The quantities which can be measured by an instrument and by means of which we can describe the laws of physics are called physical quantities. aa da Physical quantities which can be expressed as a combination of base quantities are called derived quantities. eg: Vetocity|=] . =e PU MO CCU ea CCUM SU CC moe ae CUS Magnitude of physical quantity = (ni Magnitude of a physical quantity is always constant. Itis independent of the type of unit. constant Te TN CTT UESSUS | Dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the fundamental ! 1 quantities must be raised to represent the given physical quantity. | 1 USE OF DIMENSIONS n, fu n, [u,] Suppose the dimensions of a physical quantity are ‘a’ in mass, 'b' in length and 'c' in time. If the fundamental units in one system are M, ,L, and T, and in the other system are M, ,L, andT, respectively. Then we can write. ny EMPL; Ty] = ny [M3L3 13] Every physical equation should be dimensionally balanced. This is called the ‘Principle of Homogeneity’. The dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation must be the same. Note: A dimensionally correct equation may or may not be physically correct. PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS This principle states that the dimensions of alll the terms in a physical expression should be same. 1 1 For e.g, in the physical expression s= ut +> at”, the dimensions of s, ut and at” all are same. Note: Physical quantities separated by the symbols +, -, =, >, < etc., have the same dimensions. LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS © By this method, the value of dimensionless constant can not be calculated © By this method, the equation containing trigonometrical, exponential and logarithmic terms cannot be analysed. © faphysical quantity depends on more than three factors, then relation among them cannot be established because we can have only three equations by equating the powers of M, L and T.Difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were measuring Part RANDOM Random errors appear randomly because of the operator, fluctuations in the external conditions and variability of the measuring instruments. The effect of random error can be some what reduced by taking the average of measured values. Random errors have no fixed sign or size. Thus they are represented in the form Ata SYSTEMATIC Systematic error occurs due to an error in the procedure or miscalibration of the instrument etc. Such errors have same size and sign for all Measurements. Such errors can be determined. The systematic error is removed before beginning ec ons. Bench error and zero error are examples of systema ABSOLUTE Error may be expressed as absolute measures, giving the size of the error in a quantity in the same units as the quantity itself. Least Count Error :- If the instrument has known least count, the absolute error is taken to be half of the least count unless otherwise stated RELATIVE (OR FRACTIONAL) Error may be expressed as relative measures, giving the ratio of the quantity's error to the quantity itself Relative Error = Absolute error in a measurement Size of the measurementRULES OF ee tie CUD ee eT LLL eae mie The absolute random errors add POWER RULE When a quantity @ is raised to a power P, the relative error in the result is P times the relative error in Q. This also holds for negative powers. IFR= QV, then 1 = Px 3 Q wat) Least count of Vernier Callipers The least count of Vernier Calipers (v.c) is the minimum valve of correct estimation of length without eye estimation. If N'* division of vernier calliper coincides with (N-1) division of main scale, then N-1 ms N vs = Vernier Scale Reading : ms = Main Scale Reading N(vs) = (N-1) ms => 1vs= (for measuring n Pec uulcet ; 1 ICES Pera Sea AC dt ee eel between the time Ne ee Run Ru RC ane Era eee) Reaction Time At = t; - teMOTION UNDER GRAVITY Oe ee Oo anaerLyRECTILINEAR MOTION CASES pitied Velocity Acceleration eR AAD MMUM tLe mad coke La e re ae 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 >t } titi >t 1 1 BODY MOVING WITH DECREASING VELOCITY ODY MOVING WITH UNIFORM VELOCITY x v. ie 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t eee t ' Slope Slope (ose) ~< s & ~< _ Area under Area under curve curveDISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION GRAPH Time in seconds Object is Velocity Horizontal Zero line acceleration (zero slope) Acceleration LLL a (m/s?) (2) v (m/s)RELATIVE WELOCITY Relative vel TS Relative acceleration of A wrt Gna absolute velocity of river Time taken by boatman to cross the river: t=—_* Vir cso Displacement along x-axis Ve = absolute velocity of when he reaches on the other boatman. a a " ‘ ATF SG 1. Condition when the boatman crosses the river in shortest ity of A wrt B = Vv. a Ver velocity of boatman with respect to river or velocity of boatman in stil water 2. Condition when the boatman wants to reach point B, i.e., ata point just interval of time- opposite from where he started 3. Shortest Path when V: < Vir—® Smin = W ' ' ' ' ' 1 when Vi > Ver—> ' ' ' ' ' — > Vw = Velocity of wind a Va = Absolute Velocity of aircraft COU ay » = Velocity of river wrt ground = =. 1 m = Velocity of river wrt man | Veo = Vim + Vg } xt <} + Vma = Velocity of man wrt groundPROJECTILE MOTION —= DOE e cas } © TERA RAAT os -* ans — — Equation of TrajectoryPMPart Ill TS a SY 3 Le Sent eco ed 1 gsing be 2usina. Time of flight T = ret‘The force that attracts ‘NucleasForce Is dfined a he ‘The force that an coucipacadls fee, Se ceed beoween The force that occurs electromagnetic feld Fury. objec inching ‘ferent pucleors, The fore beween bodies due fexerts on electrically sol puns cn Grae Wy aractive 19 nature at It to their contact is ‘charged particles. tind protont and nevtron ntact force Dther object in the entire i the nucleus together ie defined on the | ‘ts the attraction or Tincumaaie | renee eet I, toes te atvacon o eputson | repulsion that arses ceasing (ented equay on bot | fea” fons te of ifferent partces between electrically upon an object thats MGSO # abIB. CIN OPE) urtace as an object and raters" based charged particles imcortact wth another Tae OF other contewout | Troyes acon it OF on ther elect | because of ther obie abet a mates an efor to charges motion between the ends by Wat | Nove acosit objet "First Law Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform Ff motion unless acted upon by anet external force. Second Law The amount of acceleration of a body is proportional to the acting force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. F = ma) Third Law For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction. If an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert an equal but opposite force on object A.a Mot of a Block a Horizontal Smooth Surface GID rorizonta pull Gey ru acting at an angle (()) — Rt sa : RT sina : F ar : LL com CITTTAPIIPPOTTITT? . GTTTITIIITIITIII ID mg Ying f a Body on a Smoot Inclined Plane a=gsing N=mgcos0 Climbing on the Rope @ T> mg, man accelerates in upward direction @ T < mg, man accelerates in downward direction N ‘ F.B.D of man & : Rope tr in : : mast mg 4mgcoso : fe {). ; + mgPULLEY Jt SYSTEM Tense ie @_li—@ ) ua wz — t T a Ts iD c A mg mg ae Ep... = FE [T=maFriction is a contact force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of relative motion between two bodies. f = uN = umg TYPES OF FRICTION FORCES 1.STATIC FRICTIONAL FORCE The opposing force due to which there is no relative motion between the bodies in contact is called It’s a self-adjusting force. Coefficient of static friction is 2.LIMITING FRICTIONAL FORCE The maximum frictional force that acts when the body is about to move is called 3.KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE The frictional force between the surfaces in contact when relative motion starts between them is called Coefficient of kinetic friction is Hk < HsMINIMUM FORCE REQUIRED TO MOVE THE BODY x] F mg umg T+ Fin = N = Normal force FRICTION AS A COMPONENT OF CONTACT FORCE Remar = VEN? +N? {fge= HN} Fe mox = Fe = Contact force N= Normal force f= Friction MOTION ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE mg cos() ANGLE OF REPOSE Balancing Vertical Forces N= mg cos0 Balancing Horizontal Forces f= N= 4 mg cos0 When sliding with acceleration ‘a’ mg sin - mg cos0 = ma The angle of repose is the maximum angle that a surface can be tilted from the horizontal, such that f an object on it is just able to stay on the surface without moving. or ffano, = where ().is called angle of repose. mg sind ig Goud‘Part AN UT | With ue na ue cun an ea uien nn) CoOL a ue ace meu ee) circular motion with respect to that fixed (or moving) point. = # RPC a cs _ Total | Angle of Rotation a Totaltimetoken | © where 0; and 0: are angular position of the particle at time ty and te respectively SUS CU Cele UT lem Coal The rate at which the position vector of a particle with respect to the centre rotates, is called as instantaneous angular velocity with respect to the centre. Pena emcee (Vaa) Og ra here Vas, = Relative velocity perpendicular 1 1 ' 1 1 ' \ 1 Ee | to position vector AB ~ AtoO at dt 1 Relation between speed and angular Velocity : y= 1 is a scalar quantily ( CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEM < mn = mz ra The Centre of mass lies closer to the heavier Ye an tn 3R yaSTRETCHED SPRING WU WwW EE ee b WW vi SPRING ATTACHED TO A BLOCK NLL. Release ¢C Release yy 1 'B When the block is released at point C then spring force doesn’t change instantaneously When point A is released then the because of friction at mass m. spring force changes instantaneously to become zero. (3) SPRING BLOCK SYSTEM Vo YUU UU fo Maximum Extension. eo)IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM / Impulse of a force 'F' acting on a body for a time interval t = ti to t = tz is defined as (Impulse - Momentum Theorem) COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e) The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the impulses of reformation and deformation of either body. = Impulse of reformation _ / Fdt Se Velocity of separation of point of contact Impulse of deformation | Fadt Velocity of approach of point of contact Ga) Linear momentum is a vector quantity defined as the product of an object's mass m, and its velocity v. Linear momentum is denoted by the letter p and is called “momentum” in short: p=mv Note that a body’s momentum is always in the same direction as its velocity vector. The units of momentum are kg.m/s. aT For a single mass or single body, If net force! If net external force acting on a system of acting on the body is zero. Then, | Particles or system of rigid bodies is zero. > = | Then, p=constant or v=constant 1 ; Pom = Vom = iunncsrscopsicint) \ Pcm= constant or Vcm= constant 1Note :- In every type of collision, only linear momentum remains constant. UES HERS) Or: v o—: @—: Before Collision EN eral fel) In this case, linear momentum and kinetic energy both are conserved. After solving two conservation equations. We get, eas f Pa } aoe ( 2m } vi = (———] v, + |] v FREE sv2 = (—_}v. + ———_] , aL) m +m Lid Led ES THUS TT => In an inelastic collision, the colliding particles do not regain their shape and size completely after the collision. => Some fraction of mechanical energy is retained by the colliding particles in the form of deformation potential energy. Thus, the kinetic energy of the particles no longer remains conserved. => (Energy loss)pertectty inelastic > (Energy l0Ss)rarticl inelastic => O0 M ==ANGULAR MOMENTUM ULAR MOMENTUM OF A PARTICLE ABOUT A POINT 2 ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A RIGID BODY ROTATING ABOUT A FIXED AXIS Here, | is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about axis. [3] CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM The law of conservation of angular momentum states that when no external torque acts on an object, no change of angular momentum will occur. nowt EBD ve» FEB) coat t = cnrt [4] ANGULAR IMPULSE Since The angular impulse of a torque ina given time interval is defined as [iy] ee Patel ae) ma 1c) Pure rolling means no relative motion (or no slipping at point of contact between two bodies.) Gp - Ge - & If Vp > Vo or V > Re, the motion is said to be forward slipping and if Vp < Vo < Re , the motion is said to be backward slipping. The condition of pure rolling on a stationary ground is, a=R,‘Suppose a force F is applied at a distance x above the centre of a rigid body of radius R, mass M and moment of inertia CMR? about an axis passing through the centre of mass. Applied force F can produces by itself a linear acceleration a and an angular acceleration « F(R+X) Lona) | PURE ROLLING ON A INCLINED PLANS | A rigid body of radius R, and mass m is released at rest from height h on the incline whose inclination with horizontal is 6 and assume that friciton is sufficient for pure rolling then, TOPPLING W=mg Balancing Torque at E Balancing Torque at W — Fb+N(a—x)=mga ifx=a —a mi BP a) PCa dy CT lt G = Gravitational Constant Perens pene Cres BC alaay R = Radius of Earth 3 PG Da) red Dee aee cis wea idGRAVITATIONAL . FORCE 7 Cy g' = g-Rw2sintd Dee] eS] a) 1-5 | Afhepar |e 2 fed ce CSO EN TO id At equator, effect of rotation of earth is maximum and value of g is minimum. @ At poles, effect of rotation of earth is zero and value of g is maximum.Gravitation Field Strength Gravitation field strength at a point in gravitational field is defined as: & = 5M (cowards the mass) or [ted @ Inside points, E; = 0 @ Just outside the surface, E = a ; R- Radius of Sphere ;r- Distance of centre from an external point @ Outside Point, E. = ® On the surface E-r graph is discontinuous. On the axis of aring Gmx (R2+x2)22 Ex = 3) Atx =0, E = Oie., at centre Ifx>>R,E i.e., ring behaves as a point mass G Atx—+0,E+0 ; TRE RT olulley @ Inside points aaa cM. ° Aare eS ee be) On surface cm 4 @ Outside points B= 25 or Boo @ Atr—@,E—oKepler's law Uy damsel UC All the planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits with sun at one of the focus, not at centre of orbit. The line joining the sun and planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time. The time period of revolution of a planet in its orbit around the sun is directly proportionally to the cube of semi - major axis of — \ the elliptical path around the sun. {Planet}Aerts ae force per unit area of the body due on of the applied force is called stress acl aan th) iy. + |i io Pulling force per unit area Tangential force per unit area Increase in length or volume It causes shearing of bodies ed The ratio of the change in size or shape Change in size or shape WN ne arr to the original size or shape of the body Preece ry . Angi thi ih hich li i HH SHEAR STRAIN: formattorxed surface istuned« — Coefficient of Linear Expansion At Change in Temperature ee ne EEE WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE Meteo ea ereacely HOOKE'S LAW Within the elastic limit, the stress developed in a body is proportional to the strain produced in it, thus the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.This Strain constant is called the modulus of elasticity ~ THERMAL STRESS (i Le Y — Modulus of Elasticity 4) Gar Ir MN ERera artes ies Cc STRESS STRAIN CURVE If we increase the load gradually on a vertically suspended metal wire: y — Breaking Point B Yield Point A Stress ° Strain a pak ee ne stress, which is called point of ) The wire literally flows. The maximum stress corresponding to D, after MMGtscteh fifa which wire begins to flow. In this region, strain increase even if wire is unloaded and ruptures at E. JYOUNG'S MODULUS Young's modulus is defined as the ratio of the linear stress to linear strain, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. \ i J BULK MODULUS MODULUS OF RIGIDITY : F B= Volume Stress __ VAP { n Tangential Stress A Volume Strain 7V i “Tangential Strain een | THERMAL EXPANSION LINEAR EXPANSION T ' ' : ' ' ' i OL = coefficient of linear expansion ' ' : H AT = Change in temperature SUPERFICIAL OR AREAL EXPANSION B = coefficient of Areal Expansion VOLUME OR CUBICAL EXPANSION —— Initial Length —— Length After Heatingxm ~ FF oa Sealed Tube anna) A simultaneous increase in the speed of fluid occurs with a decrease in pressure A or a decrease in the 4 1 fluid's potential energy eee es (9 ancurmeoe's rain i sonore hae Eee ee = a ep |! = = er L The pressure applied at one point pe ae and to the walls of the container. l 2 A body totally or partially submerged in a fluid is subjected to an upward force equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid it displaces. PL ms WITH DEPTH Caz A Gum -, » 44 h Bj Measures the Pressure of gas inside a container ether ad a SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTIONS (Simple pendutum:t = 2 fT (Gi) Physical pendulum:t = fe (wy Tomonal enavunt = 29fE (9 Unear (9 sens: oe hak (0) partes hanks CW amg mm 0999) noe (RATE gy (eK (1) Displacement =x = Asin (ot +9) (0 ety £8 = hn cone +6) = ofa (ty Acceleration : 2 = po? sinc + (w) Phase: ote 9 ~ (v9 Phase Constant: @ (i) Two bodies system T = 2 ken Arsin (ot +9) x =A sin(ot +8) were n= ARR RM () Displacement : #= asin (at +9) (8) Argues veloety : = gercotatey) 4 1 acceleration 28 «-tsncar + 8) wy $2 _-gorsnar +) (Ww) Phase: ot + ¢ (0) Phase constant :NAVE r ) Wave is distributed energy or distributed “disturbance”, bE er Perens Ray Ror aR uReR aru MR Rs eeu uel ane} Pou Ronski sitcinecdeeee eet A tus ts Mechnical waves are further classified in two categories such that TTA SLU core aot A Cok =) I ae rod Co NO A cet oh col oa perpendicular to the x axis as the wave passes, it is called transverse waves. 2. Longitudinal waves (sound waves) evel eR Neat MMR oar RC elon otra Ro hare} Aeon nl ke tos NON-MECHANICAL WAVES Me Me rel cole) Rr og Reel cere Renae tea Cece eC eau aie um amare nay TVs eae aR a be lee ey wate) | Nal etal tN) Cy ore (cee) ) Se A ee) ae VSENERGY CALCULATION IN WAVES Ha 1, KINETIC ENERGY PER UNIT LENGTH The velocity of string element in transverse direction is greatest at one mean position and Free Be Sea ou ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY 2. The Elastic potential energy of the string element results as string element is stretched during its rele lolay SheMet ees el UL Se) Regi em geht LN Ki 4. AVERAGE POWER TRANSMITTED BN Non ogee ARI LANNE eR eR aoe) energy over integral wavelengths a fa a m 1a 9] a i=] m re ra I = UNA aa eelm coh on | lefined as power transmitted per unit cross section area of the medium. rsA ty Me Re oe Mie dee au) Rew ias eet me ea al eT a RCM aces MOM ar MCE Ete ta am tcerel Tote el aaa ea ae a claret erate eS SN ec ie eR ea ea ce Rae Rea CaN a aM Res MCR ol eee Be Ca A TO MS aaa el asker aN cca Cue esa Me eo comical se ure Runa an ao) Cees Riera eee ume ance eu mae ann eo Ree straight line as shown in figure (b). This phenomenon is called as destructive interference. { Figure (a) —> Constructive interference } ¥ at 57 Coe ST ee x aay rio Meehan y oy ry K or Fsa TG SLC LMU ORSLE OT LTE} S Naan aL MEN Btu esau en NACI a oad Cee Sm air eC Te eects A; sin(wot + kx) Nae TT hae 2.0) er lea sc) Az sin(ot + kx2) iS Pee oiaa =) Pear Te enon eet en aan ERC aCe uae Cad CRE MCR ack Be CUS RL gar MaMa eo) ett Rene tM aR Tear a y=A;sin(oot = kex) eer Olea rea) H ii H rs ' n ar ela eal ce) H Or Rac MRC MN cece tt Rac an Rae RIAs) ene Oe Cae eed i Re Cie ea RN eam mT ERR Rel Cay 7 iy A a y=A:sin(ot ~ kx)SUPERPOSITION AND STANDING WAVES PR Aue OR Cl To ed ee Te SCR eae a a i CoO ICT ea CeCe er eee ae ial aa a Raia] EN PC ee UC Re es am amen iy aT loop is in the form of potential energy only. When the particles reaches its mean PSCC ain C a a ee aN Les aur am ees Come) RR Mura iCU al eres Rea a Ae ERS ae Te eC a aM ete Prelesey Ra: alsa ete mesic) @Fundament: SUL Rau Runa Se nar nodes and the centre is the antinode. This mode of vibration is known as the fundamental mode and ete Ce Gece LC arate emma fe Mgt eel The frequency fz is known as second harmonic late ta cola pe 2 2 @ Second Overtone ictus et third harmonic or second Oa}US Sy Pe M ECO UCR a UCU eC e icy De Oi cee alters SEEM Niet Mon Mer asta ' i Pe aa Hi i i i S J ae oe t a de i EUS | H ' J t fundamental or I** harmonic wee Nshleastela to le Oro Te euricy| ((2n+1)"*harmonic, n* overtone) PAST Travelling waves | etre a aie hr 4 i i] iy ENT MS 1s i MMC NT eM ate Ta) P between two boundaries Ln with a definite velocity medium. e i =! TRACE ato otis * Taegan s, all particles of the | nodes oscillate with same frequency ae ol different amplitudes. Amplitude frequency and amplitude eee ler ( MET Mehdi La t =i) aS a ae sata} etween two oti ‘i Nar Lc ae ESCM m Teta ola] Claas a ee Oe oy Poa oR CMe Mt aS Pe aM Toe icici See CRIM een tite Pe Camerata Cae GM eae i i CCRC CRM MER Pee nee UT: as phase difference between any two Pee nt ata H j vA eer Cyan io tee RCC CME lel Mae a) SOC CE Tne CoC Ceo leach) STC U oe pee eee eee Ce See BoC CS a al mar ela) Cerna) US Ma ee Le) ] ema Man sol ha“= ~~~ ~~ PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES ~ ~ Sound waves propagate in any medium through a series of ‘} periodic compressions and rarefactions of pressure, which is ere ieee Ann sce fetsoe = SSS COMPRESSION WAVES ~ ~~ ~ - ae When a longitudinal wave is propagated in a gaseous medium, it produces compression and rarefaction in the medium periodically. ro es Smee en Nel MALE ceil ikea tsa / p General equation of wave is given by f (6) (©) y= Asin (ot - kx) v= oY yoo eS) ©) = ~ ~~ VELOCITY OF SOUND/LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN SOLIDS = ae ns Acs Tre] Oln aE] i. Sen OE Lip (ar) Qin Fluid Ole X —$e— dx St [a aE Te, a ae iy dln ara ee aU — as Nee ou [Retelletet Meciceta (Col See ucltcy barat Moelle melts~===~==~=~=—~~~~ LONGITUDINAL STANDING WAVES ~ ~ ~~ ~~~ - = ne oN ne sla Rae R iM cos ene Bel eM ON Ra oR Cand erect een ia hk Tu Cu Reo hu a WAVES IN A VIBRATING AIR COLUMN- ~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~— 7 eC LAMM UMM ROcrs-1: ROle(olaMalo1-9 nse Mer ee me mece| onl Corer kod ea Sea ned Fundamental Frequency ~~ Neen CSciN2 —» Wavelength = eel aire east i End Correction HOM ete UTM oT | open end of an organ pipe lies ‘slightly outside the open end. The Hee Rater ec CT cel Co Rar econ Coal} y H H H Vibration of Air in Open Organ Pipe = mee As ear olusTa) frequency of organ H pipe can be given ui F Princes Re ee Mls oe Elle et MLL d eee sees em cM Muu RRC Lig of sound in air experimentally and also to Co Met urea Arne Rote SMO RCo ore ae Rees Ne anew is a w m w a a a o i=}Vector Form t 1 i ang q = Charge ; v = Distance (ta charge q,is placed at a pointin electric field, it experiences a net force Fon it, ») then electric field strength at that point can be | E= —— } 40 ) ECTRIC FIELD DUETOA IFORMLY CHARGED RO iJAse ues PERPENDICULAR ae ee SinceL >>r => @,= 0, =90° PERPENDICULAR | E,= a (sin90°+ sin90°) ==> |e, = “4 (cosgo'— coss0") => 2kr r AtPLEnt=E,+Ey Eng1B os Ce LU om IN SIN a ATS r ka r Ey = me (cosa - cos90) = For maxima, x = +R 2 | [along the axis] Ifx<>RA) 3 Hd Le area secre era each aie tons Cra eb) a Long Charged ; ELECTRIC —_— ise | 4 }. = Linear Charge Density a a) | ) 01 5 fone eer att De sah) Cara tor aie aed ets) ico enone Pre ean siees ue to Dt) ae coum? G = Surface Charge Density P= Volume Charge DensityTata TOLLPOTENTIAL DUE TO CONCENTRIC SPHERES Ata pointr>c Atapointa|<— A/2 if ers B0AKiK2 ' Ki eon | k kok: * ogee (G-k) Oe eta ES d [2 Kerk:1 Is 3 The opposing effect to the flow of current is known as Resistance of the conductor. It is denoted by "R". P= Resistivity ] = Length A = Area Resistance (R) is measured in Ohm (2). ferrite @ The current passing through the individual resistance is same and its equal to magnitude of current that comes from the battery. @ The sum of the voltage across the individual resistance is equal to the voltage of the battery. °C eae ‘@ The equivalent resistance of the circuit is always greater than the value of resistance in the circuit. Pre) @ The sum of current passing through each resistance is equal to the total current coming from the battery. T=htht+ts ® The voltage across the individual resistance is same and is equal to the voltage of the battery. V=Vi= V2 = Vs ° @ The equivalent resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest value of resistance in the circuit.A aes be ee a Bs Ba Ba Ba Ei,r1 E2,r2 Es,r3_ En,tn Eeg,req ———w¥——— n = number of rows m = number of cells in each row Current for maximum current Equivalent EMF Eeq = E1 + Ez + + En Equivalent internal resistance aS ttre tre t ete In n cells each of emf E are arranged in series and if r is internal resistance of each cell, then the total emf is equal to neE and, curent inthe circuit, If m cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r be connected in parallel and if this combination is connected to an external resistance (R) then the emf of the circuit = E. ? internal resistance of the circuit = — and Ss ac as tae teCELLS AND ELECTRIC mr Dal Reece CED << 2 then t= ne/Rie. curent obtained from the cells is approximately equal fo n times the current obtained from a single cell. Ifnr>>R, then! nE/nr=E/r i.e. current obtained from the combination of n cells is nearly the same as obtained from a single cell.When E.M.F's and internal resistance of all the cells are equal } Peart I | => E.M.F of battery = E. > Total internal resistance of the combination ofn cells =r/n (F/n}#R ren => Total resistance of the circult = (r/n) + R Ifr<>R, then! n€/r: then total current is approximately equal to n times the current given by one cell. When E.M.F's and internal resistance of all the cells connected in parallel are different E n E i £ b G i Bs A Sem MURS q © (2) (n) hwwe—---] Total resistance of the circuit = (€) + 5] net E.M.F nE nmE Total Resistance | (nr/m)+R —nr+mR ELECTRICAL POWER The energy liberated per second in a device is called its power. The electrical power P delivered by an electrical device is given by ve P=—~v P=VI P=PR Caan wattINSTRUMENTS MEASURING os VARIOUS ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES povtnseccnseeccetcee 4 (I-Ie) s A shunt (small resistance) is connected is parallel with galvanometer to convert it Puc external | resistance} eee atl) benecenceenennnencazooat er ileus Leo Ula Ammeter er Neto ci QO2 VOLTMETER Voltmeter A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to measure potential difference across a resistor in a circuit. nd aan ea ee niiorey R = Resistance taken in the resistance box ee Rust)Prey Ce Rael) Pe eat nS APPLICATION OF POT! APPLICATION-01 To find EMF of an unknown cell and compare EMF of two cells To find the internal resistance of a cell APPLICATION-03 To find current if resistance is knownPart! MAGNETIC FIELD Magnetic field is the region surrounding a moving charge in magnetic effects are perceptible on another moving charge current), BESO Biot-Savart law gives the magnetic induction due to an infinitesimal current element. According to 'Biot-Savart Law, the magnetic field GB = induction dB at P due to the current element d/ is given by, POS CII) CE A oud P is on perpendicular Bi-sector B Ho2i B= sing * 4nd : B= nL [siné, + siné2] where sing, = — +, 4nd VS Be ad? When the point lies along the length of wire (but not on it) ia? B B= [s8=0 ii, A(2) POUT URN Cae MRT) »» (eee + uptoce ; eo?! j eo | ° 6 i ° ' it oe & i Pot i _ Mo __2miR? _ Bo __27NiR? © 4m (R2+ x2)? 4m (R?+ x2)? Raa et SOLENOID di B i tteeebisassee/ _ 1+ P bh ee i i Fee a 2 p= (cose: -cos82)MAGNETIC FORCE DUE TO CHARGE PARTICLES CRTC CRAG Chern eaten Ck a)) i MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE mT IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD CHARGED PARTICLE GIVEN VELOCITY PERPENDICULAR TO THE FIELD ee uence oa Cola a Time period Pornen ts Ky ae ss Fs Fi vn we Se Se Se FS eb Lila = = av = CHARGED PARTICLE IS MOVING AT AN ANGLE TO THE FIELD a RRL & Ed Cry Tort ——— Pee nae en meee at aed = F Co ler ma cy Frquency (f) = MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN COMBINED ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC FIELD When the moving charged particle is subjected simultaneously to both electric field E and Cee ed MRA hee ol ele Most iN ree ee) magnetic force Fm = q(v'x 8) which is ‘Lorentz force equation’.mater LE Ott) 20 a ea ae i=jA=nevaA Va= Drift speed | n= No. of free electrons per unit volume j= Current density T= Vector length of the wire Wee tag The direction of force is always perpendicular to the plane containing Ld and 6 and is same as that of cross-product of two vectors (@ x b) with a = idl and b = B a mL ay dF The direction of force when current element i.di and 8 are perpendicular to each other can also be determined by applying either of the following rules: @ Fleming's Left-hand Rule : Siretch the forefinger, tore central finger and thumb of the left hand mutually perpendicular. Then if the, forefinger points in the direction of the field (B) and the central finger is in the direction of current, the thumb will point in the direction of force (or motion).@ Right-hand Palm tle : Stretch the fingers and thumb of the right-hand at fight angles to each other. To find the direction of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, the thumb of the right hand ponts in the direction of velocity of particle v, the fingers in the direction of Magnetic Field B, then the Force F is directed perpendicular to the right hand palm of force RIGHT HAND. mea eg a) a ane > M = NixR? = NiA A= Area of loop | R= Radius of loop N=No. of loops | |= Current MAGNETIC FIELD AND STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD =e > > aoe wo SS EEE M +e and = o-: ‘© S.l. unit of B is Tesla or weber/m? MAGNETIC IN AN EXTERNAL UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD (a = MB Fres = 0 (for any angle) t= MBsin0 MB -—m ———— aiELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE MAGNETIC FLUX Ila aa aa Rr em letimA MeSat R eo Reh aR Lt > oe) i Unit + weber (Wb) FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Mum Me Melo emi Rie AM Mo tM LLL A MN Me Rel ors] Coit Meals Reit ule eae amniotic Rune etl MC aren) ay hPa Neco te RMU NA Me Rees oT RN a Ce eat Ly the induced current flows in such a fashion that it tries to oppoose the Cone Renee e eeloct shy MOTIONAL EMF EMF developed across the ends of the rod moving perpendicular to magnetic field velocity perpendicular to the rod is na INDUCED EMF IN A ROTATING ROD INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD a i / ia a is i rn sae Ors Pine 3 “i IE eee Veni eed teal 5 , y a x x 2 ee} i eT eaeQ@SELF INDUCTION If current in the coil changes by Ai in a time interval At, the average emf induced in the coil is given as , Suni of Inductance is wh/amp or Henry (H) 3 SELF INDUCTANCE OF SOLENOID t ete n=no. of turns/length r=radius ; = Permeability T= length ecu al eee nv va-t “ = ve , Energy stored in inductor Gs dt @OL-RciRCUIT At t= 0, inductor behaves as an open switch. At t=00, inductor behaves as plane wire. The maximum current in the circuit io = E/R. SoQ DECAY OF CURRENT a ty g= eres M = Mutual inductance s Unit of Mutual inductance is Henry (H)OAALTERNATING AL TESS CU OCR GS Ue Ly Pure Resistor Ve is in same phase with ig Pure Inductor Vi leads i, by 90° Pure Capacitor Ve lags ic by 90° PRC SERIES CIRCUIT WITH AN AC SOURCE Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram Vs = Vm sinot [3] a te Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram Vsinat[4] SE te Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram Vs=Vsinot SERIES CIRCUIT WITH AN AC SOURCE Circuit Diagram Phasor Diagram TX Vv V.=Vsinot 1(X-Ke) From the phasor diagram V = {(IR)? + (IX. -IXe)?_ , Z= JR2+ (Xi — Xe)? ee a2) tL oe a n Amplitude of current (and therefore Irms also) in an RLC series circuit is maximum for a iven value of Vm and R, if the impedance of the circuit is minimum, which will be when .-Xc = 0. This condition is called resonance. jo at resonance:Part! MIRRORS sito ile) > When a ray of light is incident at a point on the surface of a mirror, the surface throws N ° partly or wholly the incident energy back into the medium of incidence. This phenomennon is called reflection B Concave mirror 2 LAWOFREFLECTION @ The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane. @ The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. i.e., Lis Zr Note: These laws hold good for all reflecting surfaces either plane or curved. eo N N A beam of parallel rays of light, incident on a plane mirror will get reflected as a beam of parallel reflected rays. okeons ° Plane mirror Nop 4 ROTATION OF MIRROR Fg 2 2 & 3 For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated by an angled (about an axis which lies in the plane of mirror and perpendicular to the plane of incidence), the reflected ray turns through an angle of 20 in the same direction.J) NUMBER OF IMAGES FORMED BY TWO INCLINED MIRRORS. Rel o ° @ 1¢ 32 ~ even number ; number of images = 2° -1. engleb) 0 6 mirrors ° ° e. x = odd number ; number of images = 28 -1, 11 the object is placed on the angle bisector. @ 4 2 - odd number ; number of images aa If the object is not placed on the angle bisector. 360 + © 1 = + Integer, then the number of images = nearest even integer. G) TRANSVERSE MAGNIFICATION AABO ~ AA'B'O y. u © The above formula is valid for both concave and convex mirror. v B © hy ho, v and u should be put with appropriate sign. <——_____». 7) CONCAVE MIRROR Details of images Location Type _| Orientation [Magnification Ate ATF real Position of object inverted Im|<<1 Between C and Bet. FandC |m| <1 AtC AIC Im] =1 Between F and C inverted Bet.C and Im| >1 ALF inverted At infinity Im|>>1 Between F and P Behind the mirror 1) Keo MOTT Lo) 3 Position of object At infinity In front of mirror [ Details of images Jat F, virtual, erect, |m|<< 1 | Between P and F, virtual, erect. |m| <1§ VELOCITY IN SPHERICAL MIRROR NY aml Object moving along the principal axis Object moving perpendicular to the principal axis Object moving parallel to the Principal axis, 10 LAWS OF REFRACTION ‘ . N a The incident ray, the normal to any refracting surface at the point of incidence and the : Incident ray refracted ray, ail lie in the same plane called jyeciumt in) the plane of incidence or plane of refraction sinl - Constant for any pair of media and for SINT light of a given wavelength This is known as Snell's Law. A\so, 11 APPARENT DEPTH AND NORMAL SHIFT When the object is in denser medium and the observer is in rarer medium (near normal incidence) 12) IMAGE VELOCITY IN CASE OF PLANE REFRACTIONApparent shift due to the slab when object is seen normally through the slab Hates a | IMPORTANT POINTS © Rays should be paraxial. Medium on both side of the slab should be same. e @ Shift comes out from the object. e Shift is independent of the distance of the object from the slab. if shift comes out Positive then shift is towards |, _¢__,. the direction of incident rays and vice versa. Apparent distance between object and observer when both are in different medium If object and observer are in same medium then shift formula should be used and if both are in different medium then the above formula of apparent distance should be used. 14 CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Critical angle is the angle made ina denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90°. Perel ee mC MUU Ci rei [ol) ® Light is incident on the interface from denser medium. © Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (i> c). denserDistant Object object @ Real e Smaller than object image # Inverted @ At Focus lens fe) [to aad @ Real © Same size 7 as object @ Inverted e@At2F Object at F e Real e Highly : # magnified oe F Inverted © At infinity lens fe) yt setae ae Tal tay ? ee 2 \ F image Images formed by a concave lens Object is at F object Virtual © Smaller than object ? a image © Upright © Between object and the lensWAVE Opt —t ORC RN Cee te ae Mee ater Oe eRe el tole NR Cot at ett ccLaLE OE We tl MR Rh MARR Ma al oe Melt Ee TNL CP lalelmreMoLF Tae ee ee eRe RR Tle Cy RN UR ec Mn Ce Rea eel c LT er eel alt) P 1 fell all aaa ees) \y eaters) erm ett} Sees It is the distance between two MMe ht eg CMe MM Me cel Menu SOE oto AMR afte Ch EOC ee eter nC org OMe cy CORR atest iat mete) Cle ORR e tel erty Cet Cute a eer A 2. G B eT ee i iS and hence, Cement] Pra tae eee ty pL Ten)PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT aol el dacs eee ee ae ee ace ey agence ent Electron ejected from the surface 4 4 with gain in Kinetic Energy. ¢ / Sg Py have K.Emax = (ho - hu) Bound electron will absorb energy of photon (hv) Electron will eject if hv> hp, + Collison Energy Work function (¢ = hv,) is the energy binding electron to the metal surface. of electrons are ejected from the surface. -1 i E=hv, Incident photon SE =3™ E= me Gnimetal Electron surface ejected \ with KE Quantized Energy Einstein's Photoelectric fi Photon. Work function Equation Max of metal KE E=hv an electron can have — which Photoelectric ‘current becomes zero. releasedHISTORY OF ATOMIC MODEL Johann derived formula predicting hydrogen spectrum. Balmer Rutherford proposed a model where positive charge is at the center, and electron moves around in a spiral path and losses energy. PCr for mathematically a J. 4 Thomson discovered Electron Electron beam J.) Thomson proposed plum pudding model - @-~~ Bohr worked with J ) Thomson and found flaws in his theory He proposed electron revolves around nucleus in orbits. Electron is stabilized by centripetal and electrostatic forces. Electron don't lose energy in an orbit. Electron losses or gains energy by moving across orbit He proved Balmer was right by derving his formula theoretically. Only applicable for one electron systems. Failed to predict dual nature of electron. De Broglie introduced the concept ‘of dual nature in electrons. He used Einsteins E = me? and proposed any moving particle or object has an associated wave. =_—_—ee —— PHYSICS ys BINDING ENERGY Itis the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles. Binding Energy (B.E.) = Amc? = Am x 931 MeV BE A ® Binding energy per nucleon is more for medium nuclei than uFe® for heavy nuclei. Hence, medium nuclei are highly stable. The heavier nuclei being unstable have tendency to spiit into fo medium nuclei. This process is called ® The Lighter nuclei being unstable have tendency to fuse into a medium nucleus. This process is called 56 A it was discovered by Spontaneous emission of radiations (a, (3, y) from unstable nucleus is called Substances which show radioactivity are known as In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits « particle or fi particle. After emission of « or js particle the remaining nucleus may emit y- particle, and convert into a more stable nucleus. Itis a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains two protons and two neutrons. Mass of « - particle = Mass of 2H e* atom - 2me = 4 mp B- (electron) B* (positron) Mass = me : Charge =-e Mass = me : Charge = +e positron is an antiparticie of electron. They are energetic photons of energy of the order of MeV and having zero rest mass.RADIOACTIVE DECAY (DISPLACEMENT LAW) DECAY 2X0 => 72") + zHet* @ — + 2Het+ Q @ value is definied as energy released during the decay process. Q value = rest mass energy of reactants — rest mass energy of products Mue = mass of atom 2He* My = mass of atom z-2¥4~* , i Mue]c? Let, Mx = mass of atom :X*, Qval XA =b 7 ¥* + — ese Q value = [Mx - {(My — me) + me}] c? = [Mx > DECAY 1XA—> 7-1Y4 + e944 4+Q My = 2Me]c? Q value = [Mx - {(My + me) + me}] c? = [M. RADIOACTIVE DECAY : STATISTICAL LAW ® Rate of radioactive decay is directly proportional to N ® where N = number of active nuclei. ® Rate of radioactive decay of A = a =2N @ where 1. = decay constant of the radioactive substance. the number of nuclei of B formed) 2 Activiry & Activity is defined as the rate of radioactive decay of nuclei ® Number of nuclei decayed (i re 3 AVERAGE LIFE sum of ages of all the nuclei No Tow =SEMICONDUCTOR P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR WS LLAMA LEA LES The elements of 4th group of the periodic table eee ecu routs Meas Eg: Germanium, Silicon, etc. Peau sud Cee eet ec Fea Fa: } cadoaas? GP a PNR a Rett os ak SR en ene eee eae eee em Soul) INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 200000 000000 Co ee) 00.0 0'0 0 000000 P-Type Tread Cd od iy cord ered CE PM Rego ke ce Le leary intrinsic semiconductor, then P-type semi- Cele Neem Aon