes unable to support itself against gravity and begins kilometers per second.
to collapse. At the high temperatures produced during the col­ 5 All elements heavier than helium are
lapse, iron nudei are broken down into protons and neutrons. formed by stellar nucleosynthesis
The protons combine with electrons to form more neutrons. {p. 529)-the production of new ele­
Eventually, when the core becomes so dense that the neutrons are ments by nudear reactions in the cores of
effectively brought into physical contact with one another, the evolved stars. Elements heavier than car­
collapse stops and the core rebowlds, sending a violent shock bon tend to form by helium capture (p. 531), rather than by the
wave out through the rest of the star. The star explodes in a fusion of more massive nuclei At high enough core temperatures,
core-collapse supernova (p. 522). photodisintegration breaks apart some heavy nuclei, providing he­
3 Astronomers dassify
supernovae lium-4 nuclei for the synthesis of even more massive elements, up
(p. 522) into two broad categories: Type I to iron. Elements beyond iron form by neutron capture (p. 532)
and Type [I. These classes differ by their in the cores of evolved stars. During a supernova, rapid neutron
light curves and their composition. Type capture occurs, producing the he.wiest nudei of all. Comparisons
I supernovae (p. 523) are hydrogen poor between theoretical predictions of element production and obser­
and have a light curve sinlilar in shape vations of element abWldances in stars and supernovae provide
to that of a nova. Type II supernovae strong support for the theory of stellar nucJeosynthesis.
(p. 523) are hydrogen rich and have a 6 The processes of star formation, evolution,
dlaracteristic plateau in the light curve a and explosion fonn a cycle that constantly
few months after maxinmm. A Type [I supernova is a core-collapse enriches the interstellar mediWll with heavy
supernova. A Type I supernova occurs when a carbon-<lxygen elements and sows the seeds of new genera­
white d,varf in a binary system gains mass, collapses, and explodes
as its carbon ignites. This type of supernova is called a
tions of stars. Without the elements pro­
carbon­ duced in supernovae, life on Earth would be
detonation supernova (p. 523). impossible.

ngASTRON0MY. ....asterillgastrollorny.co...
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For instructor-assigl,ed homework go to www

Problems labeled P�S explore the process of science I VIS problems focus on reading and interpreting visual information

R E V I EW A N D D I S C U S S I O N

1. Under what circumstances will a binary star produce a nova? 10. Roughly how often would we expect a supernova to occur in

2. What is an accretion disk, and how does one form? our own Galaxy? How often would we expect to see a galactic
supernova?
3. What is a light curve? How can it be used to identify a nova or
a supernova? 11. P�S What evidence is there that many supernovae have
occurred in our Galaxy?
4. Why does the core of a massive star collapse?
1 2. P�S How can astronomers estin1ate the age of an isolated
5. How do photodisintegration and neutronizatioll contribute
star?
to the demise of a massive star?
13. What proof do astronomers have that heavy elements are
6. What occurs in a massive star to cause it to explode?
formed in stars?
7. What are the observational differences between Type I and
14. As a star evolves, why do heavier elements tend to fonn by
Type II supernovae?
helium capture rather than by fusion of like nudei?
8. What is the Chandrasekhar mass, and what does it have to do
15. Why do the cores of massive stars evolve into iron and not
with supernovae?
heavier elements?
9. How do the mechanisms responsible for Type I and Type II
16. How are nuclei heavier than iron fonned?
supernovae explain their observed differences?
17. What is the r-process? When and where does it occur?
 Chapter Review 537

18. Why was supernova 1987A so important? 20. Describe the role played by supernovae in "recycling" galactic
19. p�S Why are neutrino detectors important to the study of matter.
supernovae?

C O N C E P T U A L S E L F -T E ST : M U LT I P L E C H O I C E

1. A white dwarf can dran,atically increase in brightness only if 6. An observable supernova should occur in our Galaxy about
it (a) has another star nearby; (b) can avoid nuclear fusion in once every (a) year; (b) decade; (c) century; (d) millennium.
its core; (e) is spinning very rapidly; (d) is descended from a 7. Whicl, one of the following does not provide evidence that
very massive star. supernovae have occurred in our Galaxy? (a) The rapid ex­
2. A nova differs from a supernova in that the nova (a) can pansion and filamentary structure of the Crab Nebula.
occur only once; (b) is much more luminous; (e) involves (b) Historical records from China and Europe. (e) The exi.s­
only high-mass stars; (d) is much less luminous. tence of binary stars in our Galaxy. (d) The existence of iron
1 Which of the following stars will become hot enough to form on Earth.
elements heavier than oxygen? (a) A star that is half the mass 8. Nuclear fusion in the Sw, will (a) never create elements heav­
of the Sun. (b) A star having the same mass as the Sun. (e) A ier than helium; (b) create elements up to and including
star that is twice as massive as the Sun. (d) A star that is eight oxygen; (e) create all elements up to and including iron;
times more massive than the Sun. (d) create some elements heavier than iron.
4. A massive star becomes a supernova when it (a) collides with a 9. Most of the carbon in our bodies originated in (a) the core of
stellar companion; (b) forms iron in its core; (e) suddenly in­ the Sw,; (b) the core of a red-giant star; (e) a supernova; (d) a
creases in surface temperature; (d) suddenly increases in mass. nearby galaxy.
5. VIS Pigure 2 1 .8 ("Supernova Light Curves") indicates that 10. The silver atoms found in jewelry originated in (a) the core of
a supernova whose luminosity declines steadily in time is the Sun; (b) the core of a red-giant star; (e) a supernova; (d) a
most likely associated with a star that is (a) without a binary nearby galaxy.
companion; (b) more than eight tin,es the mass of the Sun;
(e) on the main sequence; (d) comp."U"able in mass to the Sun.

PRO B LE M S
The number ofdots preceding each Problem indicates its approximate level ofdiffimlty.
1. ••• Estimate how close a O.5-solar-mass white dwarf must 6. • A (hypothetical) supernova at a distance of 1 50 pc has an
come to the center of a 2-so1ar-mass subgiant with radius 10 absolute magnitude of -20. Compare its apparent magnitude
times that of the Sun in order for the white dwarf's tidal field with that of (a) the full Moon and (b) Venus at its brightest
to strip matter from the companion's surface. (see Pigure 1 7.7). Would you expect a supernova to occur this
2. • Calculate the orbital speed of matter in an accretion disk just close to us?
above the surface of a 0.6-so1ar-mass, 1 5,OOO-km-diameter 7. • A supernova's energy is often compared to the total energy
white dwarf. output of the Sun over its lifetinle. Using the Sun's current
1. • A certain telescope can just detect the Sw, at a distance of energy output, calculate its total energy output, asswuing
10,000 pc. What is the apparent magnitude of the Sw, at this that the sun has a 1 0 10 year main-sequence lifetime. How
distance? ( For convenience, take the Sun's absolute magni­ does this compare with the energy released by a supernova?
tude to be 5.) What is the max:Ununl distance at which the 8. •• The Hubble Space Telescope is observing a distal,t Type I
telescope can detect a nova having a peak luminosity of supernova with peak apparent magnitude 24. Using the light
105 solar luminosities? curve in Figure 2 1 .8, estinlate how long after the peak bright­
4. • Repeat the previous calculation for a supernova having a ness the supernova will become too faint to be seen.
peak luminosity 10 10 times that of the SWl. What would be 9. • 11,e Crab Nebula is now about 1 pc in radius. [f it was ob­
the apparent magnitude of the explosion if it occurred at a served to explode in A.D. 1054, roughly how fast is it expal,d­
distance of 10,000 Mpc? Would it be detectable by any exist­ ing? (Asslm,e a constant expansion rate. [s that a reasonable
ing telescope? asswuption?)
5. •• At what distance would a supernova of absolute magnitude 10. •• Suppose that stars form in our Galaxy at an average rate of
-20 look as bright as the SlUl? As the Moon? Would you expect 10 per year. Suppose also that all stars greater than 8 solar
a supernova to occur that close to us? masses explode as supernovae. Use Figure 1 7.23 to estimate
the rate of Type U supernovae in our Galaxy.
N EUTRO STARS
AN D BlA K HOLES
ST R A N G E S TAT E S O F M AT T E R

LEARN I NG GOALS ur study of stellar evolution has led us to some

Studying this chapter will enable you to very unusual and unexpected objects. Red giants, white

1 Describe the properties of neutron stars, dwarfs, and supernovae surely represent extreme states
and explain how these strange objects are
of matter completely unfamiliar to us here on Earth. Yet
formed.
1 Explain the nature and origin of pulsars, and stellar evolution-and in particular, its end point,
account for their characteristic radiation. the death of a star-can have even more bizarre conse­
, List and explain some ofthe observable
quences. The strangest states of all result from the
properties of neutron-star binary systems.
4 Discuss the basic characteristics of gamma­ catastrophic implosion-explosion of stars much more
ray bursts and some theoretical attempts massive than our Sun.
to explain them.
The almost unimaginable violence of a supernova
5 Describe how black holes are formed, and
discuss their effects on matter and radia­ may bring into being objects so extreme in their behav­
tion in their vicinity.
ior that they require us to reconsider some of our most
6 Describe Einstein's theories of relativity,
and discuss how they relate to neutron hallowed laws of physics. They open up a science fiction
stars and black holes. writer's dream of fantastic phenomena. They may even
7 Relate the phenomena that occur near black
one day force scientists to construct a whole new theory
holes to the warping of space around them.
8 Discuss the difficulties in observing black of the universe.
holes, and explain some of the ways in
which a black hole might be detected.

Neutron stars and black holes are LEFT: This stunning image is actually a composite of three images tcten

THE BIG among the most exotic objects in the by telescopes in orbit: optical light (In yellow) observed with Hubble,
PICTURE X-ray radiation (blue and green) with Chandra, and infrared radiation
universe. They are the end of the
(red) with Spitzer. This object is known as Cassiopeia A, the remnant of a
about 300 years ago. The
road for massive stars, and their
supernova whose radiation first reached Earth
bizarre properties boggle the imagination. Yet
small turquoise dot at the center may be a neutron star created in the
blast, the sole survivor of the explosion. (NASA)
theory and observation seem to agree that,
fantastic or not, they are real.

M a ste r mlA STRONSMY

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Visit the Study Area In www.masterlngastronomy.com for qulzzes,
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