Energy

Energy is everywhere. It is the basis for life. It comes in various forms: it can
warm a house, melt ice, and drive the atmosphere, producing our everyday weather
events. When the sun's energy interacts with our upper atmosphere, we see energy
at work in yet another form, a shimmering display of light from the sky-the aurora.
Energy, as it flows within and between systems in its various forms, makes Earth
such a dynamic place.
In fact, the essential role of the atmosphere is to move energy from areas of
surplus to areas of deficit. In Earth's lower latitudes (close to the equator), the
intense sunlight creates an energy surplus and warm temperatures, whereas at the
frigid poles, there is much less energy. All the storms, winds, jet streams, and other
weather phenomena that are discussed in here fundamentally exist to move this
excess energy from the low latitudes to try to balance the energy deficit at the high
latitudes.
Energy enters our atmosphere from the sun as radiation and warms Earth's
surface and soil (affecting the lithosphere), which, in turn, heats the lower
atmosphere both directly and by evaporating water. The water vapour eventually
condenses into clouds, releasing its heat, and falls to the surface again as
precipitation, thus playing an essential role in the hydrosphere.
Radiation from the sun is essential to photosynthesis that allows plants to
grow, and it is the presence of sufficient energy, in the form of heat, as measured by
temperature that makes Earth's biosphere viable for the life it supports. What,
precisely, is this common, yet mysterious, quantity we call "energy"? What is its
primary source? How does it warm Earth and provide the driving force for each of its
systems, including our atmosphere? And in what form does it reach our atmosphere
to produce a dazzling display like the aurora?
To answer these questions, we must first begin with the concept of energy
itself. Then we will examine energy in its various forms and how energy is
transferred from one form to another. We will look more closely at the sun's energy
and its influence on our atmosphere. Finally, we will examine how energy acts
globally and locally to affect conditions on Earth.

Energy is a property of matter that can make things happen. (Matter is anything
that has mass and occupies space.) What does "make things happen" mean? It
means to make things move or change condition in some way. In a physical system,
by definition, energy is the ability or capacity to do work on some form of matter.

Work is done when matter is pushed, pulled, or lifted over some distance.
When we lift a brick, for example, we exert a force against the pull of gravity-we "do
work" on the brick. The higher we lift the brick, the more work we do. So, by doing
work on something, we give it "energy;' which it can, in turn, use to do work on other
things. The brick that we lifted, for instance, can now do work on your toe-by falling
on it. Work or energy in a physical system like the brick example is equal to the force
applied to an object times the distance the force is applied. In the SI system, force is
measured in Newton (N), and distance in metres (m), so that Newton times metres =
joules (J) is used to represent work or energy.
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Before we discuss the various forms of energy and how energy is converted
and transferred, let's examine temperature scales because some forms of energy
involve temperature.

Temperature and Heat transfer

Temperature is the quantity that tells us how hot or cold something is relative
to some set standard value. But we can look at temperature in another way. We
know that air is a mixture of countless billions of atoms and molecules. If they could
be seen, they would appear to be moving about in all directions, freely darting,
twisting, spinning, and colliding with one another like an angry swarm of bees.

Close to the earth’s surface, each individual molecule would travel about a
thousand times its diameter before colliding with another molecule. Moreover, we
would see that all the atoms and molecules are not moving at the same speed, as
some are moving faster than others.

The energy associated with this motion is called kinetic energy, the energy of
motion. The temperature of the air (or any substance) is a measure of its average
kinetic energy. Simply stated, temperature is a measure of the average speed
(average motion) of the atoms and molecules, where higher temperatures
correspond to faster average speeds.

If we warm the air inside, the molecules would move faster, but they also
would move slightly farther apart— the air becomes less dense. Conversely, if we
cool the air back to its original temperature, the molecules would slow down, crowd
closer together, and the air would become more dense.

This is molecular behavior is why, in many places throughout the book, we

refer to surface air as either warm, less dense air or as cold, more-dense air.
Suppose we continue to slowly cool the air. Its atoms and molecules would move
slower and slower until the air reaches a temperature of –273°C (–459°F), which is
the lowest temperature possible. At this temperature, called absolute zero, the atoms
and molecules would possess a minimum amount of energy and theoretically no
thermal motion.

The atmosphere contains internal energy, which is the total energy stored in
its molecules. Heat, on the other hand, is energy in the process of being transferred
from one object to another because of the temperature difference between them.
After heat is transferred, it is stored as internal energy. In the atmosphere, heat is
transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.

We will examine these mechanisms of energy transfer after we look at

temperature scales and the important concept of latent heat.

Temperature scales
Recall that, theoretically, at a temperature of absolute zero there is no thermal
motion. Consequently, at absolute zero, we can begin a temperature scale called the
absolute scale, or Kelvin scale, after Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), a famous British
scientist who first introduced it. Since the Kelvin scale contains no negative numbers,
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it is quite convenient for scientific calculations. Two other temperature scales

commonly used today are the Fahrenheit and Celsius (formerly centigrade).

The Fahrenheit scale was developed in the early 1700s by the physicist G.
Daniel Fahrenheit, who assigned the number 32 to the temperature at which water
freezes, and the number 212 to the temperature at which water boils. The zero point
was simply the lowest temperature that he obtained with a mixture of ice, water, and
salt. Between the freezing and boiling points are 180 equal divisions, each of which
is called a degree. A thermometer calibrated with this scale is referred to as a
Fahrenheit thermometer, for it measures an object’s temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).

The Celsius scale was introduced later in the eighteenth century. The
number 0 (zero) on this scale is assigned to the temperature at which pure water
freezes, and the number 100 to the temperature at which pure water boils at sea
level. The space between freezing and boiling is divided into 100 equal degrees.
Therefore, each Celsius degree (°C) is 180/100 or 1.8 times bigger than a
Fahrenheit degree. Put another way, an increase in temperature of 1°C equals an
increase of 1.8°F.

A formula for converting °F to °C is °C = 5 ⁄9 (°F – 32).

On the Kelvin scale, degrees Kelvin are called Kelvins (abbreviated K). Each
degree on the Kelvin scale is exactly the same size as a degree Celsius, and a
temperature of 0 K is equal to –273°C. Converting from °C to K can be done by
simply adding 273 to the Celsius temperature, as

K = °C + 273

Thus, 303 on the Kelvin scale is the equivalent of 30°C and 86°F.* In most of
the world, temperature readings are taken in °C. In the United States, however,
temperatures above the surface are taken in °C, while temperatures at the surface
are typically read in °F. Currently, then, temperatures on upper-level maps are
plotted in °C, while, on surface weather maps, they are in °F.
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Let’s also talk about LATENT HEAT…

Water vapor is an invisible gas that becomes visible when it changes into
larger liquid or solid (ice) particles. This process of transformation is known as a
change of state or, simply, a phase change. The heat energy required to change a
substance, such as water, from one state to another is called latent heat.

This image shows the heat absorption and heat release like in phase change

Latent heat is an important source of atmospheric energy. Once vapor

molecules become separated from the earth’s surface, they are swept away by the
wind, like dust before a broom. Rising to high altitudes where the air is cold, the
vapor changes into liquid and ice cloud particles. During these processes, a
tremendous amount of heat energy is released into the environment. Water vapor
evaporated from warm, tropical water can be carried into polar regions, where it
condenses and gives up its heat energy. Thus, as we will see, evaporation
transportation-condensation is an extremely important mechanism for the relocation
of heat energy (as well as water) in the atmosphere.
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Did you know that?

Heat Transfer
The transfer of heat from molecule to molecule within
a substance is called conduction. Hold one end of a metal
straight pin between your fingers and place a flaming candle
under the other end (see the image on the right side).
Because of the energy they absorb from the flame, the
molecules in the pin vibrate faster. The faster vibrating
molecules cause adjoining molecules to vibrate faster.
These, in turn, pass vibrational energy on to their neighboring
molecules, and so on, until the molecules at the finger-held
end of the pin begin to vibrate rapidly. These fast-moving
molecules eventually cause the molecules of your finger to
vibrate more quickly. Heat is now being transferred from the pin to your finger, and
both the pin and your finger feel hot. If enough heat is transferred, you will drop the
pin.
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Conversely, air is an extremely poor conductor of heat, which is why most

insulating materials have a large number of air spaces trapped within them. Air is
such a poor heat conductor that, in calm weather, the hot ground only warms a
shallow layer of air a few centimeters thick by conduction. (See the image below for
the heat conductivity of some substances)

The transfer of heat by the mass movement of a fluid (such as water and air)
is called convection. This type of heat transfer takes place in liquids and gases
because they can move freely, and it is possible to set up currents within them.
Convection happens naturally in the atmosphere. On a warm, sunny day certain
areas of the earth’s surface absorb more heat from the sun than others; as a result,
the air near the earth’s surface is heated somewhat unevenly. Air molecules
adjacent to these hot surfaces bounce against them, thereby gaining some extra
energy by conduction.

The heated air expands and becomes less dense than the surrounding cooler
air. The expanded warm air is buoyed upward and rises. In this manner, large
bubbles of warm air rise and transfer heat energy upward. Cooler, heavier air flows
toward the surface to re place the rising air. This cooler air becomes heated in turn,
rises, and the cycle is repeated. In meteorology, this vertical exchange of heat is
called convection, and the rising air bubbles are known as thermals.

Take note also, the horizontal transfer of any atmospheric property by the
wind (including smoke and warm or cold air) is called advection.

On a summer day, you may have noticed how warm and flushed your face
feels as you stand facing the sun. Sunlight travels through the surrounding air with
little effect upon the air itself. Your face, however, absorbs this energy and converts
it to thermal energy. Thus, sunlight warms your face without actually warming the air.
The energy transferred from the sun to your face is called radiant energy, or
radiation. It travels in the form of waves that release energy when they are
absorbed by an object. Because these waves have magnetic and electrical
properties, we call them electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves do not need
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molecules to propagate them. In a vacuum, they travel at a constant speed of nearly

300,000 km (186,000 mi) per second—the speed of light.

Must-read! I hope this will be a part of your bucket list of reading materials at
home, find time to ponder on the important concepts about air.

This image is a special topic from a book of Meteorology

Equilibrium, Blackbody radiation, Greenhouse effect

If the earth and all things on it are continually radiating energy, why doesn’t
everything get progressively colder? The answer is that all objects not only radiate
energy, they absorb it as well. If an object radiates more energy than it absorbs, it
becomes colder; if it absorbs more energy than it emits, it becomes warmer.

On a sunny day, the earth’s surface warms by absorbing more energy from
the sun and the atmosphere than it radiates, whereas at night the earth cools by
radiating more energy than it absorbs from its surroundings

When any object that is a perfect absorber (that is, absorbs all the radiation
that strikes it) and a perfect emitter (emits the maximum radiation possible at its
given temperature) is called a blackbody. Blackbodies do not have to be colored
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black, they simply must absorb and emit all possible radiation. Since the earth’s
surface and the sun absorb and radiate with nearly 100 percent efficiency for their
respective temperatures, they both behave as blackbodies.

When we look at the earth from space, we see that half of it is in sunlight, the
other half is in darkness. The outpouring of solar energy constantly bathes the earth
with radiation, while the earth, in turn, constantly emits infrared radiation. If we
assume that there is no other method of transferring heat, then, when the rate of
absorption of solar radiation equals the rate of emission of infrared earth radiation, a
state of radiative equilibrium is achieved.

The average temperature at which this occurs is called the radiative

equilibrium temperature. At this temperature, the earth (behaving as a blackbody) is
absorbing solar radiation and emitting infrared radiation at equal rates, and its
average temperature does not change.

As the earth is about 150 million km (93 million mi) from the sun, the earth’s
radiative equilibrium temperature is about 255 K (–18°C, 0°F). But this temperature
is much lower than the earth’s observed average surface temperature of 288 K
(15°C, 59°F). Why is there such a large difference? The answer lies in the fact that
the earth’s atmosphere absorbs and emits infrared radiation. Unlike the earth, the
atmosphere does not behave like a blackbody, as it absorbs some wavelengths of
radiation and is transparent to others. Objects that selectively absorb and emit
radiation, such as gases in our atmosphere, are known as selective absorbers.

The absorption of infrared radiation from the earth by water vapor and CO 2 is
popularly called the greenhouse effect. However, studies have shown that the warm
air inside a greenhouse is probably caused more by the air’s inability to circulate and
mix with the cooler outside air, rather than by the entrapment of infrared energy.
Because of these findings, some scientists suggest that the greenhouse effect
should be called the atmosphere effect or atmospheric greenhouse effect when
describing the role that water vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and other greenhouse gases
play in keeping the earth’s mean surface temperature higher than it otherwise would
be.

For more
details on
greenhouse effect,
look at the image
in the right side.
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Climate
Based on the previous sub-topics, Meteorology is defined as the study of the
atmosphere and its phenomena. When we talk about the weather, we are talking
about the condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and place. Weather is
always changing. It is composed of the following:

1. air temperature-the degree of hotness or coldness of the air, which

corresponds to the kinetic energy of air molecules
2. air pressure-the force of the air above an area
3. humidity-a measure of the amount of water vapour in the air
4. clouds-visible masses of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals that are
above Earth's surface
5. precipitation-any form of water, either liquid (rain) or solid (snow), that
falls from clouds and reaches the ground
6. wind-the horizontal movement of air
7. visibility-the greatest distance one can see to identify prominent objects

If we measure and observe these weather elements over a specified interval

of time, say, for many years, we would obtain the "average weather" of a particular
area. In addition, if we keep track of the variability in each weather element, we can
define the climate of that area. Climate, therefore, represents the accumulation of
daily and seasonal weather events and their variability, including extreme weather
events such as heat waves in summer and cold spells in winter over a long period of
time.

If we were able to watch Earth for thousands to millions of years, even the
climate would change. We might see huge glaciers, rivers of ice moving down
stream-cut valleys, and continental sheets of moving snow and ice spreading over
large portions of North America. Over a time span of about two million years, we
might see multiple glaciations where the ice advances and retreats several times. Of
course, for this to happen, the average temperature of North America would have to
decrease and then rise in a cyclic manner.

If we could photograph Earth once every thousand years, for many hundreds
of millions of years we could watch Earth in time-lapse photography. This would
show that climate and Earth itself are changing: mountains would form and rise up,
only to be torn down by erosion; isolated puffs of smoke and steam would appear as
volcanoes spew hot gases and fine dust into the atmosphere; and Earth's entire
surface would undergo a gradual transformation as certain ocean basins widen and
others shrink (The movement of Earth's continents and ocean floor is explained by
the theory of plate tectonics. In this theory, Earth's surface is composed of about
eight major plates that move in relation to each other. Plate tectonics explains how
the lithosphere evolves, how volcanoes and earthquakes occur, how and where
mountains, build, and accounts for the changing distribution of land and ocean
surfaces over geologic time. These changes have greatly affected Earth's climate.)
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Climate zones

It is because of the climate conditions of an area such as temperature,

humidity, amount and type of precipitation, and the season. Just note, the same type
of climate zone will be found at the similar latitudes and in similar positions on nearly
all continents, both in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The only exception
to this pattern is the climate zone called the continental climate, which is not found at
higher latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. The reason behind is that the southern
hemisphere’s land masses are not wide enough to produce a continental climate.

The

most common system used to

classify climatic Köppen classification system zones is the
Köppen classification
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system. This system is based on the temperature, the amount of precipitation, and
the times of year when precipitation occurs. Vegetation is used as an indicator of
climate type. A climate type and its plants and animals make up a biome.

In short,

1. Weather and climate play a major role in our lives.

o Weather, for example, often dictates the type of clothing we wear,
whereas climate influences the type of clothing we buy.
o Climate determines when to plant crops as well as what types of crops
can be planted. Weather determines if these same crops will grow to
maturity.
o Climate is the combination of long-term meteorological conditions and
patterns that characterize an area and time period. It integrates the
complex interactions of all Earth systems- the hydrosphere
(cryosphere), lithosphere, biosphere (anthrosphere), and atmosphere.
Varying any of these components can cause the climate to change.

Further readings:

About the topics Weather in the Tropics on page 84 and The Changing
Climate on page 127 in our book Introducing Meteorology: A Guide to Weather

Did you know that?

Could atmospheric particles have contributed to the demise of the dinosaurs?
Evidence supports the theory that about 65 million years ago, a giant meteorite
slammed into Earth, sending billions of tonnes of dust and debris into the upper
atmosphere. Such particles greatly reduced the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s
surface, rapidly causing colder, darker conditions on a global scale. These appear to
have persisted, disrupting the food chain and plausibly accounting for the mass
extinctions of species, which at that time were dominated by large, plant-eating
dinosaurs.

For more details on the history of Earth’s climate, you can watch this video
and check out, https://youtu.be/dC_2WXyORGA
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I. Pollution
The image above shows some of the pollutants caused by humans and natural

occurrences. We need to cut off the human-caused pollutants because it has been
found to be very high in the contribution to global warming and climate change ever
since.

Air pollutants are airborne substances (either solids, liquids, or gases) that
occur in concentrations high enough to threaten the health of people and animals, to
harm vegetation and structures, or to toxify a given environment. Air pollutants come
from both natural sources and human activities.

Examples of natural sources include wind picking up dust and soot from the
earth’s surface and carrying it aloft , volcanoes belching tons of ash and dust into our
atmosphere, and forest fi res producing vast quantities of drifting smoke.

Human-induced pollution enters the atmosphere from both fixed sources and
mobile sources. Fixed sources encompass industrial complexes, power plants,
homes, office buildings, and so forth; mobile sources include motor vehicles, ships,
and jet aircraft.
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REFERENCES

Ahrens, C. (2008). Essentials of Meteorology An Invitation to the Atmosphere.

Retrieved from https://www.pdfdrive.com

Ahrens, C., Jackson, P., and Jackson, C. (2012). Meteorology Today An

Introduction
to Weather, Climate, and the Environment. Retrieved from
https://www.pdfdrive.com