Singing Out of Pain: Protest Songs and Social Mobilization

Author(s): Marek Payerhin

Source: The Polish Review, Vol. 57, No. 1 (2012), pp. 5-31
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Polish Institute of Arts & Sciences of
America
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ThePolishReview
; Vol.57,No. 1,2012
© ThePolishInstitute
ofArts& SciencesofAmerica

Marek Payerhin

Singing Out of Pain:

Protest Songs and Social Mobilization

Abstract

The articleanalyzestheroleof protestsongsin ideologicalbattles

and social mobilizationin Poland in the 1970s and 1980s. Political
oppositionwas oftenexpressedthroughsongs; theirmost important
sources includedthe Catholic Church,workers,students,political
cabarets,rockmusicians,and scoutingtroops.Songs chippedaway at
theedificeofofficialpropagandaandideologicalstrictures. Theycreat-
ed a multitudeof culturalclues andpointsofreference to helpdefinea
societalsenseofcommonidentity, theinjusticethecommunity suffered,
andtheneedforsocialmobilization toremedytheundesirable situation.
The songsmadea difference byoffering a "natural"wayto distrib-
uteelementsof anytentative agreement amongpotentialadherents of a
movement. Theyaggregated, reinforced,andpropagated commonsym-
bols and beliefsthatallowedmovement and leaderscon-
participants
actionframes.Theyalso helpedinfluence
structeffective an independ-
entpublicdiscoursethrough framingtheissues.

ofìaraskrzydei
naprzódboli
a z tegobólumožnášpiewač
potemsiçhochanieruchomošč
i strach siowopiešni
dyktuje

wingshurts
sacrificing atfirst
andyoucansingoutofthatpain

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6 ThePolish Review

lateryoucometoloveimmobility
thewordsofthesong
andfeardictates

Herbert,
Zbigniew
Mafy 1
ptaszek

The wordsofZbigniewHerbert quotedaboveprovidea devastating diagno-

sis ofa syndrome ofwhatCzeslaw Miïosz called"thecaptivemind."2Whilewe
can inferthatthe"song"standshereforanycreativeundertaking underthecon-
ditionsof authoritarianism, themetaphor fitsverywell theintentof thisarticle:
to lookat theroleofactualsongsas expressions ofideologicalbattlesand social
mobilization in Polandin the1970sand 1980s.Morethantwodecadesafterthe
collapseofCommunism, itmayappearunremarkable thatindependent songwrit-
ersand singersdaredto defytheofficialorthodoxy of theday.Yet,in Herbert's
terms,the"fear"stemming fromthepersonalor societalexperienceof "pain"
aftertheloss of freedom("wings")in an authoritarian societyis morelikelyto
producepolitical and creative "immobility" rather than attempts to confront the
authorities.When"feardictatesthewordsofthesong,"thosewords,too,arelike-
ly to be eitherlaudatory and supportive of theregimeor carefully neutral,intel-
and
lectuallyirrelevant, politicallyimpotent. So it may be ratherout of the ordi-
nary, as I am to
going arguehere, thatthe of
songs protest in Poland contributed
totheemergence ofcivilsocietyandsocialmobilization thatresultedintheeven-
tualfalloftheregime.
To analyzetheroleofsongsinpopularresistance to theCommunist govern-
mentin Polandin the1970sand 1980s,thisarticlestartsbyproviding somethe-
oreticalreflection on theplace of songwriting in social mobilization. Then,the
of
concept framing will be used to discuss theimportance of music in maintain-
ing thestatusquo by theregime.Afterwards, we can turnour attention to the
protestsongsthemselves: firstto religioushymns, then to studentsongs, work-
ers' balladsand fighting songs,cabaretand politicalsatireas sourcesof protest
songs,a rockmusicaland rockand reggaeconcerts,and finallythe scouting
movement as a locusofunscripted patriotism.

FramingProtest

risks,a senseofpoliticaleffi-
Sincesocial activismoftencarriessignificant
cacy is neededto overcome the dreadof consequencesof challenging thestatus
quo. People need tobelievethattheyare notalone,thatthey can trust
other
poten-
andthattheircollectiveactionwillbringaboutthedesiredchange.
tialprotesters,
To convincethemof the above, movements tryto "frame"the issues,thatis,

1 Zbigniew
Herbert, Pañstwowy
Poezje(Warsaw: Instytut 1998).
Wydawniczy,
2 CzeslawMiïosz,TheCaptive
Mind(NewYork:Vintage,
1990).

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 SingingOut of Pain 7

"assignmeaningto and interpret relevanteventsand conditions in waysthatare

intended to mobilizepotentialadherents and constituents, garnerbystander sup-
port,and demobilizeantagonists."3 Klandermans proposesthatthethreemajor
functions offraming are:(a) denouncing injustice(indicating thatan undesirable
stateof affairsis due to some specificsocial actorsand thusprovokingmoral
indignation), (b) constructing a politicallyrelevantidentity (oppositionalcon-
sciousnessora senseofwho"we" areincontrast to "them,"thoseresponsible for
ouraffliction), and(c) providing a senseofagency(an optimistic - perhapseven
exaggerated - projection ofthechancesforthemovement to succeed).4
Scholarsunderstand thatframecreationis a multi-faceted process,butmany
insistthatithas to be initiated byleaders:"Framingis less likea completedsym-
phonythanlike improvisational jazz: composersprovidetheinitial'head' fora
jam session, butthe improvisations dependon a groupofplayersoverwhomthey
have littlecontrol."5 However,thisapproachobscuresthefactthatmovement
leadersdrawon an alreadyextantpool ofculturalreference pointsprovidedbya
multitude ofcreators. To remainwithinthemusicalmetaphor, FredericChopin's
creativegeniusnotwithstanding, hiscompositions' impact reflectsinparthissuc-
cess in incorporating pre-existing, familiarthemes and tunes into his music.
Similarly, before a call to action is heardfrom movement a
leaders, significant
amountofframebuildinghas alreadyoccurred - through songwriting, poems,or
theatrical productions - to create a culturalframework and that
repertoire leaders
can use to buildconsensusandmobilizefollowers.
Gamsonobservesthat"it is insufficient ifindividuals privately adopta dif-
ferentinterpretation of what is happening. For collective adoption an injustice
of
frame, itmustbe sharedbythepotentialchallengers publicway."6A similar
in a

3 BertKlandermans, "TheSocialConstruction of Protest

andMultiorganizational
Fields,"in AldonD. Morrisand CarolMcClurgMueller,eds.,Frontiers in Social
Movement Theory (NewHaven:YaleUniversity Press,1992),80. SeealsoDavidA. Snow
et al., "FrameAlignment Processes,Micromobilization, andMovement Participation,"
American Sociological Review, Vol.51,no.4 (August, 1986),464-81;DavidA. Snowand
Robert D. Benford, "Ideology, FrameResonance, andParticipant inBert
Mobilization,"
Klandermans, Hanspeter KriesiandSidneyTarrow, eds.,International
SocialMovement
Research, Vol.1, FromStructure toAction:Comparing Movement Across
Participants
Cultures (Greenwich, CT: JAIPress,1988),197-217.
4 BertKlandermans, TheSocialPsychology ofProtest (Cambridge,MA: Blackwell
Publishers, 1997),38-43.See also WilliamA. Gamson,Talking Politics(NewYork:
Cambridge University Press,1992).
5 Tarrow elaborating CharlesTilly'spointin SidneyTarrow, Political
"Mentalities,
Cultures, and Collective ActionFrames:Constructing Meaningsthrough Action,"in
AldonD. Morris andCarolMcClurg Mueller,eds.,FrontiersinSocialMovement Theory
(New Haven: Yale Press,1992),
University 191.
6 William A. Gamson, "TheSocialPsychology ofCollectiveAction,"inAldonD.
MorrisandCarolMcClurgMueller, eds.,Frontiers in SocialMovement Theory (New
Haven:YaleUniversity Press,1992),73.

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8 ThePolish Review

claimcan be made abouttheidentity and agencyframes,and thatis whyit is

worthwhile to analyzesomeof thetoolsof framedispersion,suchas songs.By
beingcreatedbya hostofdisparateauthorsandthensharedin collectiveexperi-
ences,protestsongshelp engendera senseof commonidentity, indicateagree-
mentas to theexistenceandnatureofinjustice,andprovidea symbolicresource
pool foractivists.This mayoffertheprotesters
a betterchanceto challengethe
powerholders.However,thecase of Polandin the 1970s and 1980s discussed
belowdemonstrates thedifficulty
ofthistasksincethechallengers'
framing never
occursin a vacuum.

Songs of Legitimacy
ThePolishgovernment engagedina massiveeffort topreempt opposition by
censoringcommunications and eliminatingunwelcomemessagespriorto publi-
cation.Dissidentactivistsfaceda determined propagandaeffort to portraythem
as suspiciousrabble-rouserswhoseloyaltieswerenotPolish(eitherbecausethey
werepaid agentsofWestern spynetworks ormembers ofsomeunspecified glob-
al Jewishconspiracy) and forwhomdissidentactivitiesweresimplyschemesto
gainpowerorto enrichthemselves.7 Yet,thegovernment also putmuchhopeinto
creatingits own set of frames.Those emphasizedeconomicprogressand
improvements in socialwellbeingunderitsleadershipas proofsofitslegitimacy.
The CommunistParty(officiallycalled the Polish Workers'Party,later
PolishUnitedWorkers' Party- PZPR,butin everyday languagejust"theParty")
was notan ideologicalpreference ofmostPoles. However,itgainedsomerecog-
nitionin the1940sand 1950sbysuccessfully stokingandthenharnessing a gen-
uine enthusiasm forthereconstruction of thecountry severelydamagedduring
theWorldWarII. The verylegitimacy of theparty,imported as itwas at thetip
ofSovietbayonets, dependedheavily on theoutcome of the rebuilding effortand
thenrapidindustrialization campaigns.So, theradio and the ubiquitouspublic
announcement systems(kolchožniki)boomedwithupbeat,optimistic working
songsand marchesof theepoch.Budujemynowydom[We are Buildinga New
House],Na lewo most,na prawo most[A Bridgeto theLeft,a Bridgeto the
Right],andPiosenkao NowejHucie [A SongaboutNowa Huta]becamesinging
manifestoes oftheyounggeneration involvedin giganticconstruction projectsof
thetime.8A globalreachoftheinternational Communist system was extolledin
7 JacekKurorí, Gwiezdny Czas (London:Aneks,1991);JanJózefLipski,KOR
(London: Aneks,1993).
8 A striking
artistic
illustration
oftheroleofupbeat propagandasongsinthe1950sis
provided inAndrzej Wajda'sfilmManofMarble , wheremusicoftheerais practically
anotheractor.Partyactivists
recognize theimportanceofmusictomorale andproductiv-
itysothey evenassigna dedicated
bandthatistoplaynon-stoptofacilitate
a record-break-
ingbricklayingfeat.Ironically,
whentheexhausted musicians a "non-proletari-
collapse,
an"traditional
street
bandreplaces it- butitplaysPiosenka
о NowejHucieanyway, even-
followed
tually bysimilar songsfrom loudspeakerswhenthebricklaying
record isbroken.

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 SingingOut of Pain 9

Pochodprzyjažni[Friendship March]thatdeclared"Anigórywysokie,animorza
gíçbokie/Nie wstrzymaj^pochoduprzyjažni....Dalej, mtodziStowianie,dalej,
Grecy, Hiszpanie/mlodyChinczyk do marszu powstaje/Wnetdo^cz^t tu
inni/czarnibraciaz Wirginii/bohaterscy pospiesz^Malaje [Neitherhighmoun-
tainsnordeep seas/willstopthemarchof friendship.... Onward,youngSlavs,
onward,Greeksand Spaniards/A youngChineserisesup to march/Soon others
willjoin in/Blackbrothers fromVirginia/and heroicMalayswillrushin"].9
Themesof solidarity andunboundedenthusiasm aboutthefuture dominated
thelargestpublicdisplaysof supportforthepoliticalandeconomicsystem:May
Day parades.Everyyearon May 1, International LaborDay,multitudes ofpeo-
ple dressed in festive colors and carrying flags and slogans paraded through
majorcitiesintheSovietbloc andinfront ofgrandstandscrowdedwiththepolit-
ical and militaryleadersof theircountries.10 Enormousloudspeakerslocated
throughout the citiesprovided a constantbarrageof songsandrunning commen-
tariesbytheauthorities, broadcastlive overtheradioandlatertelevision.
Othervenuesto use musicin theserviceof thegovernment and theruling
party includedthe music
officially-sanctioned festivals, especially Festivalof
the
SovietSong organizedfrom1965 in Zielona Gòra and theFestivalof Military
Song (from1967; after1968 in Kotobrzeg),as well as theprimary nationwide
festivals in
ofPolishsongs Opole and of international in
songs Sopot.11 Withonly
two channelsavailableon state-controlled television,coverage of the festivals
was hugelypopularamongthegeneralpublic.Accordingly, mostpopularsingers,
regardlessof theirpoliticalpreferences, eagerlyparticipated in these events,
abouttheonlyway to emergeandremainin thelimelight of mediatedrealityof
theCommunist-controlled country.The propagandapurposesof theSovietand
militarysongfestivalswereratherobvious.In turn,theOpole and Sopotvenues
promotedmostlythatothertypeof musictheCommunist authorities
preferred
besidestheenthusiastic worksongs:the"nonevocatory, 'harmless'music."12
Emblematicof thisgenrewas themuch-lovedpop group2 plus 1, whose

9 "CyfrowaBibliotékaPolskiej Piosenki,"http://www.bibliotekapiosenki.pl
(accessedJuly 26,2011).
10See JanKubik,ThePowerofSymbols Against theSymbols ofPower:TheRiseof
SolidarityandtheFall ofStateSocialisminPoland(University Park:PennsylvaniaState
University Press,1994).
11One cannothelpnoticing thatall thesefestivals tookplacein citieslocatedon
"Recovered Lands,"theformerGerman Polandgainedas a result
territories ofitsborders
beingmoved WestthroughYaltaagreements andtheregional balanceofpowerafterWorld
WarII (between 1919and1939SopotwaspartoftheFreeCityofGdansk/Danzig). There
is littledoubtthatthePolishgovernment appreciated thepropaganda such
opportunity
events offeredinpromotingtheir Polishnamesandassociating
locations' themwithPolish
culture.
12PedroRamet,"Disaffectionand Dissentin East Germany," WorldPolitics:A
Quarterly Journal of Relations
International , Vol.37,no. 1 (1984),91.

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10 ThePolish Review

debut album was characteristically titledNowy wspaniatyšwiat [The New

Wonderful World].Immensely popular,it containeda heavydose of optimistic
messagesand gentleexhortations: Wstawaj,szkodadnia [Get up, Don't Waste
YourDay], Dogoniç lato [I'll Catchup withtheSummer],and Chodž,pomaluj
mójšwiat[ComeandPaintoverMyWorld].Thegroup'sclean,a bitcotton-candy
image,catchytunes,andupbeatattitude fitverywell at thebeginning ofthenew
decade,just as theregimewas eagerto eradicatethesombermemoriesof the
massacresof workerson theCoast in 1970. Whatnicerway to stressthenew
beginnings withthenew governing eliteof EdwardGierekthanto singa song
thatwonders, "Dlaczego ci^gnieszwspomnieri tren/i
przywohijesz co odeszto?....
Czekaj§ snyniewypeínione.... Wstawaj, szkoda dnia" [Why you pull behind
do
youthetrainof memories/and call backwhathas alreadypassed?....Unfulfilled
dreamsawait....Getup,don'twasteyourday]?
Yet,thereweresomeforwhom"thetrainofmemories"was fundamental to
theirveryidentity.As MichelFoucaultnoted,collectivememory is an important
arenaofstruggle betweentheauthorities andaggrievedgroups."[I]fone controls
people'smemory, one controls
their dynamism. Andone also controls theirexpe-
rience, their of The
knowledge previousstruggles."13 government attempted to
achievesuchcontrolthrough theuse ofpropagandaandsongs,as wellas through
intimidationandcensorship. Yet,someissuesremained hotlycontested.Together
withthestruggle overthedefinitionofcurrent conditions (theofficial"propagan-
da ofsuccess"vs. thestarkrealityofeconomichardships andrestrictionsofpolit-
ical freedoms),Poles contestedtheofficialinterpretationofhistory(e.g.,pre-war
governments contrastedwiththecurrent one),thelegitimacy oftheregime,desir-
abilityofallianceswiththeSovietUnion,andtheplace ofreligioninthenation's
culturalidentity.Politicaloppositionwas oftenexpressedthroughsongs,and
theirmostimportant sourcesincludedtheCatholicChurch,workers,students,
politicalcabarets,rockmusicians,and scoutingtroops.

Songs of Faith

HistorianNormanDavies statesunequivocally,"on thecentralfact,thatthe

RomanCatholicChurch[in Poland] embodiesthemostancientand themost
exaltedidealsoftraditional
Polishlifeacrossthecenturies,therecan be no doubt
whatsoever."14The Churchhas oftenbeen seen as the bulwarkof the Polish
in theface of variousforeigninvasions,and especiallyduring
nationalidentity
thetimeof Partitions(1795-1918)whenPoles were a nationwithouta Polish
13MichelFoucault,
"FilmandPopular Memory," inSylvere ed.,Foucault
Lotringer,
Live:Collected 1961-1984
Interviews, (NewYork:Semiotext(e), 1996),124.
14Norman Davies,Gods Playground:A History ofPoland,Vol.2: 1795 to the
Present(Oxford: Press,1981),225. See alsoKubik,ThePowerofSymbols
Clarendon ;
Neal Paese,RomesMostFaithful Daughter:The CatholicChurchand Independent
Poland,1914-1939 OhioUniversity
(Athens: Press,2009).

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 SingingOut of Pain 11

state,andduringtheNazi occupationthroughout theWorldWarII. At leastsome

oftheattempts oftheoccupyingpowersto replacePolishculturewiththeirown
weredirectedat theChurch,perhapsmostprominently in ChancellorOttovon
Bismarck'sKulturkampf. Yet,whatever specificdisagreements mayhaveexisted
over whatthose"mostancientand the mostexaltedideals" were,Poles who
flockedto theirchurchesand bravedtheofficialritualLatinof themass could
also findrefugein thePolishreligioussongs.By the 1970s,theLatinritewas
gonebutthereligiousceremoniesand songsremaineda crucialideologicalbat-
tleground. And one of themostsuccessfulattempts to portray theCommunist
regime as alien and illegitimate used a more-than-a-century-old song thathad
beenoriginally written to praisean autocratic ruler.
The religioushymnBože Cos Polskç(usuallyrenderedin Englishas "God
Save Poland") competeswith the Polish nationalanthem,the D$browski
Mazurka, forpopularity as themostheartfelt patrioticsongandwas oncea strong
contender itselfto becomethenationalanthem.However,even thoughit was
pennedin 1816 by thepatriotic former secretaryofTadeuszKošciuszko,Alojzy
Feliñski,theoriginalPiešrínarodowaza pomyšlnošč Króla [TheNationalSong
to theSuccessoftheKing]was an obsequioushymneulogizingtheRussianczar
AlexanderI whotookon thetitleofthekingofPoland.15Still,despitetheunpro-
pitiousorigin,thesongsoonbecameverypopularwhenthereferences totheczar
weredroppedin favorof an incantation: "PrzedTwe ottarzezanosimbiaganie:
Ojczyznç woln^ pobtogostaw, Panie!" ["Before your altars/webring our
prayers/Bless ourfreeMotherland, oh Lord!"]. Since then,however,therewere
moreyearswhenCatholicPoles feltthattheirMotherland was notfreeat all and
theyremadethisrefrain intoa weeklycryofdefiancebythemillionsofchurch-
goers throughout the country:"Ojczyznç woln^ racz nam wrócič, Panie!"
["Restore our free Motherland, oh Lord!"].Theseinsolentwordsmadeitthefirst
and also themostwidespreadprotestsongagainsttheCommunist regime.The
insultwas extendedfurther whentheinternationally famousmoderncomposer,
Krzysztof Penderecki, includedBože Coš Polskçin his 1980 opus,TeDeum.
Penderecki reactedto an earthshaking eventforthispredominantly Catholic
country: the electionof Krakow's CardinalKarol as
Wojtyla Pope John Paul II in
1978.Forthegovernment, theelectionenormously complicated thealready del-
icaterelationships withtheChurch:fromall-outskirmishes betweenthebuilders
of theCommunist modelcityof Nowa Huta and defenders of religioussitesin
the area to the of the
imprisonment primate ofPoland Cardinal StefanWyszynski
to the numerousconflictsover construction of new churchesand religious
instruction in schools.An additionalconstantirritant were the highlyvisible
nationwide masspilgrimages to theholy shrineof Jasna Gora inCzçstochowa. As
a
always,songsprovided way keep to the spiritsup during grueling of
that test

15Katolička "Bože Cos Polskç,"http://dziedzictwo.ekai.pl/

AgencjaInformacyjna,
(accessedJune14,2011).
text.show?id=435

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12 ThePolish Review

whilefacilitating
physicalendurance a spiritual
bondingexperience:

Thedaysdeveloped - waking
a rhythm before
dawn,walking alldaytothe
accompaniment ofprayers,songs,andlectures,
stoppingonlyformass,meals,
andanoccasionalbreak.Duringbreaks pilgrims inpiles,leaning
collapsed back
to backor restingheadson legs.Then,FatherWesolywouldjumpup and
encouragethem tosinganddance.He,togetherwithnunsinhabits andpilgrims
in shorts
joinedhandsincircledancesandwildjigs.Thenwe returned tothe
roadwhere thehot,meltingasphaltcausedheatrashesonfeetandlegs.16

Withtheelectionof JohnPaul II, theregimefounditselfunderaddedpres-

sureas theinternational cloutofthepope furtherinvigoratedtheactivitiesofthe
Churchin Poland.Thiswas especiallyevidentin thecreationof new spacesfor
religiousexpression, bothliterally(permitsfortheconstruction of new church-
es), and in
figuratively, the formof re-energized
politicaland culturalactivities
of academicreligiouscircles(e.g., "Beczka" in Kraków)and of the "Oasis"
movement. Thesewereto proveimportant, also becauseof theirinnovative use
ofmusicforoutreachcampaigns.
The "Light-Life"Movement,popularlyknownas the "Oasis," sought"to
builda 'newcommunity' of 'newpeople'whowouldcreateandsharea 'newcul-
ture'centeredon theideas of JesusChrist."17 Even thoughtechnically an inde-
pendentgrassrootsorganization,the Movementhad to rely on Church's
resources,18 especiallyfacilitiesto house its meetingsand summercamps
("oases") for the youth.The "oases" were part of Light-Life'sevangelical
approachto youngpeoplethatbrokewiththedominant, largelytraditionalreli-
gious educationand includedoutdooractivities,such as mountainhikes and
campfires - all witha heavyinfusion ofmodern,upbeatsongsthatwereobvious-
ly Christianbutquiteunliketheritualand ceremonial tunessungin church.The
idea of young,enthusiastic people roamingin groupsthrough thecountryside,
playingguitarsandsingingcatchyreligioussongs,was rather novelin Poland.It
was also veryunwelcomefortheregimeas themusicsymbolizedtheriseof a
newandclearlydangerousideologicalcounterpoint to Communist upbringing.
One of CardinalWojtyla'searlierinitiativesalso createdthe Sacrosong,a
festivalof sacralandreligiousmusicorganizedsince 1969 as a "newexpression
oftheGospel"thatboldlyusedrockandfolkmusicforreligiouspurposes.19 Held

16Marysia "OntheRoadtoCzestochowa:
Galbraith, Rhetoric
andExperience ona
PolishPilgrimage,"
Anthropological , Vol.73,no.2 (April,
Quarterly 2000),63.
17PawelZalçcki,"ReligiousRevivalinPoland.NewReligious Movements andthe
RomanCatholic Church,"inHelenaFlam,ed.,Pink,Purple , Green;Women's,Religious,
Environmentaland Gay/Lesbian Movements in CentralEuropeToday(Boulder, CO:
Columbia Press,2001),69.
University
18Zaîçcki, RevivalinPoland,"
"Religious 70,72.
19TadSzulc,PopeJohn PaulII (NewYork:SimonandSchuster, 1996),270-71.

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 SingingOut of Pain 13

in churchfacilitiesat variousplaces aroundthecountry, Sacrosongbecamean

important demonstration of thewidespreadpopularity ofreligioussongsas well
as theChurch'sclaimto culturaldominancein thecountry. Whentheproclama-
tionof martiallaw in December1981 forcedmuchof independent culturaland
politicalactivityunderground, churchgroundsremainedprimary venuesof free
expression. For example,just in theyears1984-86,themodernist churchbuild-
ing in Kraków-Mistrzejowice hostednot onlythe Sacrosongfestivalitselfbut
also a paradeof prominent artistsforwhomparticipation was an expressionof
politicalprotestagainsttheregimeandgovernment-sanctioned culturalactivities.
Sometimesunderthebanner"God and Motherland," and alwaysby thesymbol
of the cross,performers includedsuch artistsas AntoninaKrzysztorí, Piotr
Szczepanik, Danuta Rinn, Leszek the
Wójtowicz, group "Pod Bud^," and the
EighthDay Theatre.20
Youngpeoplewithguitarsalso becamea fixture duringall visitsbythePope
to his nativePoland. The firstone, in 1979, was particularly important as it
offered many faithful
thefirstchance to see one another in crowdsof astonishing
proportions, thelargestmassmeetings
certainly in EasternEuropenotorganized
bytheCommunists. Withtheirnumbers and senseofcommonidentity amplified
by the collectivesinging religioussongs,thosein attendance
of wouldfinditeas-
iera yearlaterto trustandjoin theircompatriots in openlychallenging thegov-
ernment whenthemassivestrikesof 1980 led to thecreationof Solidarity.21

StudentProtest Songs

Trueto theirideologicalcreed,Communists openedup highereducationto

peopleregardlessof theirfinancialmeans.Educationwas free,so themainfor-
malrequirement admissionwereentrance
foruniversity exams,somewhatmod-
ifiedby an affirmative actionprocedureprovidingbonus pointsto those of
"workingclass origin."Whiletheneed fora new educatedclass of citizensto
facilitaterapid economicdevelopmentwas obvious,the authorities took no
chancesas to thenatureand politicaldirectionof thiseducation.Amongothers,
thismeantthepresenceof theCommunist Party'sbranchesin all institutions
of
highereducation.In addition, wereto takea courseostensibly
all students devot-
ed topoliticalanalysisbuttypicallyprovidingonlytheMarxistperspective. After
university studentsin Warsawand othercitiesrosein Marchof 1968 in defense
of thefreedomof culturalexpression,thepartyalso attempted to channelthe
behaviorand interestsof studentsthroughthe officiallysanctionedPolish
Students'Union,reformulated in 1973 as theSocialistUnionof PolishStudents

20 Instytut (IPN),"Kultura
PamiçciNarodowej w Košciele,"
Niezaležna http://kul-
NIEZALEZNAWKOSCIELE.
tura-niezalezna.pl/portal/rkn/1146/8577/KULTURA
html(accessedJune10,2011).
21 See Kubik,ThePowerofSymbols.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
14 ThePolish Review

(Socjalistyczny Zwi^zek StudentówPolskich- SZSP). The organization

remainedundera close supervision oftheCommunist Partyand controlled most
publicactivitiesof students,fromsporting eventsto outings,student-produced
newspapers, propaganda,concerts,and musicfestivals.The mostprominent of
thosemusiceventswas theannualStudentSongFestival,organizedsince 1962.
The StudentSongFestivalbecamethemainvenuefortheemergence andcir-
culationof nonconformist songsthatreflected muchmoralangstand growing
frustrationamongcollege studentsin the 1970s. It catapultedintonationwide
popularity JacekKaczmarski, thefuture "bardof Solidarity" andthemostrepre-
sentativeauthorofthegenre.It also provideda career-launching pad fora pletho-
ra of otherpopularperformers, suchas Ewa Demarczyk, MarekGrechuta, Lech
Janerka,Maryla Rodowicz,AndrzejRosiewicz,AndrzejSikorowski,Maciej
Zembaty,groupssuch as Wolna GrupaBukowina,KabaretPod Bud$, Waly
Jagielloñskie, andmanyothers.22
Some youngsongwriters drewinspiration fromprotestsongsfromtheWest
(e.g.,byBob Joan
Dylan, Baez, and Lluis Llach) andtheEast,especiallybyBulat
Okudzhavaand VladimirVysotsky fromtheSovietUnion.WhileOkudzhava's
tunesdrewlisteners inwiththeirgentlephilosophical reflection,
Vysotsky's edgi-
er songswereunconventional and morerebellious.Havingattendeda private
partywhereVysotskyperformed his WolfHunt, a high school studentJacek
Kaczmarskiwas so enthralled thathe wroteitsPolishversion,Obiawa (a double
entendre as itcan meana huntwithcoursingora policeroundup). Adaptedtothe
Polishcircumstances, thisdramaticstoryof a ruthless hunton a pack of wolves
included bloodthirsty hounds that the originaldid not have. Kaczmarski
explained:

Vysotskyusesthemetaphor ofredragshanging neartheground. Thisis

indeedhowyouhuntwolvessincetheyhavea psychological barrier
against
jumpingoverthatrag,so that's
whytheyallowthemselves tobe ledina certain
direction.
Thisis an excellentmetaphor fortheSovietreality
butnotforthe
Polishonebecauseredragsdidnotworkparticularly wellona Pole.So that's
whyI introducedthehounds. .. sinceitappearedtometobe veryappropriate
inourPolishreality,
where there alwaysaresomedogsthatattack their
brethren
oncommand.23

Even thoughthesong'sbreaknecktempoand rareintensity of thesinger's

voiceweredifficult to replicateby amateurperformers,
Obtawabecamea popu-
lar allegoryof thefearsof Kaczmarski 's cohortthreatened
withcoercionand a
sense of powerlessness:" Obiawa! Obiawa! Na miodewilkiobtawa!/Tedzikie

22Instytut
Sztuki,"Kronika Festiwalu
Studenckiego Piosenki,"
http://www.instytut-
(accessedJune11,2011).
sztuki.pl/pages-26.html
23JacekKaczmarski, "OWawa,"http://www.kaczmarski.art.pl/tworczosc/zapo
(accessedJuly1,2011).
wiedzi/oblawa.php

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 SingingOut of Pain 15
"
zapalczywe/W gçstymlesie wychowanel ["Hunt! Hunt! A hunt on young
wolves!/Thosewild,quick-tempered/Brought up in a dense forest!"].Fear and
powerlessness mayinduceapathywhile"thehuntis stillnotover,"so thesong
also soughtto mobilizeyounglisteners intoaction:"Nie dajcie z siebiezedrzeč
skór!Bronciesiç i wy!/0,braciawilcy!Bronciesiç nimwszyscywyginiecie!"
["Don't letyourselves be skinned!Defendyourselvestoo!/Oh,brother wolves!
Defendyourselves beforeyouall perish!"]
ManyPolishstudent songstookthehighmoralgroundby appealingto sen-
oftheiryouthful
sitivities audiencesandpointingouttheinjusticestheirgenera-
tionandcountry as a wholewerefacing.Whilesome,likeWafyJagielloriskie dis-
cussedlaterinthisarticle,lampoonedthedailyrealityaroundthem,othersdevel-
oped a long-termhistorical reflection
on thatreality.
JacekKaczmarski(bynow,
a collegestudent)was a masterof thatperspective as his songsupdatedhistory
withpoignantand intelligent referencesto currentevents,in turnprovidinga
deepercommentary on those events.24Thus, example,he sang of Rejtan,a
for
Polishnoblemanfamousfortrying toprevent oftheFirstPartition
legalization by
thePolishparliament againsta hostileconspiracyof traitorsrepresentingforeign
interests.
He said later,

Itwasobvioustome,whenI cameupwiththeideaofshowing thatscene

ofRejtan'sprotest
throughtheeyesofa [Russian]ambassador ... thatthisis
verymucha contemporary sincewe haveheardall thetimethatthe
history
Sovietambassador thePolishrulers
scolded andPolishsociety,
threatening them
withbrotherly a political
So thatwasunequivocally
assistance. intention....25

At thesame time,his historiosophy led Kaczmarskito warnthatboththe

headymoments oftriumph (suchas theemergence andtheactsof
of Solidarity)
betrayalarenothing unusualinhistory- andPoles maybe justas likelyto return
to pastgloriesas theywereto repeatsomereprehensible momentsofthepast.26
In thisregard,thestoryof his Mury[Walls],theunofficial anthemof Solidarity
andone ofthemostpopularprotestsongsofthetime,is particularly telling.
The audiencesofMuryweregrippedbytheaggressive, hauntingrefrainthat
immediately on
caught among those yearningforaction: "Wyrwij murom zçby
kajdany,poiambat!/Аmuryгищ, гищ, тщ/l pogrzeb^staryswiat!"
krat!/Zerwij
["Pullfromthewallstheirteeth,thebars!/Breakthechains,breakthewhip!/And
thewallswillfall,fall,fall/
Andburytheold world!"]27Atleastsomeofthecall's

24 ForKaczmarski's historical GajdaandMichalTraczyk,

seeKrzysztof
perspective,
eds.,ZostafyJeszcze Wobec
Piešni:JacekKaczmarski MG,2010).
(Warsaw:
Tradycji
25 Jacek Kaczmarski,"Rejtan,"
http://www.kaczmarski.art.pl/tworczosc/zapowiedzi/
rejtan.php(accessedJune1,2011).
26 Kaczmarski, "Rejtan."
27 JacekKaczmarski, "Mury,"http://www.kaczmarski.art.pl/tworczosc/zapowiedzi/
mury.php (accessedJune11,2011).

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16 ThePolish Review

appeal was theimpliedconnectionto Poland's long historyof heroicpatriotic

uprisings followedbyrepression. A revolutionary straininthesongpromisedthe
collapse of "the old world." Therealso was an inspirationalvisionof a future
socialupheaval,eerilyprescient fora songcreatedtwoyearsbeforethebirthof
Solidarity andthelaterstreet battlesofthemartiallaw era:"Až zobaczyliilu ich,
poczulisilç i czas/Iz piešni^,že juž bliskošwitszli ulicamimiast/Zwalali pom-
nikii rwalibruk"["Andthentheysaw howmanytheywere,theyfelttheirpower
andtime/ Andwiththesongthatthedawnis neartheymarchedthrough thecities'
streets/They toppledmonuments andrippedoutcobblestones"].28
The popularity ofMuryquicklyspreadfromstudentfestivalsand dormsto
themass Solidarity movement, andwas latersolidifiedwhensomeunderground
radio stationsbroadcastit and even used it as theirthemesong. Moreover,
Kaczmarskihappenedtobe abroadwhenmartiallaw was proclaimed andhe sub-
sequently collaborated withRadioFreeEuropeinMunich,fundedbytheU. S. to
broadcastin PolishintoPoland,further assuringhisprominence on theair.29
It is important to notethatKaczmarskihimselfwas notalwayscomfortable
withcrowdsthat"felttheirpowerandtime. . . toppledmonuments andrippedout
cobblestones." In fact,Poland'stwentieth-century experiences theeffects
with of
Nazism and Communismmade him profoundly distrustfulof doctrinalmass
movements withtotalitarian ambitions. The maincharacter ofMuryis a vision-
arysinger who an
inspires uprising only to be swept aside byitandforcedto face
his self-assured followerswho now turnagainsthimand othermoderates.The
inspiration forthisimagewas a Catalansongwriter Lluis Llach whoseL 'Estaca
[Stake]became a popularprotestsong againstthe regimeof GeneralFranco.
WhileKaczmarskiused Llach's music,he replacedtheimageof a "stake"with
walls, chains,and whips thatneeded to be broken.Yet, Murygoes beyond
L Estaca by warningagainstpotentialrepercussions of a mass frenzyof a zeal-
ous crowd.Justas thethousands ofadoringfansofLlach couldbe swayedbyhis
song,mobscoulddistort itsrealmessageanduse theirnewpowertobringabout
new suffering. This partof Kaczmarski 's visiondid not sit well withtheanti-
Communist opposition thatotherwise loved to use his songto mobilizefollow-
ers.Justas theauthorfeared,his messagewas oftencast aside and new words
replacedhis own: wheretheoriginalsongwarnedthatat theend of uprisings
"muryrosnai, rosnai,rosn^/Lañcuch kolyszesiç u nóg" ["thewalls grow,grow,
grow/the chaindanglesby thefeet"],thenew interpreters preferredto singthat
"thereareno more,no more,no morewalls."In theend,Kaczmarskihadtoadmit
thathe dislikedhis ownsongthatoutgrewitscreator.30

28JacekKaczmarski,"Mury."
29 13grudnia81.pl,
"Muzyka,"http://13grudnia81.pl/portal/sw/713/6656/Muzyka.
html
(accessedJune5,2011).
30JacekKaczmarski,"Mury."

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 SingingOut of Pain 17

Workers' Songs

One ofthemostcrucial,indeedexistential strategic worriesoftheregimein

dealing withpotential dissentwas how to prevent a broader oppositionalalliance
of varioussocial classes and strata.The government succeededin 1968,when
studentsand intellectuals protestedbut workersremainedpassive or in some
cases evenhostileto the"rabble-rousers." Then,in 1970 and 1971,theopposite
situationconfined thedemonstrations to theindustrial workingclass thatusedto
be thebedrockof supportfortheregimebutbecamethehotbedof opposition.
Thatprotestbroughtdowna government and shookup theestablishment. One
the
consequencewas theregime'swillingnessto improve society's standard of
living,especiallyat thebeginning ofthe1970s.Another was itsdetermination to
prevent oreradicateexpressions ofdissatisfaction amongworkers, including their
songsof defiance.
The use of songsto mobilizeworkerscumworkersandmaintain proletarian
has a longtradition
class identity thatcannotbe fullydiscussedhere.The two
majorcurrents ofworkingclass politicalorganization in Polandincluded(1) the
Socialistone traditionallyrepresented by thePolishSocialistParty(1892-1948)
untilit was subsumedand liquidatedby theCommunists, and (2) the smaller
Communist orientationrepresented bytheSocial DemocracyoftheKingdomof
PolandandLithuania(1893-1918),subsequently theCommunist PartyofPoland
(1918-disbandedby Cominternin 1938), and later continuedin the Polish
Workers' PartyandthePolishUnitedWorkers' Party(PZPR). Thesecurrents pro-
duceda multitude oftunesandseveralmajorhymns, suchas theCzerwony sztan-
dar [Red Banner],popularespeciallyamongtheSocialists,Na barykady [On to
theBarricades], andthePolishversionof TheInternationale. In thebesttradition
ofproletariansongseverywhere, thehymnsprovidedtheessentialframing ofany
revolutionaryeffort. Thesewere battle songs,designed to rouserevolutionary fer-
vorand engender workers'solidarity. In an ironictwist,theywereoftensungby
thePolishworkerschallenging theirCommunist Partyoverlords.
Such, forexample, was the case during streetclashes in Szczecin in
the
December1970.Faced withan imminent threatofa violentconfrontation, deter-
minedworkersmarcheden masse towardsthe centerof the cityand sought
couragein singingthetraditional proletarian anthems:

Thedeeper wewentintothecity, thehigher So wesangthe[nation-

thetension.
al] anthem,TheInternationale , WefromBurnt-Down
, On to theBarricades
As I was singing
Villages. I feltshiversdownmyspine....Then,through the
rowsbeforeme I saw a cordonofpolicestanding of us acrossthe
in front
street.31

31 MaigorzataSzejnertand TomaszZalewski,Szczecin
: Grudzierí,
Sierpien,
Grudzien Aneks,1986),37.
(London:

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18 ThePolish Review

Theironyofthisrepertoire is inescapable.Forexample,Myze spalonychwsi

[We from Burnt-Down Villages]was theanthemoftheCommunist underground
People's Guard (GwardiaLudowa) duringtheWorldWarII. It declaredangrily,
"Za gíód,za krew,za latalez,juž zemstynadszedlczas!" ["Forthehunger, blood,
and years of tears,the time of revengehas come!"]. Similarly,On to the
Barricadescalls on theproletariat: "Na barykady, luduroboczy/czerwony sztan-
dardo górywzniešl/Šmialo do bojuwytçzsweramiç/Bo na ciç czekazwyciçstwa
czešč" ["On to the barricades,you workingpeople/Raisehigh the red
banner !/Boldlytautenyourarm/since thegloryofvictoryawaitsyou"].The fact
thatinthePolishPeople'sRepublicthepeoplecalledonproletarian songstofight
againsttheCommunist Partyhad a uniquelyOrwellian,tragicomic twist.
A similarly grotesquesituation arosewhenthestriking workers intextilefac-
toriesin Lodz in February1971 metwiththenewlyappointedprimeminister,
PiotrJaroszewicz. Themostlyfemaleworkforce greetedJaroszewicz witha nine-
teenth-century patrioticpeasants' song, declaring, "O, czesč warn panowie,
magnaci/za nasz$niewolç,kajdany/o, czešč warnksi^ž^ta,hrabiowie, pralaci/za
krajnasz кшщ Ьгайщ zbryzgany" ["Oh, thanksto you lordsmagnates/for our
servitude and chains/Oh, thanksto youprinces,counts,prelates/for ourcountry
splattered withbrotherly blood"].32Even thoughthebargaining powerof these
womencomparedto thestriking shipyard workers a few weeks earliercouldnot
have been high,thegovernment's shockat learningthatit is perceivedin the
sameveinas thetraditional villainsof thecommonfolkhelpedtipthenegotia-
tionsin an unexpected way.The authorities did whattheyhad notdoneevenin
thefaceof thebloodyriotson theCoast in December1970: theyrescindedthe
pricehikesthatprovokedbothwaves ofprotest.
Workersongwriters also drewon thepool ofolderor current tunesto create
newsongs.Forexample,thesamesongused inLódz providedthetunefora new
ballad of theSzczecinstrikers in 1970: "Gdynaródzažádal za pracçsw^ chle-
ba/Panowie tuczolgiwezwali/Gdy naródzawolal,že z czegosžyč trzeba/To oni
do ludustrzelali"["Whenthenationdemandedbreadforitslabor/the lordscalled
in thetankshere/When thenationshoutedthatit needsto makea livingsome-
how/Theyshot at the people"]. And a popularpop hit Jad@wozykolorowe
[ColorfulWagonsare Rollingon] provideda deceivinglylighthearted tuneto
thesesarcasticlines:"Jestmilicja,maj^ palki,maj^ gaz/Maj^chybatež ochotç
robotników zmieszačz bíotem/Trzeba zmniejszyčiloščrobotniczych mas" ["The
police are here,theyhave truncheons, theyhave teargas/Theyalso seemto be
tempted to squashtheworkersintomud/One has to reducethesize ofproletari-
an masses"].33
Gierek'sown working-class rootsdid notsoftenhis determination to erase

32RomanLaba,TheRootsofSolidarity:A PoliticalSociologyofPoland'sWorking-
ClassDemocratization NJ:Princeton
(Princeton, UniversityPress,1991),82.
33Szejnert
andZalewski,
Szczecin
, 36,43.

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 SingingOut of Pain 19

thehistoryof workers'rebellionsfrompublicmemory. Thus,anypublicrefer-

encestothemassacresof 1970wereshunnedandcouldcostpeopletheir jobs and
perhapsfreedom. That is why themostfamous worker song of theera remained
relativelyunknownfortenyearsuntilthenew wave of sit-instrikesin 1980
broughtit to prominence.Eventually,it gained worldwiderecognitionafter
Krystyna Jandasangitsvividrendition at theend ofAndrzejWajda's filmMan
It was Bailada o JankuWišniewskim
ofIron.3,4 [TheBallad ofJanekWišniewski].
The Ballad describedone of themoststriking imagesof themassacreof
unarmed workers duringthe1970streetdemonstrations inGdynia:"Na drzwiach
poniešli go Swiçtojansk^/Naprzeciwglinom, naprzeciw tankom/Chlopcy
stoczniowcy pomscijciedruha/Janek Wišniewski padl" ["Theycarriedhimon a
doorthrough SwiçtojarískaStreet/ Againstcops,againsttanks/Boys fromtheship-
yard,avengeyour comrade/Janek Wišniewski fell"].35The call to avengea fall-
enworkerwas substantiated by additional of
examples injustice: "Hucz^i petardy,
stiele siç gazy/Narobotników sypi$siç razy/Padaj^dzieci, starcy,kobiety...
Jedenzraniony, drugipobity"["Teargas grenadesarebooming,smokehangsin
theair/Blows rainon theworkers/Kids, andwomenarefalling.
elderly, ... One is
wounded, anotherone beatenup"]. The was
outrage magnified by the identifica-
tionof"them":"Dzisiaj milicjauzylabroni.. .. To partiastrzelado robotników!"
["Todaypoliceused firearms. ... It's thepartythatshootsat workers!"]The song
also devoteda stanza to "bloodyKociolek,"the deputyprimeministerand
Politbureau memberpresented as "thehangmanof Tri-City," witha promiseof
revenge:"Poczekajdraniu,myciç dostaniem"["Justwaityouscoundrel; we will
getyou"].In a fairlylegiblecode,thesongprovideda broadercontext, suchas
includingtheformoftheword"tank"typical of itsusage in Russian rather than
itsPolishequivalent, "czolg."The Ballad also helpeddescribeandreinforce the
senseof"us" bycallingonthesolidarity of"boysfromtheshipyards ... ofGdynia
[and] Gdansk"and recallingthat"dzielniešmy stali,celnierzucali"["we stood
our groundbravelyand threwrocksaccurately"]. Finally,thesong definedthe
ultimatedimensionof the worker'sdeath: "Za chleb i wolnošč, i now£
Polskç/JanekWišniewski padl" ["For bread and freedom,and a new
Poland/Janek Wišniewski fell"].
The storybehindThe Ballad ofJanekWišniewski is as fascinating as the
eventsit depicted.Therewas no actual"JanekWišniewski," eventhoughthere
werescoresof "Janeks"likehim.The realnameofthe18-year-old whosebody
was carriedon a doorthrough Gdyniawas ZbigniewGodlewskibuttheauthorof
theoriginalpoem,Krzysztof Dowgiallo,did notknowhimand used a generic
namethatlaterbecamea legend.Withtheexplosionofsocialprotests inthesum-

34AntoniKrauze's2011filmabouttheevents,
Czarny , usesa newpunk
Czwartek
rockinterpretation
by KazikStaszewski.
35All quotesfromTheBallad arefrom"PPPPZakazanePiosenki,"http://www.
htm#
dolinaradosci.pl/pppp/05. 1,2011).
(accessedSeptember

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
20 ThePolish Review

merof 1980,MieczyslawCholewacomposedmusictowhathe calledTheBallad

ofJanekfromGdynia , andthesongbecamean instant hitamongworkersof the
Coast, manyof whom had lived through the events depictedin the ballad.
Cholewa helped popularizethe song by performing at numerousvenues
it
throughout the countryas well as at the Review of TruthfulSongs- The
ForbiddenSongs( PrzeglgdPiosenkiPrawdziwej - ZakazanePiosenki)inAugust
1981,whereseveralversionsof thesongprovideda commonthemeby opening
eachofthethreedaysofthefestival.Considering thesecredentials,theadmirers
of Cholewawere stunnedin 2005 whenhe confessedto havingbeen a secret
policeinformant throughout theperiod.36
AnotherfamousproductoftheAugust1980 strikes presentedat thefestival
was Piosenka dia córki [A Song for my Daughter],writtenby Krzysztof
Kasprzykfromtheperspective ofa striker separatedfromhis daughter. The lull-
aby-likesongsoftly reassures thegirlthat her parents "solidarme walcz^ o dzisi-
aj i o jutro takže dia ciebie" in for
["struggle solidarity today and fortomorrow,
also for you"] but will soon returnto "nasz[ego] domu, którynie istnial
bo w nim brak bylo prawdziwegoszczçscia" ["our home thatdid not exist
because it lackedtruehappiness"].37 Apparently it was thatlast sentencethat
almostprevented thecomposer, Maciej Pietrzyk, from beingable to perform the
song at the 1981 Opole festival, otherwise very liberalthatyear.When thecen-
sorrefused toapproveit,Pietrzyk persevered, withSolidarity members withinthe
statetelevisionorganization firmly in his corner. Finally,theauthoritiesrelented
and thenationwideTV coverageof the festivalproceeded - delayedby some
forty minutes!38
The "ForbiddenSongs" Review39itselfprovideda virtuallyunrestricted
opportunity to highlight theindependent songwriters andtheirsongsthatranged
fromirreverent and funnyto bitingand poignant, withmorethanan occasional
subversiveallusion.Held just two weeks beforethe crucialFirstCongressof
Solidarity, it provokeda substantial interest of secretpolice. The police reports
providea rather well-taken evaluationoftheevent,drawingthesuperiors'atten-
tiontothemostvividsectionsof TheBallad ofJanekfromGdyniaas wellas not-
ingthat"mostof thesongscame in theformof satiricalballadshighlycharged
politically, createdspontaneously duringthe eventsof December[1970] and

36RomanDaszczyriski,"AgentSB Przeprasza BogdanaBorusewicza,"gazeta.pl,

80273,2546256.html
http://wiadomosci.gazeta.p1/Wiadomosci/l, (accessed June15,
2011).
37PPPP ZakazanePiosenki.
38Maciej Sandecki,"Dwie SlynneCórki"Solidarnošci," Gazeta Wyborcza-
, August10, 2005,http://www.trojmiasto.pl/wiadomosci/Dwie-slynne-corki
Trójmiasto
16791.html.
Solidarnosci-n
39Thenamepointedly tothePolishsongsofresist-
usedthetitleofa moviedevoted
anceunderNazioccupation.

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 SingingOut of Pain 21

August[1980]."40The satirewas "anti-state, anti-party, andanti-Soviet"in char-

acter,and "many texts underscoredthemanipulation of Poland by the Soviet
Union,emphasizedthatthe3-millionstrongorganization [theCommunist Party]
usurpsforitselftherightto rulethe 33-millionnation....They sneeredat the
sluggishnessof the government,and attacked [deputy prime minister]
MieczyslawRakowskiand [Partyandmilitary leader]WojciechJaruzelski."41
The reportcouldhavealso mentioned thatthemainprizeat theReviewwas
tellinglynamedtheGoldenGag. Clearly,it was a reflection of thestrength of
Solidarity at thetimethatthefestivalcouldsee thelightofdayin thefirst place.
The challengeto thegovernment was amplified bytheSolidarity Congresssoon
afterwards, and thatprovedtoo muchto bearforhardliners withinthepartyand
government. Withinfourmonths,the nationalanthemsoundedon the air as
GeneralJaruzelski announcedon December13, 1981 theimposition of martial
law and an immediatecurtailingof whateverlibertiesPoles had managedto
extractfromtheregimethusfar.The briefliberalization periodwas over,and
sometenthousandactivistswereimprisoned in so-called"internment centers."42
Thisdidnotstopthemfromsinging,however,and soon a new cropof songsof
resistance percolatedfrombehindthebars.
The songsfromtheinternment centersdrewon themixofprotest traditions:
they often borrowed tunesfrom othersongs,used Romantic and historical
images
ofPoland,and,likemanyworkersongs,theydidnotmincewordsinnamingtheir
adversariesand promisingthemvengeance.A WorldWar II-era tunelentits
melodytothiscondemnation ofthegovernment: "SB i milicjadrzwipowywažali,
od placz^cychdzieci matkizabierali... syberyjski powiewogarn^lnas w pro-
gach,swiatfowyl^czone,lodowatawoda...naródciç pamiçta,nie miej zludzeñ
wcale,historiarozliczypaniegenerale"["Secretpoliceandcops brokedownthe
doors/they toremothers fromtheircrying children. . . Siberianairgreetedus atthe
door, the lights were out, the water was icy... The nationremembers you,
General, have no will
illusions,history take you to account"].43 Anothersong,
Hej, hej Solidami[Hey,hey,Solidarity Folks]used a popularfolktuneto report,
"w celách kratyi judasze, zagrožonezdrowienasze/nazewn^trzSB szaleje,
robotnika krewsiç leje" ["Therearebarsandpeepholesin thecells; ourhealthis
in peril/outside, secretpolicerunamuck,theworkers'blood is beingshed"]but
also to warn: "my to wszystkoprzetrzymamy i oczerniac siç nie damy/
Solidarnoščprzywrócimy, zabierzemysiç za winnych"["we will surviveit all

40 SiawomirCenckiewicz, "ZakazanePiosenki'81," OBEP IPN, http://www.

(accessedJune6,2011).
dolinaradosci.pl/pppp/02.htm
41 Cenckiewicz,
"ZakazanePiosenki'81."
42JerzyHolzerandKrzysztof w Podziemiu
Leski,"Solidarnošč" (Lódž:Wydaw-
nictwoLódzkie,1990).
43 13 grudnia
- InstytutPamiçciNarodowej(IPN), "PiešniInternowanych,"
(accessedJune12,2011).
http://ipn.gov.pl/portal/pl/846/15447

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22 ThePolish Review

andwon'tletourselvesbe slandered/we willrestoreSolidarityandtaketheguilty

ones in hand"].44PrisonersfromtheLupkówcentertellingly used themusicof
theWorldWarII-eradefiantstreetsong Terazjest wojna [Thisis Wartime]45 to
poke firn at the"Green Crow," a doublepun on the Polishacronym of the gov-
erningmilitary "council"led byGeneralWojciechJaruzelski (WRON, similarto
"wrona,"a crow)and itsuniforms: "Kto nie da drapaka,ktonie chce zakrakač,
tenbçdzieinternowany" ["Whoeverdoesn'tfleeanddoesn'twantto crowwillbe
interned"].46 Otherborrowedtunesincludeda songof thePolishLegionsfrom
WorldWarI, Szarapiechota[GreyInfantry], andeventheidyllictuneofMoscow
Nightsby theRussiancomposerVasilySolovyov-Sedoithatwas turnedintoa
songof defiance:"Spi$ narodywe wschodniejEuropie,niedobrzejest takdlugo
spac/Braciazbudžciesiç! Wolnošcbliskojest, trzebaj$ za žywotabrač" ["The
nationsof EasternEuropeare asleep. It's not good to sleep so long/Brothers,
wakeup! Freedomis near;youneedto takeitwhileyouarealive."].47
The songs of the internedjoined othernewly createdtunes and older
favoritesthatcirculatedon audio cassettesand used similarstriking, symbolic
connections."Ту cos siç wšlizgn^ w swiçtymundurpolski aby go zharibič,
umazač w krwibrata,zwac siç winienešnie Wojciecha Kain, a miastbuiawy
dzieržyčtopórkata....[You who have slippedintothesacredPolishuniform/to
disgraceit and soil it withyourbrother'sblood/you shouldbe namedCain and
notWojciech/and insteadofthebatonshouldholdan executioner's ax"] intoned
one and continued, "Za swoje zbrodnieotrzymasz zapíatç,Judaszu,cos zdradziï
Chrystusa narodów"[Foryourcrimesyouwillgetyourpayment/you Judaswho
betrayed theChristof nations"].48 Some of theirewas provokedby violentand
sometimesdeadlyassaultson striking factories,and theold ballads of worker
martyrdom gainednewsomberadditions, suchas Id§ pancryna "Wujek"[Tanks
AreRollingon "Wujek"]and Ostatniaszychtana KWKPiast [The Last Shiftat
the"Piast"Coalmine]49
Some ofthesesongswerefrequently featured bytheunderground Solidarity
"pirate"radiostations. As earlyas April1982,one suchstationbroadcastforten
minutesand theprogram"beganwitha popularsongsungby Polishresistance
fightersinWorldWarII andincludedan antigovernment songandprotests about
conditions ininternment camps."50Otherprograms followedandthestations pro-
liferatedaroundthecountry, despiteferventeffortsto eliminatethem.As men-
tionedabove,JacekKaczmarski'ssongswereamongthefavorites, as was a sur-

44 13grudnia,
"PiešniInternowanych."
45Terazjestwojna, inturn,
alsousedanoldertune,
theMexicanCielitolindo.
46 13grudnia81.pl.
47SpiQnarody- InstytutPamiçci (IPN),"PiešniInternowanych."
Narodowej
48 ТуcossiewšlizgnatwšwietymundurpolskibyZbigniewIwanow, 1.pl.
13grudnia8
49 13grudnia81.pl.
50MichaelDobbs,"UnionontheAir,"Washington Post,April13,1982.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 SingingOut of Pain 23

prisingcontribution
froma cabaretartist,
JanPietrzak.

Political Cabaret

Perhapsthe least likelybirthplaceforan oppositionalanthemthatwould

inspirea generation was a cabaret.Polishcabarets,however,withtheirintimate
settingsandlimitedaudienceswereoftenimportant venuesofpoliticalsatireand
dissent.Mostlyurbanand directedat intellectual circles(includingstudents),
cabaretsenjoyeda somewhatmoreliberaltreatment fromtheofficials thanother
publicperformances. Still, and
invigilation preventive censorshipapplied.An
internaldocument ofthecensorship office,latersmuggledouttotheWest,report-
ed that,"a worrying phenomenon is the[needforthe]highnumberof interven-
tionsin cabaretprogram proposedby amateurand someprofessional troupes.In
the[secondquarterof 1974]tensofpoems,monologues, songs and cabaretskits
wereremovedas theyby farexceeded[theacceptablelimitsof] social or situa-
tionalsatire."51Censorsalso attempted to makesurethateventextssparedfrom
theirblue pencilswould nothave further social circulation beyondthelimited
audiencesof cabaretperformances.52 One of themostspectacularexamplesof
theirfailurein thisregardwas thesongŽebyPolska byìaPolsky[So thatPoland
is Poland]thatclearlybrokethrough thedragnet.
Žeby Polska byìa Polsky was writtenin 1976 and performed by Jan
Pietrzak53 initiallyonlyforthefansof thepoliticalKabaretPod Egid$ [Cabaret
undertheAegis]in Warsaw.However,unbeknownst to theauthor(and censors),
thesongsoonspreadthrough duplication fromone audiocassetteto another inan
ever-declining soundqualitybutto a growingcircleoflisteners. Then,inAugust
1980,it appearedat crucialsit-instrikesitesand soon sweptthenation,becom-
ingan unofficial anthemoftheSolidarity movement andwinningthegrandprize
at the1981 Opole Festival.In Pietrzak'swords,thesong"leapedfromthebase-
mentsontothebarricades."54 PoetZbigniewHerbertstoodat attention whilelis-
tening to it,and a few thousand peoplejoined Pietrzak when he performed his
song from the bed of a truck a
during major road blockade in Warsaw in 1981.55
All ofthisdespitethefactthatthesongapparently didnotreferto Poland'scon-
temporary reality.What accounts for itssuccess, then?
TheemotionalappealofŽebyPolskabylaPolskyrestsinitsframing ofiden-

51CzarnaKsiçgaCenzury PRL2 (London:

Aneks,1978),188.
52JaneLeftwich ed.,
Curry, TheBlackBook ofPolishCensorship(NewYork:
Random House,1984),402.
53WithmusicbyWîodzimierz Korcz.
54JanPietrzak,
"Prawdaw Zartach Z Janem
Zawarta. Pietrzakiem,
Twórc^ Kabaretu
Pod EgidçiRozmawiaPatry BiuletynInstytutuPamiçci
cja Gruszyríska-Ruman,"
, no.July
Narodowej (2008),16.
55MaciejLuczak,"SirJan,"Wprost 15,2007,116-117.http://www.wprost.pl/ar/
1268.
104434/Sir-Jan/?I=

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24 ThePolish Review

tityofthePoles as an ancientandproudnationwhosehistory is fullof sacrifices

and suffering butalso ofmoments of glory.Whilethereweretimeswhen"alien
windsplayedand alieneagles adornedthestandards," therealwayswas a patri-
oticfervor thatunitedanyonefroma schoolchildwho"knockeddowntheczar's
portrait"to "everyonewho could hold a saber" and "mothers,wives" who
"embroidered bannerswiththemotto'HonorandMotherland.'"56 Theywereall
drivenbytheabidingdesire"so thatPolandis Poland,"a code phrasethatimme-
diatelyappealedto contemporary audienceswhounderstood thattheirsareagain
timeswhen"alienwindsplayed"in theirMotherland. And so,just likeso many
timesin thepast,a patrioticsong soughtto rousethePoles intoaction:"Przy
ogniskachwybuchala/niezmožona nutaswojska/žebyPolska,žebyPolska,žeby
PolskabylaPolsky!"["By thebonfires therekepterupting/an indomitable native
tune/SothatPoland,so thatPoland,so thatPolandis Poland!"].57
The titleofthesong,interpreted in Englishas LetPoland be Poland, gained
worldwide circulation whenitwas usedbyPresident RonaldReaganandbecame
thetitleof a star-studded televisionspecial broadcastproducedby theUnited
StatesInformation Agencyaftertheintroduction ofmartiallaw in Poland.58The
martiallaw also meantthatthesongwas bannedfrompublicperformances and
onlyappearedatprivatemeetings oron "pirate"radiostationsandforeign broad-
castservicesdirected to Poland.Pietrzakrecallsbeingtoldbytheauthorities that
fromnow on,he wouldno longerbe singingZebyPolska byiaPolsky because
theywouldnowbe in chargeofproviding direction forPoland.Pietrzakretaliat-
ed by anotherpoignantsong thatlistedhis patrioticpedigreeand chargedin
apparentdisbelief:"A pan mi mówi,paniekontrolerze ... že ja niestety do tych
nie nalezç,którzypowinnizajmowačsiç Polsky"["Andyou are tellingme,Mr.
Controller . . . thatunfortunately I do notbelongamongthosewho shouldbe tak-
ing careof Poland!"].59
Also of a cabaretvariety, thoughcertainly in a different vein,weresongsof
thegroupWafyJagielloriskie. Theirhumorstemmedfroma deadpanpraiseof
some absurdities of real lifeunderCommunism. Audienceswere treatedto a
tongue-in-cheek adulationoftheCombine-harvester Bison and apparent tributes
to thepatheticmenuof thestaterailroadcateringcompany( WARSwita[WARS
WelcomesYou]).Interwoven in thekeenobservations werepointedallusionsto
thepopularyearning foralternatives. Forexample,a seasidelifeguard inMonika,
dziewczyna ratownika[Monika,theLifeguard s Girlfriend] instructs someway-
wardswimmers that"Swedenis intheoppositedirection," an easilydecodedref-
erenceto peopletrying to leave Poland- legallyor otherwise.

56Cyfrowa Bibliotéka
PolskiejPiosenki.
57Cyfrowa Bibliotéka
PolskiejPiosenki.
58QueenElizabethII also used thephrasein her 1996 speechto thePolish
Parliament
(seeLuczak,116-17).
59Pietrzak,
16.

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 SingingOut of Pain 25

Rock Musical

By thelate 1970s,foodand consumergood shortagesbecamea pervasive

problem,and liningup in front of storesconsumedmuchof society'sdailytime
and energy. The drabaspectsofrealityprovidedmaterialforsongwriters ofvar-
ious stripes,fromWalyJagielloriskie to creatorsof rockoratoriesand musicals,
suchas ErnestBrylland WojciechTrzciriski. Their1980 rockmusicalKolçda-
nocka{Nighttime Carol),was fulloftransparent references to housingshortages,
foodlines,and a gloomyoutlookfortheimmediate future.
ThisChristmas story
is dark,gray,gritty,and fullof tiredpeoplenumbfromtheirdailyworries.The
Magi travelbya crowdedcitybus to see Jesus,whogetsbornin a staircaseofan
apartment buildingbecauseMaryhas beenwaitingforsevenyearsfora place to
live.In a poignantlullabyto Jesus,Maryis planningforyetanotherdrearyrent-
ed place she will have to use: "W malerikim pokojů,takjak Polska szarym,
rozwieszçpieluszkijak szumnytransparent" ["In a tinyroom,graylikePoland,I
willhangoutdiaperslikea high-flown banner"].60
The mostpopularsong of themusicalwas thePsalm stojQcych w kolejce
[Psalm of Those in
Standing Line]. This dialogue between the lead singerandthe
chorusis a powerfulindictment of theCommunist regime'sinabilityto provide
most basic supplies: "Za czym kolejka ta stoi?/Poszarosc,po szarošč,po
szarosč/Na co w kolejcetejczekasz?/Nastarosč,na starošč,na starosč/Co kupisz,
gdy dojdziesz?/Zm§czenie, zmçczenie,zmçczenie/Coprzyniesieszdo domu?/
Kamiennezw^tpienie,zw^tpienie"["Whatis thisline for?/For grayness!/What
areyouwaitingforinthisline?/For old age!/Whatareyougoingtobuyonceyou
getthere?/Tiredness!/What are you goingto bringhome?/Stony doubt!"].61 Yet,
unlikeothersongsin thismusical,thePsalm promisesto unleashthepotential
powerofthepowerless.The despondent anddemoralized peopleareurgednotto
giveup: "B^dž jak kamieñ, stój,wytrzymaj/Kiedys tekamienie drgn^/ipolecatjak
lawina/przez noc,przeznoc,przeznoc" ["Be likea rock,stand,persevere! /One
daytheserockswill stir/and will rolldownlikean avalanche/through thenight,
the
through night,through the night"].62
The musicaldebutedat theMusicTheaterin Gdyniaandwas likelyto enjoy
a verygood second(Christmas)seasonin 1981 whentheregimeclosedit down
andbanneditsperformances as partof itsmartiallaw crackdown. Andyet,once
the"rocksstirred," avalanchesofstreetfighting andotheractsofresistance start-

60Kofysanka MatkiBrzemiennej[Lullabyof a Pregnant - poema.art.pl,

Mother]
.html(accessed
21647_kolysanka_matki_brzemiennej
http://www.poema.art.pl/site/itm_l
August20,2011).
61teksty.org, psalm-stojacych-w-kolejce,tekst-
http://teksty.org/krystyna-pronko,
(accessedAugust
piosenki 20,2011).
62teksty.org, psalm-stojacych-w-kolejce,tekst-
http://teksty.org/krystyna-pronko,
(accessed
piosenki August20,2011).

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26 ThePolish Review

ed rolling,keepingtheprediction in somedemonstrations
alive.Interestingly, the
protesterstried to avoid being attackedby theriotpolice ZOMO by queuingup
in linesin front of storesand singingpatriotic songsand anti-governmentalslo-
gans. In thislines-songs-protestnexus lifemay have imitated
art.Thiscontinued
untilthepolicemovedin to close theshops,andtheprotesters scattered.63

Rock Music

A similarlyeerie combination of religioussymbolismand starkeveryday

realityis also presentin one ofmanyrocksongsthatcaptivated youngaudiences
in Polandsincethemid-1970s.A rockgroupLombardsang in Szklanapogoda
[Glass Weather]that,"Južz ogonkówwycofalysiç/frasobliwe kolejekmadon-
ny/Dokapliczekpowracaj^,gdzie telewizorz prognoz§pogody" ["sorrowful
Madonnas/have alreadywithdrawn fromthewaitinglines/They returnto road-
side shrines/where thereis a TV setwiththeweatherforecast"].64 Beingcaught
betweenthe opposingpressuresof traditional Polish religiosityand the TV-
inducedCommunist government propagandadid notsitwell withmanyyoung
people.The latter, in particular,
oftenreturned in songs,suchas "spikercedzil
ostréslowa/odktórychnagla wzbieraíazlošč" ["the anchormanhissed harsh
words/from whicha suddenangerrose"].65That risingrage, Lombardsang,
shouldculminatein a decision:"milczeniadose" ["enoughof silence!"]. Of
course,thereis nothingsilentaboutrockmusic,eitherliterallyor figuratively.
And,unliketherock-n-roll crazethatsweptPolandin the 1960s,thenewwave
ofrockofthelate 1970sandespecially1980stappednotonlyintoa culturaldis-
contentof a generation; itwas infusedwitha growingsenseof social alienation
andpoliticalrestlessness.66

63Bartfomiej Miçdzybrodzki, "'MissionAccomplished:CrowdsDispersed' Clashes

between PolishCitizensandZomoontheStreets ofPolishCitiesas Seenthrough theEyes
ofParticipants(December 13,1981-December 31,1982),"ThePolishReview ,Vol.55,no.
2 (June2010),161-62.
64teksty.org.
65Lombard: Przežyj tosam[LiveItYourself], teksty.org.
66Polandwasnotuniqueinthisrespect: fora broader
discussionofthepoliticalrole
ofrockinEastern Europe atthetime,see,e.g.,FredoArias-King,
"Orange People:A Brief
HistoryofTransnational Liberation
Networks inEastCentralEurope," Demokratizatsiya,
Vol.15,no.1 (2007),29-72;TarasKuzio,"CivilSociety,YouthandSocietalMobilization
in Democratic Revolutions,"Communist and Post-Communist Studies
, Vol. 39, no. 3
(2006),365-86;Ramet, 85-111;JimRiordan, "SovietYouth:PioneersofChange," Soviet
Studies
, Vol.40,no.4 (1988),556-72;TomaszZarycki, "CulturalCapitalandthePolitical
OrientationsoftheYounger Generation
oftheRussianandPolishIntelligentsia,"Russian
Education& Society, Vol.51,no.2 (2009),3-43.Fortheuseof"turbofolk" musicbythe
nationalist
Serbauthorities tocounteract
the"cosmopolitan"influenceofrock,seeEricD.
Gordy,TheCulture of Power inSerbia.
Nationalism andtheDestruction ofAlternatives
Park:PennStateUniversity,
(University 1999).

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 SingingOut of Pain 27

Certainly,rockwas no sanctuary frompoliticaltensions.Forexample,when

thebandPerfect its
performed wildlypopularsongChciaibym byesob$ [I Would
Like to be Myself]forthefirsttimeaftermartiallaw was imposed,thecrowds
immediately replacedtheirfavoriterefrain,"Chcemybyesob$" ["Wewantto be
ourselves"]with"Chcemybič ZOMO" ["Wewanttobeatup ZOMO"], thehated
riotpolice.67AndwhenthebandMaanamturneddownan invitation to playfor
a congressof youngCommunists fromEasternEurope,theirmusicwas banned
fromtheradio.As a result,a popularradiodiscjockeyfacedan impossiblechal-
lengesincehisTop40 hitsincludedthreesongsbyMaanamandtheirsuddendis-
appearancefromtheair couldnothave goneunnoticed, buthe was notallowed
to explainitpublicly.He daredto partlydefytheban by regularly playingsome
30 secondsoftheireasilyrecognizabledrumrolltrack{To tylkotango[It's Only
Tango]),knowingthatthelisteners wouldunderstand thehiddenmessage.68
The arrivalofpunkrockaddedfurther fireto therocksceneas thenoncon-
formist behaviorandattirecombinedwithoftencombativelyricsprovideda new
challengeto theauthorities. Forone,thelyricsthemselves wereoftensungat the
top of the singer'slungs and to a noisy and fast-paced music accompaniment.
Some bandsventured to smuggleprohibited messages within theirearsplitting
compositions, correctlyexpectingthat,unliketheyoungfans,the"elderly"cen-
sorswouldnotbe able to understand them."Theydid notknowhow to listento
thiskindofmusic,"observeda punkrockerfromthebandDezerter.69
Mostpunkbandswouldagreethattheydidnotattempt to changethepoliti-
cal systemand actuallyfeltrevulsiontowardspoliticsas a dirtythingregardless
of its ideologicalorientation.70
Nevertheless, theytendedto attract youthaudi-
ences thatoccupieda specificsub-cultural nichegivento contestation and to
of
breaking conventions, which made them subjectto much secretpolice surveil-
lance.Because therewererelatively fewpunkrockconcertseach year,andthey
oftentookplace in farawaypartsofthecountry, punkyouthtendedto travelover
longdistancesand spentmanyhourson trains
or buses.By thelate 1980s,many
of thesame fanscouldbe seen traveling packsbetweenprotestsitesall over
in
Poland,fromdemonstrations againstthepresenceof Soviettroopsin thecountry
to a university campussit-inagainstthemilitary draftandto roadblockadesnear
a controversial damconstruction site.71

67KamilWicik, "Chcemy BičZOMO,"PolskieRadio,http://www.polskieradio.p1/9/

18669,Chcemy-bic-ZOMO-Kamil-Wicik
325/Artykul/2 (accessedMay30,2011).
68MarekNiedžwiedzki in LeszekGnoiñski andWojciechSlota,dirs.,Beatsof
Freedom- ZewWolnošci , TVNS.A.,2010.
69Krzysztof Grabowski in LeszekGnoiñski andWojciechSlota,dirs.,Beatsof
Freedom- ZewWolnošci , TVNS.A.,2010.
70Tomek Lipiñski fromthebandsTiltandBrygada Kryzys- inLeszekGnoiñski
and
Wojciech Historia
Slota,dirs., Rocka
Polskiego , Mini-series, Historia
Discovery Channel,
2008.
71LipiñskiinHistoriaPolskiegoRocka.

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28 ThePolish Review

A surprising twisttotheimpactofpunkrockcamewiththecreationofKSU,
a bandfromtheremoteBieszczadyMountains regioninsoutheastern Poland.The
police could not believethat a punk band in thatarea could have been home-
grownand therefore that
theysuspected thegroup must have been part some
of
conspiracy. As ifthiswerenotenough,somebandmembers took on Ukrainian
nicknamesandpromoted a "FreeRepublicof Bieszczady,"a mixof local patri-
otismwithan admixture of ethnicUkrainiansentiment in theregionoftencon-
tested by both nationalities.Their songs, such as Moje Bieszczady [My
Bieszczady],pointedly musedoversomeremnants ofLemkovillages,abandoned
in thelate 1940swhenthePolishauthorities forcibly to
relocatedtheirresidents
eradicatepotentialsupport forUkrainian All thiswas combinedwith
nationalists.
the usual punk accoutrements, ardentfan following,suggestionsthatlocals
shouldnotwatchSovietfilms,andan occasionalroughing up ofboyscoutswho
"encroached"upon Bieszczady.No wonderthatthe securitypolice keptKSU
underclose surveillance and even wentto greatlengthsto infiltrate theband's
milieuin an operation codenamedRazorBlade.72
Perhapsthemostexoticmusicalgenrein themix was reggae.A cultural
transplant,ittendedto attract
nonconformists andfreethinkerswitha softspotfor
theRastafarian Here,
lifestyle. too,theaudiences the
interpreted songs'messages
withinthelocal sociopoliticalcontext.Thus,whenthedreadlocked reggaeband
Izrael sang that"thepeople of Babylonare coming,"the listenersunderstood
"Babylon"less in Rastafari termsas thecorrupt Western societyandmoreas the
politicalregimethey were facing.

Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts

A less-than-obvious locusof oppositional

activitythrough songsingingwas
thePolishScoutingUnion(Zwi^zek Harcerstwa -
Polskiego ZHP). Withproud
traditionsdatingbackto theearlytwentieth century anda legendarycontribution
to thePolishnon-Communist underground fightingforce in WorldWar II, ZHP
was a thorninthesideoftheregime.Attempts to dominateor converttheorgan-
izationintosomething akinto SovietPioneersmetwithonlya verylimitedsuc-
cess.73In particular,
boyscoutsandgirlscoutswereexposedto a veritable stream
of songsone could hearhardlyanywhereelse. At regularmeetingsand by the

72Krzysztof KSU- ReiestradaBuntu

Potaczala, (Rzeszów:Libra,2010).
73Besidesattemptsto introduceideologicalthemesintotheoverallprogramming
andtheScout'sOath,Partyactivists also experimentedwithcreating theWalterowcy
troopsbasedon theSovietPioneers model.Thisorganization,intended to providea
Communist alternative
toscouting,involveda number ofardent
adherents wholaterwere
tobecomeprominent opposition suchas JacekKuroñandAdamMichnik.
activists, For
moredetailandevidence oftheimportance of songsin Walterowcy
, see JacekKurori,
Wiarai Wína.Do i OdKomunizmu (London: Aneks,1989).

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 SingingOut of Pain 29

campfire thescoutssangpatrioticsongsaboutMarshalJózefPiïsudskiand the

Polish Legions of WorldWar I, aboutthe WorldWar II-era non-Communist
(especiallytheunderground HomeArmy - ArmiaKrajowa,AK),
guerillafighters
andtheGreyRanks(Szare Szeregi),theunderground Scoutingorganization par-
ticularlyfamousforitsparticipation in theWarsawUprisingof 1944 thatStalin
wantedto fail.It was a specialsocial niche,indeed,whereyoungpeople freely
praisedtheelementsof Polishhistory thattheregimesoughtto eradicate.Some
songs, such as Na polanie dogasa ognisko[A Campfireis Dying out in a
Clearing] could cleverlydisguisetheirtruesubjectby ostensibly praisinga sum-
mer camp commandant("komendant")while reallymaintaining the cult of
Commander MarshalPiïsudski,forwhomthesonghad been written. Thus,the
chorusopenlypromised, te ...
"Bçd$ kiedys iskryzaklçte opowiadač o tobieleg-
endç,Komendancie, Wodzunasz" ["One day theseenchanted sparks....will tell
thelegendaboutyou,Commander, ourLeader"],certainly a bittoo gushyfora
scoutmaster butconsistent withtheintended admiration forPiïsudski.
Mostsongs,however, didnotevenattempt suchguises,boldlyrecallingthe
bravery andsacrificesof scoutsoftheGreyRanksinPaiacykMichla [Michler's
Palace] orMarszMokotowa[MokotówMarch],orthefamousscout-based resist-
ance battalioninJçdrusiowa dola [Jçdrusie'sFate].Even thoughitwas notille-
gal to discusstheGreyRanksor AK, theirpoliticalaffiliations withthePolish
government-in-exile as well as theirconsequentpersecution by theCommunist
regimecasta longshadowoverthoseorganizations. Theirsongs,whilenotfor-
mallyforbidden, were all but eliminatedfrompublic performances, so their
singingby the scoutsamountedto defiantacts of resistancewitha nationalist
twist.

Conclusions

As theabovereviewindicates, despiteHerbert'sconcerns, manysongwriters

in Polanddid notallow fearto "dictatethewordsofthesong."Instead,through
variousgenresandvenuestheychippedawayat theedificeofofficialpropagan-
da and ideologicalstrictures. In sometimessubtleand sometimes rambunctious
waysthey created a multitudeof clues
cultural and pointsofreference fora soci-
etalsenseofcommonidentity andforfuture mobilization.Theyalso helpedinflu-
encean independent publicdiscoursethrough framing theissues.
For one, thesongswerehelpfulin defining thesense of "us" autonomous
from - and typicallyopposed to- the officiallysanctionedimage. Thus,
Pietrzak'sand Kaczmarski'ssongsreminded Poles of theirancientidentity test-
ed in numerous warsand invasions,andmucholderthanthecurrent regimeand
its ideology.Bože Coš Polskç indicatedan alternative sourceof legitimacy and
loyalty as it recalledGod's blessingsover Poland "through all thoseyears."The
collective identitymay have been those of "shipyard boys," "Janek
Wišniewskis," "youngwolves,""the nation,"or simplyanyonewho had the

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30 ThePolish Review

courageto demandtogether withPerfect'sfans,"we wantto be ourselves,at

last."In anycase, itwas critically important thatnoneofthesewere"them,"the
officialdom fromwhomtheemergent civilsocietysoughtto distanceitself.
In turn,"they"werethetraitors opposedbypatriotic Rejtans,thecontempo-
rary"hounds" thatdestroyed independent minds and spirits, the"partythatshoots
at workers," andthe"hangmenofTri-City." "They"had alwaysbeenassociated
with Russian ambassadors; "they" were modern Cains and Judases, or
Communist "lords"who"calledin thetanks.""They"couldnotbe trusted, quite
unlike"us" who sharedcommonidentity and suffered similarinjustices.
The injusticeframefeatured prominently in mostsongsand keptthegriev-
ances freshin themindsof listeners. Therewas thediscomfiture of dailyhard-
ships,whereknowingtheanswerto thequestion"whatis thislinefor?"became
a matter of survival.Therewas thehumiliation ofhavingto pray"so thatPoland
is Poland"in a landwhereforeigninterests and priorities dominated. And then
therewerelitaniesofhorrors recallingthemartyrdom ofworkerswhowereonly
askingfordignified liveswhile"thepolice[ran]amuck"and"theworkers'blood
[was] beingshed."
The songsalso providedtheirlisteners witha senseof agency.Justlikethat
Americanclassic,WeShall Overcome , Polishprotest songspromisedthatchange
willcome"someday"ifonlypeoplepersevere, akinto rockswaitingforan ava-
lanche.By daringto breakwhips,chains,and bars,thesocietywill bringdown
the"walls" and theentireold order.Even songswritten in prisonconfidently
pledged that traitorsand abusers will be punished and movementmartyrs
avenged. In theend, by noting how much suffering the heroes ofthepasthad to
endurebeforetheysucceeded,Poles wereremindedthatbraveryand commit-
menthavealwaysbeenneededin thestruggle to "letPolandbe Poland."
The songsmadea difference. They were sungatprivateparties,student song
festivals,by campfires, and in worker dormitories. Some were adoptedby the
massive,ten-million strongSolidaritytradeunionand movementas unofficial
anthemsand trueexpressions of popularaspirations. Whenindependent organi-
zationswerepushedunderground, severalresortedto "pirate"radiobroadcasts
thattendedtobe briefbutrarelytoo shortto includea fewprotestsongs.Phrases
suchas, "so thatPolandis Poland"and"thewallswillfall"becamepartofevery-
day language;theformer evenmadeit intoSolidarity's officialdocuments.74 In
theprocess,thesongshelpedcreateor reinforce a commonset of beliefsand a
sharedvocabularyofprotest. Peoplewho sangtogether or duplicatedaudio cas-
setterecordings ofproscribed songs exhibited their collective willingnesstochal-
lenge the official
propaganda even at personal risk to theirlives or careers.
Also,
byhearingthesongstheylearnedthatanti-governmental sentiments werepreva-
lent,andeventually theyfounditeasiertoparticipate in anyofthevariousforms

74Marcin wRuchu1980-1981
Kula,ed.,Solidarnošč Niezaležna
(Warsaw: Oficyna
2000),71.
Wydawnicza,

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 SingingOut of Pain 31

of protestand oppositionthatultimately erodedthesupportfortheCommunist

regime.
Much of social mobilizationmay be seen as a battleof collectiveaction
frames.Scholarsobservethatto have an impact,such framesmust"resonate"
withdominant beliefsandvaluesofpotential Yet,without
participants.75 alterna-
the
tives, "legitimacy frame" used the and
by regime heavilypromoted byitsoffi-
cial propagandawouldhavebeendominant andtendedto keeppeoplefromact-
ingagainstthegovernment. Collectiveactionagainstthestatusquo requiresat
leastpartialagreement as tothecauseandnatureofinjustice, as towhomone can
trustas "us,"andas tothelikelihoodthatthechallengewillbe successful.Protest
songsoffera "natural"way to distribute elementsof sucha tentativeagreement
amongpotentialadherents. They aggregate,reinforce,and propagatecommon
symbolsandbeliefsthathelpmovement andleadersconstruct
participants effec-
tiveactionframes.To borrowHerbert'sterms:whensuccessful, eventhosewho
"singoutofpain" standa chanceto helpspareothersthehurtofhavingto "sac-
rifice"their"wings."

75SnowandBenford,
197-217.

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