PURBANCHAL UNIVERSITY

KANTIPUR INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
GWARKO, LALITPUR

A GROUP REPORT ON CONCRETE

Date: 2080/05/21

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

Aashish Adhikari Ar. Ranjan Chandra
Prajapati Anil Chaudhary
Bina Kaspal
Praful Jha
Rohan
Shakya
B.Arch.–2nd Semester
 Acknowledgement
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Ar. Ranjan Prajapati, whose invaluable guidance and
unwavering support significantly enriched the content and direction of this concrete-centric
report. His profound insights and adept mentorship have been instrumental in elevating our
comprehension of concrete's multifaceted nuances, from composition to structural
performance. We would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the Department of
Architecture at my esteemed college for fostering an environment conducive to scholarly
exploration and academic growth. Their commitment to nurturing interdisciplinary learning
experiences has been pivotal in shaping the depth and breadth of this work. This endeavor
would not have been possible without the profound wisdom and collective contributions of
both our revered teacher and the department.

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 Abstract
This comprehensive report delves into the realm of concrete, an indispensable material
shaping the modern construction landscape. The report commences with an illuminating
introduction, elucidating the pivotal role of concrete in structural engineering and
architecture. Engaging examples showcase its versatility, from iconic structures to everyday
applications, underscoring its ubiquity. A meticulous exploration of concrete's various types,
complete with composition ratios where applicable, offers a nuanced understanding of its
diverse formulations. The report further delves into the myriad properties that contribute to
its structural integrity, durability, and aesthetic adaptability. The discourse then shifts towards
an appraisal of concrete's gradations, deciphering the distinctions between different concrete
grades and their specialized applications. The ensuing discussion provides a balanced
perspective on concrete's advantages and disadvantages, weighing its remarkable strength
and moldability against potential shortcomings.
In sum, this report offers a comprehensive panorama of concrete, equipping readers with
profound insights into its composition, properties, classifications, and the intricate interplay
between its merits and limitations in the realm of modern construction.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cement 6
Composition and Ingredients of cement 6
Properties of cement 9
Physical properties of cement 9
Chemical properties of cement 12
Types of cement 14
Manufacturing process of cement 20
Wet process 20
Dry process 23
Setting and Hardening of the cement 24
Grades of OPC 25
Laboratory tests of cement 27
Aggregates 31
Fine Aggregates (Sand) 32
Coarse Aggregates 37
Steel 42
Carbon Steel 43
Mild Steel 43
Medium Carbon Steels 44
High Carbon Steels 45
Stainless Steel 45
Tool Steel 46
Alloy Steel 46
High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel 46
Galvanized Steel 46
Weathering Steel 47
Manufacturing of Steel 47
Bessemer process 47
Open-Heart Process 49
Physical Properties 50
Factor Affecting Physical Properties Of Steel 50
Defects in Steel Production 52
Treatment Of Steel 53
1. Mechanical Treatment 53
2. Heat Treatment 54
Corrosion Prevention 56
1. Barrier Coating 56
2. Hot Dip Galvanization 56
3. Alloyed Steel 57
4. Cathodic Protection 57
5. Eoncoat 57
Market Forms Of Steel 57

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 1. Angle Sections 58
2. Channel Sections 58
3. Corrugated Sheets 59
4. Expanded Metal 59
Cement Concrete 62
Composition of Concrete 62
Properties of Concrete 63
Types of Concrete 64
Plain Cement Concrete 64
Reinforced Cement Concrete 64
Prestressed Cement Concrete 64
Precast Cement Concrete: 66
Lightweight Concrete 68
Specialty Concrete Types 69
Emerging Concrete Innovations 69
Admixtures and Benefits 70
Grades of Concrete 71
Manufacturing of Concrete 72
Batching of Ingredients 72
Mixing Process 72
Batch Mixing and Continuous Mixing 73
Workability and Consistency 73
Transporting and Placing 73
Compacting 73
Finishing 74
Quality Control and Testing 74
Sustainable Practices in Concrete Production 75
Concrete Curing and Strength Development: 75
Removal of Framework 77
Advantages of Concrete 77
Disadvantages of Concrete: 78
NEW TYPE OF CONCRETE 79
Polymer concrete 80
Super plasticizer 81
Fiber Reinforced Concrete 82
Ultra-High Performance Concrete 84
Cracks in Concrete 85
Plastic shrinkage concrete cracks 85
Expansion concrete cracks 86
Heaving concrete cracks 86
Settling concrete cracks 87
Concrete cracks caused by overloading the slab 87
Concrete cracks caused by premature drying 88
Non-destructive tests of concrete 88

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 Penetration Tests on Concrete 89
Rebound Hammer Method 89
Pull-Out Tests on Concrete 90
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method 91
Radioactive Methods of NDT 91
TEST FOR FRESH CONCRETE 91
Slump Test 92
Test By Vee-Bee Consist Meter 92
Compaction Factor Test For Concrete Workability 93
Flow Table Test 95
Kelly Ball Test Of Concrete 96
Test For Hardened Concrete 98
Compressive strength test 98
Flexural test 99
Split tensile test 99
FRAME STRUCTURE 101
Foundation 102
Column 105
Beam 107
Floor Slab 110
Roof Slab 113
Conclusion 115
References 116

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Cement
Cement in its broadest term means any substance which acts as a binding agent for materials.
Cement as applied to construction and engineering is produced by calcining at high
temperature as an intimate mixture of calcareous, siliceous and aluminous substance and
crashing resulting clinkers to a fine powder. It is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind
fine aggregate (sand) and course aggregate (gravel) together in the presence of water.

Composition and Ingredients of cement

Cement is generally composed of eight major ingredients such as Lime(CaO), Silica(SiO),
Magnesia(MaO), Calcium sulphate(CaSO), Alumina(Al2O3), Iron oxide(Fe2O3), Sulphur
trioxide(SO3), and Alkalies(soda and potash). The following image is showing the
ingredients of cement:

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The general percentage of these ingredients of which cement is made of is given below:

Ingredients Percentage in cement

Lime(CaO) 60%-67%

Silica(SiO) 17%-25%

Alumina(Al2O3) 3%-8%

Magnesia(MaO) 0.1%-4%

Iron oxide(Fe2O3) 0.5%-6%

Calcium sulphate(CaSO) 0.1%-0.5%

Sulphur trioxide(SO3) 1%-2.75%

Alkalies(soda and potash) 0.5%-1%

Function of cement ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide whose chemical formula is (Cao).
The proper amount of lime that should be present in cement is approximately 60%-
67%.The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and
aluminates of calcium. Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of the property to the
cement. And also causes the cement to set quickly. Whereas the Excess lime makes
cement unsound and causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.

2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica whose chemical formula is SiO2. About
17%-25% of silica should be present in the cement. The presence reduces
thermal

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 cracking caused by the heat of cement hydration, improves durability to attack by
sulphate and acidic waters, and increases strength.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.About 3%-

8% of alumina is used in the cement .Alumina imparts quick setting property to the
cement. Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity
of alumina. Excess alumina weakens the cement.

4. Magnesia: Magnesia is also known as Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is

MgO.Magnesia which imparts hardness, should not be present more than 0.1%-4% in
cement. Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5. Iron oxide: The Chemical formula of Iron oxide is Fe2O3. The average amount of
iron oxide that should be presented in cement is 0.5%-6%.Iron oxide imparts colour
to cement. It acts as a flux. At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical
reaction with calcium and aluminium to form tricalcium aluminoferrite.Tricalcium
alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

6. Calcium sulphate: The chemical formula of Calcium sulphate is CaSO4. On

average,0.1%-0.5% of Calcium sulphate is present in cement in the form of
gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O). Calcium sulphate is used in cement to increase the initial
setting time of cement.It slows down or retards the setting action of cement when
used excessively.

7. Sulphur trioxide: Sulphur or sulphur trioxide whose chemical formula is (SO3), in the
cement is about 1 to 2.75%. Its function is to make the cement sound. If it is in excess
quantity the cement becomes unsound.

8. Alkalies: Alkalis like soda and potash are present in the cement which normally
ranges from 0.1 to 1%. During the manufacturing process of cement most of the
alkalis are carried away by the flue gases at the time of heating. Hence cement
contains very small quantities of alkalis in it. If alkalis content is more than 1% then it
will cause several problems like alkali aggregate reaction, efflorescence, staining etc.

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Properties of cement
The properties of cement are classified into physical and chemical properties. They are listed
and described as:

Physical properties of cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterised by their physical properties.
Some key parameters control the quality of cement. The physical properties of good cement
are based on:

1. Fineness of cement
2. Soundness
3. Consistency

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 4. Strength
5. Setting time
6. Heat of hydration
7. Loss of ignition
8. Bulk density
9. Specific gravity (Relative density)

The mentioned physical properties of cement with their standard tests are described as:

1. Fineness of Cement: The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The
required fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last
step of cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is directly related to
the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very important.

2. Soundness: Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening.
Good quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion,
which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia. Mainly the presence of free
lime and magnesia in cement leads to unsoundness. The unsoundness may be
controlled by:
a) Limiting the MgO content to less than 0.5%
b) Fine grinding
c) Aerating the cement for aeration for several days
d) Thorough mixing

3. Consistency: It is one of the important properties of cement. The strength of cement is

generally assessed from compression tests on cement-mortar cubes (1:3) with an area
of 5,000 mm2 . The graded standard sand to be used for the mortar cube preparation
should conform to IS: 650–1991. For OPC, the compressive strength at 3 and 7 days
shall not be less than 16 and 22 MPa, respectively.

4. Strength: Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and
flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine
aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of

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 molding and mixing, loading conditions and age. While testing the strength, the
following should be considered:
a) Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related.
Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
b) The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement
paste.
c) Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test
should be mentioned.

5. Setting: Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio,
chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction should have an initial
setting time that is not too low and a final setting time not too high. Hence, two
setting times are measured:
a) Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within
30-45 minutes)
b) Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs
below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

6. Heat of Hydration: When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is
called hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the cement
and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during cold weather. On the
other hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large structures, it may cause
undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present in
cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of
hydration of Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference between the
dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th
days).

7. Loss of Ignition: Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant
weight is obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated
as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or

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 transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which might be indicated
by increased loss of ignition.

8. Bulk density: When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there
would normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very
important. Cement has a varying range of density depending on the cement
composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to 78
pounds per cubic foot.

9. Specific Gravity (Relative Density): Specific gravity is generally used in mixture

proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other
types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan
cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Chemical properties of cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon),
bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast
furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the
chemical properties of cement.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant.
Gypsum reduces the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages
of hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8%
C3A) Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8%
C3A)

2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S): C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is
responsible for the cement’s early strength gain an initial setting

3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S): As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early

strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one week.

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4. Ferrite (C4AF): Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the
raw materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does
not contribute much to the strength of the cement.

5. Magnesia (MgO): The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a

raw material in dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the
cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add strength to the
cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less CO2 emission. All cement
is limited to a content of 6% MgO.

6. Sulphur trioxide: Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.

7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide: Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or
ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the color of the cement

8. Alkalis: The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine
the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause
some difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when
used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement,
ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by
addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%,
calculated by the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.

9. Free lime: Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.

10. Silica fumes: Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of
properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength.
Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can grant
exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is
usually produced for Portland cement projects that require high strength.

11. Alumina: Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid
temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but
weakens the cement.

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Requirements of quality cement
1. Cement should have a uniform color.
2. Cement should be free from lumps.
3. It should be smooth and uniform. As a test, if small quantity of cement is thrown in
water it should sink completely.
4. The total sulfuric content in common should not be greater than 2.75%.

Types of cement
Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting
mechanism. These are-
1. Hydraulic Cement: As the name indicates, hydraulic cement is those which harden by
hydration in the presence of water. Limestone, clay, and gypsum are the main raw
material to produce non-hydraulic cement. This raw material is burned at a very high
temperature to manufacture Hydraulic Cement. Hydraulic cement (cement that not only
hardens by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product) produced by
pulverizing clinkers which consist essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually
containing one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter ground addition.

2. Non-hydraulic Cement: The non-hydraulic cement doesn't require water to get

harden. It gets with the help of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. This type of
cement needs dry conditions to harden. Lime, gypsum plasters, and oxychloride are
the required raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement. Example: slaked lime is a
non-hydraulic cement.

3. Other cement: Along with these main types, depending on the composition and
characteristics there are many types of cement. Followings are the other cement
types:
a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
b) Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
c) Rapid Hardening Cement
d) Quick Setting Cement Low Heat Cement
e) Sulphate Resisting Cement

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 f) Blast Furnace Cement
g) High Alumina Cement
h) White Cement
i) Colored Cement
j) Air Entraining Cement
k) Expansive Cement
l) Hydrophobic Cement

Brief descriptions of these cement types with their uses are given below.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement (simply called ordinary cement) refers to the hydraulic binding
material ground by mixing Portland cement clinker, 6% ~ 15% blended materials, and
appropriate amount of gypsum.

The composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:

a) Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)
b) Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and
marl)
Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement:
a) It is used for general construction purposes.
b) It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolana are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive forms. It reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to form additional cementations materials
when it is finely divided. The composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

a) OPC clinker
b) Gypsum
c) Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica
fumes.)
Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

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 a) PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction
near the seashore, dam construction, etc.
b) It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.
c) As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.
d) It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with higher content, it
gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC is called Rapid Hardening Cement.
It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.
Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

a) Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed

like the construction of pavement.
b) It also gives high strength.

Quick Setting Cement

Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The initial setting time
is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes. The composition of Quick Setting
Cement:

a) Clinker
b) Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)
c) The aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement:

a) It is used in underwater construction.
b) It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.
c) It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.
d) Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produces low heat of hydration during the setting.
Some

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chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is modified to reduce the heat of
hydration. The chemical composition of low heat cement:

a) A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

b) A higher percentage (46%) of declaiming silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement:

a) It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and wind
turbine plinths.
b) It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.

Sulphate Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to the lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium sulpho-aluminates gets
reduced.
Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement:
a) Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or
0.3 % g/l sulfate salts respectively.
b) Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge
piers, concrete surface in the tidal zone, apron, Building near the seacoast.
c) Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage, sumps,
drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as sea walls,
breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.

Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are intergraded to make blast
furnace cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture could be comprised of blast
furnace slag.
Uses of Blast Furnace Cement:

a) It is highly sulfate resistant

b) Frequently used in seawater construction.

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High Alumina Cement
High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an aluminum ore) and
ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of OPC. In which the total amount of
alumina content should not be lesser than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of
alumina to the lime between 0.85 to 1.30.
Uses of High Alumina Cement:
a) It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like
workshops, refractory, foundries, etc.
b) It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

White Cement
White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for color. Amounts of iron
oxide and manganese oxide are low in White Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not
economical for ordinary work.
Uses of White Cement:
a) It is usually used in decorative work.
b) It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles
patching materials, and terrazzo surfaces.

Colored Cement
To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types of pigments are
selected according to the desired color.
Uses of Colored Cement:
a) Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while applying cement increases
resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a
special type of cement which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete. It is produced by
grinding

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minute air entertaining materials with clinker by adding some resinous materials e.g. vinsol
resin to ordinary portland cement. When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low
temperature, it expands. When air-entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides space
for water to expand without cracking concrete. But this type of cement does not provide high
strength in concrete.
Uses of Air-Entraining Cement:

a) Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.

b) It also resists the Sulphet attack.
c) It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.

Expansive Cement
In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can be possible to
overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.
There are three types of expansive cement:

a) K Type expansive cement: Raw materials of these types of cement

i) Portland cement
ii) Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)
iii) Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
iv) Lime (CaO).

b) M Type expansive cement: Raw materials of these types of cement

i) Portland cement clinkers
ii) Calcium sulfate.

c) S Type expansive cement: Raw materials of these types of cement

i) Portland cement clinkers
ii) Calcium sulfate (High amount)
iii) Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement:

a) It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.
b) It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.
c) In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is used.

Hydrophobic Cement

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage, clinkers are ground with
water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid or Stearic Acid. These chemicals form a
layer on the cement particle and do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process.
When cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break and
start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which increases workability.

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Uses of Hydrophobic Cement:
a) Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams,
spillways, or other submerged structures.
b) It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc.

Manufacturing process of cement

The raw materials required for the manufacture of portland cement are calcareous materials
such as limestone or chalk and argillaceous material such as shale or clay. Cement factories
are to be set up in areas where raw materials are easily available. Production of cement is
performed of cement is performed in three stages. They are:
1. Mixing of raw materials in correct proportion
2. Burning of the mixture
3. Grinding
These process of producing cement is done in two ways; the wet process and the dry process,
depending upon whether the mixing and grinding of raw materials are done in wet or dry
conditions.

Wet process
Firstly the limestone is cursed into small pieces, then transfer into ball mill or tube mill and
mixed with clay or shale. Ball mill is in the form of a steel cylinder of about 2 m
diameter

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and length about 2 m. It is positioned in a horizontal position and rotates in a clockwise
direction. The inside of the cylinder is fitted with perforated curved plates and steel balls.
The material to be ground or mixed is fed from the top. During rotation, the material is
ground and mixed by striking against the curved plates and steel balls. The ground and mixed
material is collected at the bottom.

Figure 1::Wet process

The tube mill is in the form of a long horizontal cylinder of 1.5 m diameter and about 8 m
long. The cylinder is partly filled with steel balls of varying sizes from 20 to 25 mm
diameter. The action of the tube mill is similar to that of a ball mill.

Materials fed into the ball or tube mill are ground with the addition of water to a fine
consistency of slurry. The slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an
agitated condition. The slurry is checked for the correct composition frequently. The slurry is
stored in separate final storage tanks and agitated to keep the slurry in a homogeneous
condition. The correct slurry is sprayed on to the upper end of a rotary kiln. The sprayed
slurry passes on the hot surface of a flexible chain. Passing through the kiln of length 30–200
m, the slurry loses moisture and forms flakes. The flakes move from the top to the bottom of
the kiln for easy collection of flakes. The tube mill is in the form of a long horizontal cylinder
of 1.5 m diameter and about 8 m long. The cylinder is partly filled with steel balls of varying
sizes from 20 to 25 mm diameter. The action of the tube mill is similar to that of a ball mill.
Materials fed into the ball or tube mill are ground with the addition of water to a fine
consistency of slurry. The slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an
agitated condition. The slurry is checked for the correct composition frequently. The slurry
is

21
stored in separate final storage tanks and agitated to keep the slurry in a homogeneous
condition. The correct slurry is sprayed on to the upper end of a rotary kiln. The sprayed
slurry passes on the hot surface of a flexible chain. Passing through the kiln of length 30–200
m, the slurry loses moisture and forms flakes. The flakes move from the top to the bottom of
the kiln for easy collection of flakes.

Figure 2: Wet process

While passing through the kiln, the slurry undergoes a series of chemical reactions and gets
fused and turns into a nodular form of size 3–20 mm known as clinker. The clinker is then
cooled and ground in a ball mill with the addition of 3–5% of gypsum. Gypsum is added to
prevent quick setting of the cement. The manufacture of cement by the wet process is shown
by given flowchart below:

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Dry process
In the dry process, the raw materials are crushed dry, and the correct proportion of the
materials is fed into a grinding mill. In the grinding mill, they are dried and finely powdered.
The dry powder is then blended and corrected for its right composition and then mixed again
by means of compressed air. The aerated powder behaves similar to that of a liquid. The
blended mixture is sieved further and passed through a rotating disc called a granulator. In
order to make the mixture as pellets, a small amount of water (about 12%) is added. A small
kiln is sufficient for the dry process. This process consumes less quantities of coal and is
hence economical. The pellets are passed through the kiln and form flakes after undergoing a
series of chemical reactions and get fused. The fused material turns into nodular form of size
3–20 mm, known as clinker. Then the clinker is cooled and ground in a ball mill with the
addition of 2–3% of gypsum.

The stages in the manufacture of cement by the dry process are shown in the flowchart.

23
Setting and Hardening of the cement
Cement when mixed with water forms a plastic mass called cement paste. During hydration
reaction, gel and crystalline products are formed. The inter-locking of the crystals binds the
inert particles of the aggregates into a compact rock like material. This process of
solidification comprises of setting and hardening. Setting is defined as stiffening of the
original plastic mass due to initial gel formation. Hardening is development of strength,
due to crystallisation.
Due to the gradual progress of crystallisation in the interior mass of cement, hardening starts
after setting.The strength developed by cement paste at any time depends upon the amount of
gel formed and the extent of crystallisation. The setting and hardening of cement is due to the
formation of inter locking crystals reinforced by rigid gels formed by the hydration and
hydrolysis of the constitutional compounds.
Reactions involved in setting and hardening of cement:-
When cement is mixed with water, the paste becomes rigid within a short time which is
known as initial setting. This is due to the hydration of tricalcium aluminate and gel
formation of tetra calcium alumino ferrite.

Final setting and hardening of cement paste is due to the formation of tobermonite gel and
crystallisation of calcium hydroxide and hydrated tricalcium aluminate.

24
During setting and hardening of cement, some amount of heat is liberated due to hydration
and hydrolysis reactions. The quantity of heat evolved during Complete hydration of cement
is 500 KJ/Kg.

Sequence of chemical reactions during setting & hardening:

Grades of OPC
Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC) is the most widely used cement in the construction world. It
is the basic ingredient for producing concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-specialty grouts.
Ordinary Portland Cement is graded based on its strength. The grade indicates the
compressive strength of the mortar cube that will be attained after 28 days of setting.

The different grades of OPC are listed and discussed below:

1. OPC 33 Grade Cement: This grade of cement is used for general construction under
normal environmental condition. But low compressive strength and availability of
higher grades of cement have impacted the use and demand of OPC 33.
Compressive Strength of OPC 33:

2. OPC 43 Grade Cement: This grade of cement is the most popular cement used in the
country today. OPC 43 is used for general RCC construction where the grade of
concrete is up to M30. It is also used for the construction of precast items such as
blocks, tiles, asbestos products like sheets and pipes, and for non-structural works
such as plastering, flooring etc.
Compressive Strength of OPC 43:

25
 3. OPC 53 Grade Cement: OPC 53 is used when we need higher strength concrete at
very economical cement content. In concrete mix design, for concrete M20 and above
we can achieve 8 to 10% saving in cement with the use of OPC 53. This cement grade
is used for specialized works such as prestressed concrete components, precast items
such as paving blocks, building blocks etc, runways, concrete roads, bridges, and
other RCC works where the grade of concrete is M25 and above.
Compressive Strength of OPC 53:

Physical properties of OPC

Laboratory tests of cement

The following tests are conducted on cement in the laboratory:

1. Fineness Test
2. Consistency Test
3. Setting Time Test
4. Strength Test
5. Soundness Test
6. Tensile Strength Test
7. Heat of Hydration Test
8. Chemical Composition Test

1. Fineness Test: Fineness of cement is responsible for the rate of hydration and rate of
evolution of heat and hence on the rate of gain of strength. Finer the grains, more is
the surface area and faster the development of strength. The fineness of cement can be
determined by the following tests:

26
 a) Sieve Test: About 100 g of cement is weighed and sieved using a 90-micron
IS sieve. Air-set lumps are broken and the cement is sieved continuously in a
circular and vertical motion for a period of 15 minutes. A mechanical sieve
shaker may also be used. The residue left on the sieve is weighed. This weight
shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement. This test is rarely used.

b) Air Permeability Test: Fineness of cement is represented by the specific

surface, which is expressed as the total surface area in sq.cm/g. of cement.
Blaine’s Air Permeability Test is used to find the specific surface. The
principle is based on the relationship between the rate of flow of air through a
cement bed. The cement bed is of a given porosity comprising the surface area
of the particles. The surface area is more for finer particles.

2. Consistency Test: Consistency

Test is conducted to find the
setting times of cement, viz.,
initial setting time and final
setting time. The test is
conducted using a standard
consistency test apparatus, viz.,
Vicat’s apparatus.

Standard or normal consistency

of cement paste is defined as that
water content which will permit a
Vicat plunger of 10 mm diameter Figure 3: Consistency test
and 50 mm length to penetrate
depths of 33–35 mm within 3–5 minutes of mixing. The test has to be repeated thrice.
Each time the cement is mixed with water varying from 24 to 27% of the weight of
cement. It is required that the test be conducted at a constant temperature of 27 ± 2°C
and at a constant humidity of 20%. The test procedure is simple. The paste
prepared within 3–5 minutes is filled into the Vicat mould and shaken to expel air.
The standard needle is brought down to touch the surface of the paste and quickly
released allowing to sink into the paste by its own weight. The depth of the
penetration is noted. Then that percentage of water which allows the plunger to
penetrate only to a depth of 33–35 mm is known as the percentage of water required
to produce a cement paste of standard consistency.

3. Setting Time Test: Tests An arbitrary division has been made for the setting time of
cement as the initial setting time and final setting time. Vicat’s apparatus is used for
setting times also.
a) Initial Setting Time: About 500 g of the cement sample is taken and water
content 0.85 P, where P is the percentage of water required as per the
consistency test is added and made into a paste. The paste has to be mad
within a period of 3–5 minutes and filled into the mould. For this test, a needle
of 1 mm square size (needle C) is used. The needle is allowed to penetrate into
the paste. The time taken to penetrate 33–35 mm depth is taken as the initial
setting time.

27
 b) Final Setting Time: The needle C is replaced by needle F. The attachment is
lowered gently to cover the surface of the test block. The central needle makes
an impression, whereas the circular cutting edge fails to do so. That is, the
paste has attained hardness, and the centre needle does not penetrate the paste
more than 0.5 mm. Thus, the time at which the needle does not penetrate more
than 0.5 mm is considered to be the final setting time.

4. Strength Test: The strength of cement can not be determined directly on cement.
Instead the strength of cement is indirectly determined on cement-mortar of 1:3, and
the compressive strength of this mortar is the strength of cement at a specific period.
For this test, 555 g of standard sand and 185 g of cement is mixed with water quantity
P/4 + 3% of the combined weight of the cement and sand mixture. These are mixed
thoroughly within 3–4 minutes. The mixed paste is filled in a cube mould of size 7.06
mm, which has a face area of 50 sq cm. The mortar is compacted by a tamping rod or
in a vibrator. The moulds have to be kept in a room with a controlled temperature of
27 ± 2°C and at least 90% humidity. If this facility is not available, the moulds are
kept under a wet gunny bag to simulate 90% relative humidity. The cubes are
removed from the mould after 24 hours and kept immersed in clean water till taken
out for testing. Three cubes are tested for compressive strength after a specific period
(viz., 3, 7 or 28 days). The period is being reckoned from the completion of vibration.
The average compressive strength of the three cubes gives the strength of cement at
the specific period.

5. Soundness Test: The Soundness

Test is performed to detect the
presence of uncombined lime and
magnesia in cement. This test is
conducted in Le Chatelier’s
apparatus. It consists of a small
brass cylinder of 30 mm diameter,
30 mm height and
0.5 mm thickness, which is split
along its generation with the split Figure 4: Soundness Test
not exceeding 0.5 mm. On either
sides of the split, two indicators with pointed ends are provided.

The cement paste is prepared with water content at consistency. The cylinder is
placed over a glass plate and is filled with the cement paste. It is covered with another
glass plate on the top. The whole assembly is immersed in water at 24–35°C for 24
hours. After 24 hours, the gap between the indicators is measured. The mould with
the specimen is immersed in water again and boiled for 30 minutes. After boiling for
1 hour, the mould is taken out and cooled. Again the gap between the indicators is
measured after the end of cooling. The increase in gap represents the expansion of
cement.

Tensile Strength Test: This test is conducted using a cement-

mortar briquette in a tensile testing machine. The dimensions of
the briquette are shown.
28
 A 1:3 cement–sand mortar with water content of 8% is mixed and moulded into a
briquette in the mould. It is cured for 24 hours at a temperature of 27 ± 2°C and for 24
hours in an atmosphere at 90% relative humidity. The briquette is tested under direct
tension, the pull being applied through special jaws engaging the wide ends of the
briquette. The area of cross-section at the neck is 1 sq inch (i.e., 25.4 mm × 25.4 mm).
The average strength for six briquettes tested after 3 and 7 days is recorded.

6. Heat of Hydration Test: During hydration of cement, heat is produced due to chemical
reactions. In a large-scale construction this heat may raise the temperature of concrete
to a high degree to as high as 50°C. In such cases low-heat cement has to be used or
cooling methods must be employed. The test is conducted using a calorimeter
adopting the principle of determining heat gain. Low-heat cement should not generate
65 calories per gram of cement in 7 days and 75 calories per gram of cement in 28
days.
7. Chemical Composition Test: Different tests are conducted to determine the quantity
of various constituents of cement. The requirements as stipulated in IS: 269–1998 are
as follows:

Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide ⊀ 0.66

Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), i.e., ratio of percentage to that of ⊀ 0.66 and ⊁1.02
alumina, iron oxide and silica

Total loss on ignition ⊁4%

Total sulphur content ⊁2.75%

Weight of insoluble residue ⊁1.50%

Weight of magnesia ⊁5%

Aggregates

Aggregates are fundamental building blocks

of construction materials, serving as the
essential components in various construction
applications. They are granular materials,
29
typically derived from natural sources like crushed stone, gravel, sand, or even recycled
materials like crushed concrete or slag. Aggregates play a crucial role in the construction
industry, providing structural stability, durability, and versatility to a wide range of projects.
They are mixed with cement and water to create concrete, forming the backbone of buildings,
bridges, roads, and other infrastructure. In asphalt mixes, aggregates provide strength and
resistance to wear and tear on road surfaces. The characteristics of aggregates, including
particle size, shape, and quality, significantly impact the properties of the final construction
material. Properly selected and graded aggregates enhance the workability, strength, and
longevity of concrete and asphalt, ensuring the integrity and safety of structures. Aggregates
are the essential ingredients that enable the construction industry to build safe, reliable, and
enduring structures that form the backbone of modern society's infrastructure.

Fine Aggregates (Sand)

Fine aggregates are essential components in

construction materials, typically consisting of
small, granular particles that help bind together
the larger components like cement and coarse
aggregates in concrete and mortar mixes. They
play a crucial role in determining the strength,
workability, and durability of the
final construction product. There are three
common types of fine aggregates: pit sand,
river sand, and sea sand, each with distinct Figure 7: Fine aggregate (sand)
Figure 5: Fine Aggregate (Sand)
characteristics.

1. Pit Sand: Pit sand is obtained by digging or excavating sand from local pits or
quarries. It is coarse and angular in texture, making it suitable for construction
purposes. Pit sand is readily available and cost-effective, making it a popular choice
in many construction projects.

2. River Sand: River sand is naturally occurring sand extracted from riverbeds. It is
well-rounded and generally considered the ideal choice for fine aggregates due to its
smooth texture and consistent particle size. River sand is highly sought after in
construction for its excellent workability and strength-enhancing properties.

3. Sea Sand: Sea sand is obtained from coastal areas and beaches. While it is abundant,
it is less preferred for construction due to its high salt content, which can lead to
corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures. To use sea sand in
construction, it often requires extensive processing to remove salt and impurities.

Fine aggregates, whether sourced from pits, rivers, or seas, are vital in construction for their
ability to improve the quality and performance of building materials. The choice of fine
aggregate depends on factors like availability, cost, and the specific requirements of the
construction project.
30
Classification of Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregates can be classified based on their fineness, and they are typically categorized
into three main groups: fine sand, medium sand, and coarse sand. Each classification has
distinct characteristics and applications:

1. Fine Sand: Fine sand consists of the finest particles among fine aggregates. It has a
smooth texture and is often used in applications where a very fine finish is required,
such as in plastering and fine concrete work. Fine sand is typically found in riverbeds
and is prized for its uniformity and workability.

2. Medium Sand: Medium sand falls between fine and coarse sand in terms of particle
size. It is versatile and commonly used in a wide range of construction projects,
including concrete production, masonry work, and bedding for pipes and utilities.
Medium sand can be sourced from various locations, including riverbeds and
quarries.

3. Very Fine Sand: Very fine sand, also known as silt, consists of smaller particles than
fine sand. It can be used in specialized applications where a high degree of fineness is
required, such as in the production of lightweight concrete or as a filler in certain
types of grout.

4. Clayey or Silty Sand: This category includes sands with a significant proportion of
clay or silt particles. While not typically used as primary fine aggregates in
construction, they can sometimes be found in natural deposits. These materials may
require additional processing or blending with other aggregates to improve their suitability
for construction purposes.

5. Manufactured Sand (M-Sand): M-Sand is a type of fine aggregate produced by

crushing hard stones or rocks. It is engineered to have a consistent particle size
distribution and is often used as a substitute for natural river sand, especially when
river sand is scarce or regulated.

The classification of fine aggregates based on fineness helps builders select the most suitable
material for their specific construction needs. Fine sand offers a smooth finish, medium sand
is versatile, and coarse sand provides strength and stability. The availability of these sands
varies depending on geographical location and can be sourced from riverbeds, quarries, and
coastal regions.

Bulking of Sand

31
Bulking of sand is a phenomenon that occurs when dry sand absorbs moisture and increases
in volume. This increase in volume can affect the accuracy of measurements and proportions
in construction materials, particularly in concrete and mortar mixes. It is an important
consideration when working with sand in construction.

Figure 8: Bulking of sand

When sand is completely dry, its particles are loosely packed, leaving spaces between them.
However, when moisture is introduced, it forms a thin film around the sand particles, causing
them to repel each other due to electrostatic forces. This repulsion between the particles leads
to an expansion or increase in the volume of the sand. As a result, the same weight of damp
or moist sand occupies a larger volume than the same weight of dry sand. Bulking of sand is
typically expressed as a percentage increase in volume when sand changes from a dry state to
a saturated or moist state. The extent of bulking can vary depending on factors such as the
type of sand, particle size distribution, and the amount of moisture added. In construction, it
is important to account for the bulking of sand when measuring and proportioning materials
for concrete and mortar mixes. Failure to do so can result in mixtures that are too dry, leading
to reduced workability and potentially weaker structures. To compensate for bulking,
construction professionals often adjust the sand-to-cement ratio or add extra water to
maintain the desired consistency and strength of the mix.

Properties of Sand
1. Particle Size Distribution: Sand consists of a range of particle sizes, from fine to
coarse. Its particle size distribution significantly influences its properties.
2. Grain Shape: The shape of sand grains can vary from rounded to angular. Rounded
grains typically offer better workability, while angular grains can enhance the strength
of concrete.
3. Color: Sand can have various colors depending on its mineral composition. Common
32
 colors include beige, white, gray, and reddish-brown.
4. Density: The density of sand varies depending on its composition, but it is generally
in the range of 2,500 to 3,000 kg/m³.

Fineness Modulus
The fineness modulus (FM) is a measure of the particle size distribution of fine aggregates
like sand. It quantifies the fineness or coarseness of the aggregate. The FM is calculated by
dividing the sum of the cumulative percentages of retained material on a set of standard
sieves by 100. A lower FM indicates finer sand, while a higher FM suggests coarser
sand. The formula for calculating the fineness modulus is as follows:
FM = (Σ Cumulative % Retained on Sieves) / 100

Tests for Sand Quality

1. Sieve Analysis: This test involves passing a sample of sand through a series of
standard sieves with different mesh sizes to determine its particle size distribution.
The results are used to calculate the fineness modulus.
2. Grain Shape and Surface Texture: Microscopic examination or visual inspection can
assess the shape and surface texture of sand grains. Rounded and smooth grains are
typically preferred for better workability.
3. Specific Gravity: This test measures the specific gravity of sand particles, which is the
ratio of the weight of a given volume of sand to the weight of an equal volume of
water. It helps in assessing the quality of sand and its suitability for use in concrete
mixes.
4. Moisture Content: Determining the moisture content of sand is crucial, as excess
moisture can lead to bulking and affect the mix proportions. The sand should be
adequately dry for accurate measurements and mixing.
5. Clay and Silt Content: Sand should be tested for the presence of clay and silt, as
excessive amounts of these fine particles can negatively impact the workability and
strength of concrete mixes.
6. Organic Impurities: A test for organic impurities helps identify the presence of
materials like humus, which can affect the setting and strength of concrete.
7. Soundness Test: This test evaluates the resistance of sand to volume changes due to
physical or chemical reactions. It helps assess the durability of concrete made with
the sand.
8. Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) Test: In regions where ASR is a concern, this test
assesses the potential for sand to react with
alkalis in concrete and cause expansion
and cracking over time.

Coarse Aggregates

Coarse aggregates, a vital component in

construction materials, are larger-sized particles
typically ranging from about 3/8 inch to 1.5 inches
in diameter. They are fundamental to the Figure 9: Coarse aggregate
construction industry, playing a pivotal role in
enhancing the strength and durability of various
33
structures. These aggregates are primarily
composed of crushed stone, gravel, or recycled concrete. Their selection is crucial as they
significantly impact the properties of concrete mixes. Coarse aggregates contribute to the
compressive strength of concrete by providing structural
Figure 4: Coarse Aggregate
stability and load-bearing capacity. The interlocking
properties of these larger particles help distribute loads effectively, making them
indispensable in constructing sturdy buildings, bridges, pavements, and other infrastructure.

The shape of coarse aggregates varies from rounded to angular, depending on their source
material. Angular aggregates, with their ability to create better interlocking and frictional
resistance, are preferred for applications where high strength is essential. Coarse aggregates
are commonly used in the production of concrete for building foundations, structural
columns, and precast elements. They also find extensive use in asphalt mixes for road
construction, where their strength and durability are crucial to withstand heavy traffic loads
and environmental factors. To ensure the quality and performance of coarse aggregates, they
must be free from contaminants like clay, silt, organic matter, and deleterious substances that
can weaken the concrete. Proper grading and selection of aggregates are essential to achieve
the desired workability and strength in concrete mixes. In essence, coarse aggregates serve as
the backbone of construction materials, enabling the construction industry to create robust
and long-lasting structures that form the foundation of modern infrastructure.

Characteristics
Coarse aggregates possess several key characteristics that make them essential components in
construction materials. These characteristics include:

1. Particle Size: Coarse aggregates are composed of relatively large-sized particles,

typically ranging from 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) to 1.5 inches (37.5 mm) in diameter. This
substantial particle size distinguishes them from fine aggregates like sand.

2. Strength Enhancement: Coarse aggregates significantly contribute to the compressive

strength of concrete and other construction materials. Their ability to distribute and
bear loads effectively makes them essential for creating durable and load-bearing
structures.

3. Shape: Coarse aggregates can exhibit various shapes, from rounded to angular,
depending on their source material. Angular aggregates tend to provide better
interlocking and frictional resistance, which can enhance the overall strength of
concrete.

4. Density: Coarse aggregates have a density ranging from approximately 2,400 to 2,900
kg/m³ (150 to 180 pounds per cubic foot), depending on the specific material. This
density affects the weight and volume of concrete mixes.

5. Applications: Coarse aggregates find application in a wide range of construction

projects, including the production of concrete for building foundations, structural
elements like columns and beams, pavements, bridges, and precast concrete
34
 components. They are also integral to asphalt mixes for road construction.

6. Gradation: Proper gradation of coarse aggregates is crucial to achieve the desired

workability and strength in concrete mixes. Gradation refers to the distribution of
particle sizes within the aggregate and is specified to meet project requirements.

7. Quality Control: Coarse aggregates must meet quality standards and be free from
contaminants such as clay, silt, organic matter, and deleterious substances that could
weaken the concrete. Quality control measures are essential to ensure the performance
and longevity of construction materials and structures.

Coarse aggregates are characterized by their large particle size, strength-enhancing

properties, various shapes, and suitability for a wide range of construction applications.
These characteristics make them indispensable in the construction industry for creating
sturdy and durable structures that form the basis of modern infrastructure. Proper selection,
grading, and quality control of coarse aggregates are essential to ensure the success of
construction projects.

Grading
The grading of coarse aggregates refers to the
distribution of particle sizes within the aggregate
material. Proper grading is essential in the
construction industry, particularly in the
production of concrete and asphalt mixes, as it
directly influences the workability, strength, and
durability of the resulting construction materials.
There are two common methods used for grading
coarse aggregates:
1. Gap Grading: Gap grading involves Figure 10: Grading
selecting aggregate particles in such a way
that there are gaps or voids between them. This means that certain particle sizes are
intentionally excluded from the aggregate mix. Gap grading is typically used to
reduce the amount of fine particles in the aggregate, which can improve workability
and reduce the risk of segregation in concrete mixes. It is often employed when
producing high-strength concrete or when specific engineering requirements demand
a certain balance of particle sizes.

2. Continuous Grading: Continuous grading, also known as well-graded aggregate,

involves using a wide range of particle sizes in the aggregate mix. In this method,
aggregates are selected to have a continuous distribution of sizes, from the largest to the
smallest particles. Well-graded aggregates are commonly used in concrete and asphalt mixes
for most general construction applications. They provide good workability and help ensure
that the mix is dense and has the desired strength characteristics.

35
The grading of coarse
aggregates is typically
specified by a grading
curve, which represents
the percentage of
aggregate retained on
each sieve in a series of
standard sieves. The curve
is plotted on a graph, with
sieve size on the x-axis
and the cumulative
percentage retained on the
y-axis. The shape of the
grading curve provides
information about the
aggregate's particle size
distribution.

Proper grading of coarse

aggregates is essential to meet the desired performance and quality standards of construction
materials. It ensures that the aggregate mix is well-balanced, with adequate proportions of
different particle sizes to achieve the required workability, strength, and durability in
concrete and asphalt mixes. Engineers and construction professionals carefully select and
control the grading of coarse aggregates to optimize the performance of their construction
projects.

Proportioning of Fine to Coarse Aggregates

The proportioning of fine to coarse aggregates in concrete mixes is a crucial aspect of
concrete design. It determines the workability, strength, and durability of the concrete. The

36
ratio of fine to coarse aggregates is typically expressed as the "aggregate/cement ratio" or
"A/C ratio." This ratio can vary depending on the specific requirements of the construction
project, the type of concrete mix, and the desired properties of the final product.

Here are some general guidelines for proportioning fine to coarse aggregates in concrete
mixes:

1. Workability: The A/C ratio affects the workability of the concrete. Higher proportions
of fine aggregates relative to coarse aggregates result in a more workable mix, which
can be easier to place and finish. Conversely, lower A/C ratios may yield a stiffer,
less workable mix.

2. Strength: The A/C ratio also influences the strength of the concrete. In general, a
balanced proportion of fine and coarse aggregates (A/C ratio around 0.5 to 0.6) is
often used for most structural concrete mixes to achieve a good balance between
workability and strength. However, specific project requirements may dictate
variations in this ratio.

3. Durability: The durability of concrete can be affected by the A/C ratio. In some cases,
using a higher proportion of fine aggregates (A/C ratio closer to 0.4) may be
recommended for improved durability, especially in aggressive environments where
resistance to factors like chemical attack or abrasion is critical.

4. Economy: The cost of materials can also influence the A/C ratio. Fine aggregates are
usually less expensive than coarse aggregates, so adjusting the ratio can impact the
overall cost of the concrete mix. However, cost considerations should always be
balanced with performance requirements.

5. Specific Mix Designs: For certain specialized concrete applications, such as

lightweight concrete or self-compacting concrete, the proportion of fine to coarse
aggregates may deviate significantly from standard ratios to achieve specific
properties or characteristics.

37
The general A/C (Aggregate/Cement) ratio used in standard concrete mixes typically falls in
the range of 0.5 to 0.6. In other words, for every unit of cement used in the mix, there are
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 units of combined fine and coarse aggregates. This ratio is a
common starting point for many structural concrete applications and provides a good balance
between workability and strength.

Here's a breakdown of how the A/C ratio affects concrete mixes:

1. A/C Ratio of 0.5: This ratio indicates a balanced mix of fine and coarse aggregates.
It's often used for general-purpose concrete in many construction projects. The
resulting concrete has decent workability and satisfactory compressive strength
.
2. A/C Ratio of 0.6: This slightly higher ratio leans towards a mix with more fine
aggregates relative to coarse aggregates. It can result in a more workable concrete
mix, making it easier to handle and place. This ratio is sometimes preferred when ease
of placement is a priority.

It's important to note that these A/C ratios are general guidelines and can vary based on
factors such as local materials, project specifications, and desired concrete properties. In
some cases, the A/C ratio may be adjusted to achieve specific performance goals, such as
increased strength, improved durability, or reduced cost. For specialized concrete
applications, such as lightweight concrete or high-strength concrete, the A/C ratio may
deviate significantly from the standard range to meet the unique requirements of the project.
Engineers and concrete mix designers carefully assess these factors to determine the most
suitable A/C ratio for each specific application.

Steel

Steel is one of the most versatile and useful materials on

the planet. Steel mainly consists of iron (Fe) and carbon
(C), but the modern steel is more complex than that.
Steel’s characteristics and strength are affected by the
concentration of carbon and iron or the inclusion of
other elements, which allows steel to be used in an
infinite number of scenarios.
Figure 11: Steel
Most people believe that steel is just a set combination of
iron and carbon. But there are in fact over 3,500 different grades of steel! You can determine
the grade of steel by analyzing the quantity of carbon in it, the other alloying elements it
includes as well as how it’s processed. Many other elements may be present or added.
Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically need an additional
11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is used in buildings,
infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture,
and weapons.Iron is commonly found in the Earth's crust in the form of an ore, usually
an iron oxide, such as magnetite or hematite. Iron is extracted from iron ore by removing
the oxygen through its combination with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon which
is then lost to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
There are many different types of steel, each with its own properties and applications. Some
53
common categories of steel include:

Carbon Steel

Aside from carbon and iron, carbon steels contain only

trace amounts of other components. Carbon steels are the
most common of the four steel grades, accounting for 90%
of total steel production! Carbon steel is classified into
three subgroups based on the amount of carbon in the
metal. It is commonly used structurally in buildings and
bridges, axles, gears, shafts, rails, pipelines and couplings,
cars, fridges and washing machines.
Figure 12: Carbon Steel

1. Low carbon steels/mild steels (up to 0.3% carbon)

2. Medium carbon steels (0.3–0.6% carbon)
3. High carbon steels (more than 0.6% carbon)

Mild Steel

Mild steel is a type of carbon steel with a low amount of carbon.

Metal Supermarkets offers a variety of shapes and grades of
mild steel, cut to the size, including: Hot and cold rolled,
commercial quality, galvanized, and structural (welded).

Figure 13: Mild Steel

Key characteristics of mild steel include:
1. Low Carbon Content: The low carbon content makes mild steel relatively soft and
easy to work with. It can be easily shaped, cut, and welded.

2. Strength: While not as strong as higher-carbon steels or other alloyed metals, mild
steel still offers sufficient strength for many everyday applications.

3. Ductility: Mild steel is quite ductile, meaning it can be stretched without breaking.
This property is useful in applications where deformation is required, such as in metal
forming processes.

4. Malleability: Mild steel can be easily molded and formed into various shapes without
cracking or breaking.

5. Weldability: It has good weldability, making it a popular choice for welding and
fabrication projects.

54
 6. Affordability: Mild steel is relatively inexpensive compared to other types of steel,
which contributes to its widespread use.

7. Corrosion Resistance: Mild steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion due to its low
carbon content. To enhance its resistance to corrosion, it's often coated with paint,
galvanized, or used in indoor applications.

Medium Carbon Steels

Medium carbon steel is carbon steel that contains

between 0.30 and 0.60 percent carbon. It also has a
manganese content between 0.6 and 1.65 percent.
This type of steel provides a good balance between
strength and ductility, and it is common in many
types of steel parts. The treatment of medium carbon
steel with heat significantly changes the mechanical
properties, such as ductility, hardness and strength.
Heat treatment of steel slightly affects other
properties such as its ability to conduct heat and Figure 14: Medium Carbon Steels
electricity as well.

High Carbon Steels

High carbon steel is often chosen for it high strength

and resistance properties. It is moderately ductile,
which means it can be deformed without breaking.
High carbon steel in particular has “memory,” which
means once the material is stretched, it will expand
back into the shape it was formed in.

Use of high carbon steel are:

Figure 15: High Carbon Ssteels
1. Springs and Wire
2. Automotive Components
3. Railways Track
4. Ball Bearings
5. Hand Tools
6. Surgical Instruments

Stainless Steel
55
Stainless steel grades are alloyed with 10–20%
chromium as well as nickel, silicon, manganese,
and carbon. Because of their increased capacity to
survive adverse weather these steels have
phenomenally high corrosion resistance and are
safe to use in outdoor construction. Stainless steel
grades are also commonly used in electrical
devices. For example, 304 stainless steel is widely
sought after for its ability to withstand the
Environment, while keeping electrical materials safe. While different stainless steel grades,
including 304 stainless steel, have a place in buildings, stainless steel is more often sought
after for its sanitary properties. These steels are widely found in medical devices, pipes,
pressure vessels, cutting instruments and food processing machinery.f

Tool Steel

Tool steel is designed to have exceptional hardness, wear

resistance, and toughness. It is used for making cutting
tools, molds, and other equipment used in manufacturing
and machining processes. Tool steels, as the name
suggests, excel in cutting and drilling equipment. The
presence of tungsten, Molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium
helps improve heat resistance and general durability. And
because they hold their shape even under heavy use, they
are the preferred material for most hand tools.
Figure 17: Tool Steel

Alloy Steel

Alloy steel contains additional elements beyond carbon and iron, such as chromium, nickel,
or molybdenum, to achieve specific properties like increased strength, heat resistance, or
corrosion resistance. Alloy steel is often used in applications such as aircraft components,
automotive parts, and structural engineering.

High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel

This type of steel contains small amounts of alloying elements to enhance its mechanical
properties. HSLA steel is known for its high strength and improved formability compared to
regular carbon steel, making it suitable for applications like bridges and pipelines.

Galvanized Steel

Galvanized steel is coated with a layer of zinc to protect it from corrosion. This type of
steel is commonly used in outdoor structures, fencing, and roofing.

Weathering Steel

1. Weathering steel, also known as Corten steel, develops a protective layer of rust on its
56
 surface, which helps to slow down further corrosion. It is often used in outdoor
sculptures and architectural elements.

Manufacturing of Steel

Bessemer process

Bessemer process, the first method discovered for

mass-producing steel. Though named after Sir Henry
Bessemer of England, the process evolved from the
contributions of many investigators before it could
be used on a broad commercial basis. It was
apparently conceived independently and almost
concurrently by Bessemer and by William Kelly of
the United States. As early as 1847, Kelly, a
businessman-scientist of Pittsburgh, began
experiments aimed at developing a revolutionary
means of removing impurities from pig iron by an air
blast. Kelly theorized that not only would the air, Figure 18: Bessemer Process
injected into the molten iron, supply oxygen to react
with the impurities, converting them into oxides separable as slag, but that the heat evolved
in these reactions would increase the temperature of the mass, keeping it from solidifying
during the operation. After several failures, he succeeded in proving his theory and rapidly
producing steel ingots.

Materials processing:
The cycle of manufacturing processes that converts materials into parts and products starts
immediately after the raw materials are either extracted from minerals or produced from
basic chemicals or natural substances. Metallic raw materials are usually produced in two
steps. Second, additional processes such as smelting and alloying are used to produce the
metal that is to be fabricated into parts that are eventually assembled into a product. Plastic
resins are produced by chemical methods in powder, pellet, putty, or liquid form. Synthetic
rubber is also made by chemical techniques, being produced, as is natural rubber, in such
forms as slabs, sheeting, crepe, and foam for fabricating into finished parts. The processes
used to convert raw materials into finished products perform one or both of two major
functions: first, they form the material into the desired shape, and, second, they alter or
improve the properties of the material. Forming and shaping processes may be classified into
two broad types—those performed on the material in a liquid state and those performed on
57
the material in a solid or plastic condition. The processing of materials in liquid form is
commonly known as casting when it involves metals, glass, and ceramics; it is called
molding when applied to plastics and some other nonmetallic materials. Materials in their
solid state are formed into desired shapes by the application of a force or pressure. Processing
of metals in the solid state can be divided into two major stages: first, the raw material in the
form of large ingots or billets is hot-worked, usually by rolling, forging, or extrusion, into
smaller shapes and sizes; second, these shapes are processed into final parts and products by
one or more smaller scale hot or cold forming processes.

Tool and Cutter Grinder:

In almost all of them, machining involves the forcing of a cutting tool against the material to
be shaped. There are four basic non-cutting removal processes: (1) In chemical milling the
metal is removed by the etching reaction of chemical solutions on the metal; although usually
applied to metals, it can also be used on plastics and glass. (3) Electrical discharge machining
and grinding erodes or cuts the metal by high-energy sparks or electrical discharges. And (4)
laser machining cuts metallic or refractory materials with an intense beam of light from a
laser.

Arc Welding:

In most joining processes, a bond between two pieces of material is produced by application
of one or a combination of three kinds of energy: thermal, chemical, or mechanical. The
properties of materials can be further altered by hot or cold treatments, by mechanical
operations, and by exposure to some forms of radiation. There are two broad groups of
finishing processes, those in which a coating, usually of a different material, is applied to the
surface and those in which the surface of the material is changed by chemical action, heat, or
mechanical force.

Finally, “finishing” processes may be employed to modify the surfaces of materials in order
to protect the material against deterioration by corrosion, oxidation, mechanical wear, or
deformation; to provide special surface characteristics such as reflectivity, electrical
conductivity or insulation, or bearing properties; or to give the material special decorative
effects. There are two broad groups of finishing processes, those in which a coating, usually
of a different material, is applied to the surface and those in which the surface of the material
is changed by chemical action, heat, or mechanical force. The first group includes metallic
coating, such as electroplating; organic finishing, such as painting; and porcelain enameling.

Open-Heart Process

The open fire process, also called the Siemens-

Martin process, is a steelmaking technique that
was responsible for most of the world's steel
during most of the 20th century. In the 1860s,
William Siemens, a German living in England,
who was looking for a way to increase the

58

Figure 19: Open-Heart Process

temperature of a metallurgical furnace, revived the old proposal of using waste heat extracted
from the furnace; directing the fumes from the furnace through the brick, he heated the brick
to a high temperature and then used the same path to supply air to the furnace; the preheated
air significantly increased the flame temperature.The furnace is charged with liquid blast-
furnace iron and steel scrap together with iron ore, limestone, dolomite, and fluxes. The
furnace itself is made of highly refractory materials such as magnesite bricks for the hearths
and roofs. Capacities of open-hearth furnaces are as high as 600 tons, and they are usually
installed in groups, so that the massive auxiliary equipment needed to charge the furnaces
and handle the liquid steel can be efficiently employed. Though the open-hearth process has
been almost completely replaced in most industrialized countries by the basic oxygen
process and the electric arc furnace, it nevertheless accounts for about one-sixth of all steel
produced worldwide.

Physical Properties

Physical properties are the characteristics of matter that may be observed and measured.
However, the measurement of a physical property may change the position of matter in a
sample but not the structure of its molecules.

Some of the physical properties of steel as per IS 800 : 2007 are as follows:

1. Unit mass of steel: Density is the mass per unit volume. We require this property to
find the dead load of the member. The density of steel is; ρ=7850kg/m3
2. Modulus of elasticity: The Elastic Modulus is the measure of the stiffness of a
material. The value of steel is; E=2.0×105N/mm2
3. Poisson ratio: Poisson’s ratio measures the deformation in the material in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. Poisson’s ratio of steel is; μ=0.3
4. Modulus of rigidity: The modulus of rigidity shows the beam’s torsion capacity; i.e.,
the more rigidity, the more the torsion carrying capacity. The modulus of rigidity of
steel is; G=0.769×105N/mm2.
5. Coefficient of thermal expansion: This describes how the size of an object changes
with a change in temperature. The coefficient. of thermal expansion for
steel is; α=12×106/∘C.

Factor Affecting Physical Properties Of Steel

1. Carbon Content: The carbon content in steel has a significant impact on its properties.
Increasing carbon content generally leads to higher hardness and strength, but it can
also decrease ductility and toughness. The balance between these properties depends
on the intended use of the steel.

2. Alloying Elements: Addition of alloying elements like chromium, nickel,

molybdenum, and others can modify the properties of steel. These elements can
enhance corrosion resistance, heat resistance, and other specific characteristics.

59
3. Heat Treatment: Heat treatment processes like annealing, quenching, and tempering
can greatly influence the properties of steel. Heat treatment alters the microstructure
of the steel, affecting factors such as hardness, strength, and toughness.

4. Cooling Rate: The rate at which steel is cooled after being heated can impact its grain
structure. Rapid cooling, as in quenching, can result in a harder but more brittle
structure, while slower cooling, as in annealing, can produce a softer and more ductile
structure.

5. Processing Techniques: The way steel is processed, including rolling, forging, and
machining, can influence its final properties. These techniques affect factors such as
grain size, orientation, and overall structure.

6. Microstructure: The arrangement of crystals,

also known as the microstructure, is crucial
to steel's properties. Different
microstructures, such as ferrite, pearlite,
martensite, and austenite, offer varying
levels of hardness, toughness, and strength.

7. Impurities and Inclusions: Impurities and

non-metallic inclusions in steel can affect its
mechanical properties and susceptibility to
corrosion. Steelmakers take steps to control
Figure 20: Impurities and Inclusions
the level of impurities to ensure desired
quality.

8. Forming and Welding: Steel's response to

forming processes (such as bending or
shaping) and welding can be influenced by
its
composition and microstructure. Improper welding techniques can introduce
weaknesses in the material.

9. Environmental Factors: The environment in which steel is used can impact its
corrosion resistance. Factors like humidity, temperature, and exposure to chemicals or
saltwater can affect the rate of corrosion.
10. Surface Treatment: Applying coatings, such as galvanization or painting, can provide
additional protection against corrosion and alter steel's appearance.

11. Design and Engineering: The design of components and structures that use steel must
consider factors like load distribution, stress levels, and expected service conditions.
Proper design can optimize the performance and longevity of steel structures.

12. Quality of Raw Materials: The quality of the raw materials used in steel production,
including iron ore and scrap metal, can affect the final properties of the steel product.

60
Defects in Steel Production

1. Roll Marks: The quality of the processing plant can often be blamed for many steel
defects. For example, rolling marks are one of
these problems and they usually appear on steel
sheets. Although it can also occur in thick-walled
products such as blanks, it is more common in
sheet materials. Roller marks are sometimes called
bruises, roller bruises or whip marks. One trace
mark also has an aesthetic effect on the steel
material. They usually do not affect the quality of
the product and are mostly discarded during the
production process. But the situation is Figure 21: Roll Marks
completely different when the rolling marks seem
to stand out a little and feel rough to the touch. These problems are not visible to the
eye during the primary processes such as hot rolling, but are much more visible in the
subsequent techniques performed to completely flatten the steel sheet.

2. Quench Cracking: Quenching is a process that’s used on most alloys and metals. This
is arguable because the material is constantly subject to extreme heat and temperature
changes that can affect its inner workings. When a steel product, like a 4140 chrome
steel billet, for example, is subject to a rapid application of low temperatures, cracks
may begin to form on its surface. Fortunately, quench cracking can be avoided by
manufacturers through a series of changes.

Pinchers: Pinchers usually appear as uneven ridges or grooves

that may surface on the metal. It’s more ubiquitous in steel
products that have to be rolled, such as billets, pipes, or tubes.
Unless manufacturers are trying to design a reinforced steel bar, the
presence of pinchers isn’t really ideal. But the problem can be
diagnosed by inspecting the quality of the components used,
especially the rollers. Ideally, pinchers shouldn’t really be
present at all, but they don’t really have any harrowing effects on the
quality of the steel product. This is because they can only be
spotted microscopically and have more of a design implication. In Figure 22: Pinchers
cases wherein the pinchers are too prominent, however, then the
steel fabricators can make several changes on the tension force of the strip or the speed of casting.

3. Oxide Scales: Steel that has a higher silicon content can produce another iron oxide
form on the surface. These layers of iron oxides — i.e. magnetite, hematite, ferrous
oxide, and the like — form during the heating process in steel rolling techniques.
They appear distinctively gray in color with a blue hue to them in some cases. While
61
 the scales can easily be removed through polishing and sanding, they generally don’t
have any effects on the functionality of the steel product. But if there is a need to
avoid them completely, then the rolling process should be done in a controlled
environment with the presence of an inert gas. This ensures that no chemical reaction
between the surrounding air composition and the fabricated steel material will occur.

Treatment of steel

1. Mechanical Treatment
Steel is heated to a temperature higher than its transformation
point to form austenite; then the steel is quickly cooled to
form martensite. This process increases the hardness and
strength of the steel without changing its shape, but the steel
becomes more brittle.

Figure 23: Mechanical Treatment

Drawing: This operation is performed to reduce the cross-
section and increase the length. In this operation, the metal is pulled through dice or specially
shaped tools. The drawing is continued until the required diameter wire or cross-section is
obtained. This process is used for making- wires and spokes.

62
Forging: The foraging operation is carried out by repeated blows under a power hammer or
press. The metal is heated over a critical temperature range. It is then placed on the figure and
subjected to a hammer blow. This process increases the density and improves the grain size
of the metal. Rewriting belongs to counterfeiting operations. This process is used for the
manufacture of bolts, clamps, etc. In the case of the former, steel is free to spread in all
directions as it is hammered. In the latter case, steel flows under the blows of a hammer to fill
the inside of a die, and the excess material is forced out through a special groove, and then it
is cut off. Die-forged parts have very accurate dimensions.

Pressing: This is a slow process and is carried out on devices called presses. The main
advantage of this process is that it does not involve any trauma. The press mainly consists of
die and punch. Die and punch arc in the appropriate shape to get the article of the desired
shape. The metal is placed on the die and then the punch is dropped under heavy pressure.
The metal is thus pressed between the die and the punch and an article of the desired shape is
obtained. For preparing articles with wide changes of shape1 pressing is to be carried out in
different stages. This process is helpful when a large number of similar engineering articles
are to be produced.

Rolling:
This operation is carried out in specially made rolling mills. Ingots, when the still red is hot,
are shipped sequentially through various rollers until the articles of desired shapes are
obtained. A variety of shapes such as angles, channels, flats, joists, rails, etc. are obtained by
the rolling process. It is also possible to make jointless tubing with the help of this process.
Bored with rollers in stages until a solid rod gets the required diameter and thickness of the
pipe.

2. Heat Treatment
The process of heat treatment is carried out to change the grain size, to modify the structure
of the material, and to relieve the stresses set up the material after hot or cold working. The
heat treatment process includes annealing, case hardening, tempering, normalizing and
quenching, nitriding, cyaniding, etc.

Annealing: It is one of the most important processes of heat treatment. It is one of the most
widely used operations in the heat treatment of iron and steel and is defined as the softening
process. Heating from 30 – 50°C above the upper critical temperature and cooling it at a very
slow rate by seeking it the furnace. The main aim of annealing is to make steel more ductile
and malleable and to remove internal stresses. This process makes the steel soft so that it can
be easily machined.

Normalizing: The main aim of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses developed after
the cold working process. In this, steel is heated 30 – 50°C above its upper
critical temperature and cooling it in the air.It improves mechanical and electrical properties,
machinability & tensile strength. Normalizing is the process of heat treatment carried out to
63
restore the structure of normal condition.

Hardening: The main aim of the hardening process is to make steel hard tough. In this
process, steel is heated 30° – 40°C above the upper critical temperature and then followed by
continues cooling to room temperature by quenching in water or oil. It is the opposite process
of annealing.

Tempering: When the hardening process hardens a steel specimen, it becomes brittle and
has high residual stress. It is an operation used to modify the properties of steel hardened by
quenching for the purpose of increasing its usefulness.Tempering or draw results in a
reduction of brittleness and removal of internal
strains caused during hardening. Steel must be
tempered after the hardening process.

Nriding: It is the process of the case or surface

hardening in which nitrogen gas is employed to
obtain hard skin of the metal. In this process,
steel is heated in the presence of ammonia
environment. Due to this, a nitrogen atom is
deposited and makes material hard. Induction
hardening and Flame hardening objects are
heated by an oxy-acetylene flame.
Figure 24: Nriding

Cyaniding: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of sodium cyanide environment.
Due to this, carbon and nitrogen atoms are deposited on the surface of steel and make it hard.

Carburising: In this process, steel is heated in the presence of carbon environment. Due to
this carbon atoms are deposited on the metal surface and make it hard. The main aim of this
process is to make the only external surface of steel hard and inner core soft. It is the process
of carburisation i.e., saturating the surface layer of steel with carbon, or some other process
by which case is hardened and the core remains soft.

Corrosion Prevention

1. Barrier Coating

One of the easiest and cheapest ways to prevent corrosion is to use barrier coatings like paint,
plastic, or powder. Powders, including epoxy, nylon, and urethane, adhere to the metal
surface to create a thin film. Plastic and waxes are often sprayed onto metal surfaces. Paint
acts as a coating to protect the metal surface from the electrochemical charge that comes
from corrosive compounds. Coatings contain volatile organic compounds, which make them
hazardous to people and the environment.

64
 2. Hot Dip Galvanization

This corrosion prevention method involves dipping steel

into molten zinc. The iron in the steel reacts with the zinc
to create a tightly bonded alloy coating which serves as
protection. The process has been around for more than 250
years and has been used for corrosion protection of things
like artistic sculptures and playground equipment.
Unfortunately, galvanization can’t be done on-site,
meaning companies must pull equipment out of work to be
treated.
Figure 25: Hot Dip Galvanization

3. Alloyed Steel

This corrosion prevention method involves dipping

steel into molten zinc. The iron in the steel reacts with
the zinc to create a tightly bonded alloy coating which
serves as protection. The process has been around for
more than 250 years and has been used for corrosion
protection of things like artistic sculptures and
playground equipment. Unfortunately, galvanization
can’t be done on-site, meaning companies must pull
equipment out of work to be treated.
Figure 26 Alloyed Steel

4. Cathodic Protection
To prevent corrosion, the active sites on the metal surface are converted to passive sites by
providing electrons from another source, typically with galvanic anodes attached on or near
the surface. Metals used for anodes include aluminum, magnesium, or zinc.
While cathodic protection is highly effective, anodes get used up and need to be checked
and/or replaced often which can drive up costs of maintenance. They also increase the weight
of the attached structure and aren’t always effective in high-resistivity environments.

5. Eoncoat
Choosing the right corrosion prevention for your equipment isn’t easy. Each of the above
methods has its pros and cons. EonCoat is a cost-effective, maintenance-free, and easily
applied solution which protects the life of the asset. It works by a combination of the above
methods. First, it alloys the metal, then provides a thick layer of inhibitors that will repair any
damage to the alloy layer. EonCoat uses no toxic chemicals and has no VOC’s so it is the
most environmentally friendly solution. Independent testing shows this solution to be the
most effective and long-lasting of all the alternatives. The 30-year warranty ensures your
equipment stays protected.

65
Market Forms Of Steel

There are different types form of steel available in market some of them are :

1. Angle Sections
The angle sections may be of equal legs or
unequal legs as shown in fig. 11-3 and fig. 11-4
respectively. The equal angle sections are
available in sizes varying from 20 mm x 20 mm
x
3 mm to 200 mm x 200 mm x 25 mm. The
corresponding weights per metre length are
respectively 9 N and 736 N. Figure 27: Angle Section
The unequal angle sections are available in sizes varying from 30 mm x 20 mm x 3 mm to
200 mm x 150 mm x 18 mm. The corresponding weights per metre length are respectively 11
N and 469 N. Fig 11-3 shows an equal angle section of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 10 mm with
weight per metre length as 149 N. Fig. 11-4 shows an unequal angle section of size 90 mm x
60 mm x 10 mm with weight per metre length as 110 N.
The angle sections are extensively used in the structural steelwork especially in the
construction of steel roof trusses and filler joist floors.

2. Channel Sections
The channel sections consist of a web with two equal flanges
as shown in fig. 11-5. A channel section is designated by the
height of web and width of flange. These sections are
available in sizes varying from 100 mm x 45 mm to 400
mm x 100 mm. The corresponding weights per meter length
are respectively 58 N and 494 N. Fig. 11-5 shows a channel
section of size 300 mm x 100 mm with weight per meter
length as 331 N. The Bureau of Indian Standards has
classified channel sections as junior channel, light channel
and medium channel and accordingly they are designated as
I.S.J.C., I.S.L.C. and I.S.M.C. respectively. The channel
sections are widely used as the structural members of the Figure 28: Channel Section
steel framed structures.

66
 3. Corrugated Sheets
These are formed by passing steel sheets through
grooves. These grooves bend and press steel
sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets.
These corrugated sheets are usually galvanized
and they are referred to as the galvanized iron
sheets or G.I. sheets. These sheets are widely
used for roof covering.
Figure 29: Corrugated Sheets

4. Expanded Metal
This form of steel is available in different shapes and sizes. A plain expanded metal. It is
prepared from sheets of mild steel which are machine cut and drawn out or expanded. A
diamond mesh appearance is thus formed throughout the whole area of the sheet. The
expanded metal is widely used for reinforcing concrete in foundations, roads, floors, bridges,
etc. It is also used as lathing material and for partitions.

T-Sections

The shape of this section is like that of letter T and it consists of

flange and web as shown in fig. 11-8. It is designated by overall
dimensions and thickness. These sections are available in sizes
varying from 20 mm X 20 mm x 3 mm to 150 mm x 150 mm x 10
mm. The corresponding weights per metre length are 9 N and 228 N
respectively. T-section of size 100 mm X 100 mm x 10 mm with
weight per metre length as 150 N. The special T-sections with
unequal sides, bulbs at the bottom edge of web, etc. are also
available. These sections are widely used as members of the steel Figure 30: T-Section
roof trusses and to form built-up sections.

I-Sections
These are popularly known as the rolled steel joists or beams. It
consists of two flanges connected by a web as shown in fig.
11-7. It is designated by overall depth, width of flange and
weight per metre length. They are available in various sizes
varying from 75 mm x 50 mm at 61 N to 600 mm x 210 mm at
995 N.
Joist of size 300 mm X 150 mm at 377 N. The wide flange
beams are available in sizes varying from 150 mm X 100 mm at
170 N to 600 mm x 250 mm at 1451 N. The beams suitable for
columns are available in H-sections which vary in sizes from
150 mm x 150 mm at 271 N to 450 mm x 250 mm at 925 N.
The Bureau of Indian Standards has classified the I-sections
Figure 31: I -Section
into junior beams, light beams, medium beams, wide-flange
beams and heavy beams and they are accordingly designated as I.S.J.B., I.S.L.B., I.S.M.B., I.S.W.B. and
I.S.H.B. respectively. The R.S. joists are economical in material and they are suitable for floor beams,
lintels, columns, etc. The economy in material is achieved by concentrating the material in two flanges
67
where the bending stresses are maximum.

Plates
The plate sections of steel are available in different sizes with
thickness varying from 5 mm to 50 mm. The corresponding
weights per square metre are 392 N and 3925 N respectively.

Figure 32: Plates

Round Bars
These are available in circular cross-sections with diameters varying
from 5 mm to 250 mm. They are widely used as reinforcement in
concrete structures, construction of steel grillwork, etc. The
commonly used cross-sections have diameters varying from 5 mm to 25
mm with the corresponding weights per metre length as 1.50 N and 38
N respectively.

Figure 33: Round Bars

Square Bars
These are available in square cross-section with sides varying from 5 mm to 250 mm. They are
widely used in the construction of steel grillwork, for windows, gates, etc. The commonly use a
cross-sections have sides varying from 5 mm to 25 mm with corresponding weights per metre length
as 2 N and 49 N respectively.

Flat Bars
These are available in suitable widths varying from 10 mm to
400 mm with thickness varying from 3 mm to 40 mm. They
are widely used in the construction of steel grillwork for
windows and gates.

Figure 34: Square Bars

Ribbed Mild Steel Bars
These are the hot rolled mild steel bars but during rolling steel rods, ribs are produced on them. These ribs
increase the bond strength of the bars. Such ribbed mild steel bars are not recommended in the code, but
are available in the market. They look like high strength ribbed bars, but the allowable stresses in these
ribbed mild steel bars are much lower than HYSD bars. These bars should not be used in R.C.C. work
sudden quenching of red hot steel bars by a spray of water can produce steel bars with high strength at the
surface with a core of mild steel. As the core of the wire is still hot, the heat inside helps in tempering the
surface. Special TMT-CRS bars (Thermo-Mechanically Treated Corrosion Resistant Steel bars) are also
available in the market, in which high corrosion resistance is achieved by adding corrosion resistant
elements like copper, phosphorous and chromium. These bars are produced in three grades like Fe 415,
Fe 500 and Fe 550.

68
Cement Concrete
Concrete is a foundational material in the realm
of construction and architecture, serves as the
cornerstone of modern infrastructure.
Comprising a harmonious blend of cement,
aggregates, water, and specialized admixtures,
concrete embodies both strength and versatility.
Its unparalleled ability to transform from a
malleable mixture to a robust solid through the
process of hydration empowers builders to
create structures that stand the test of time.
Concrete's adaptable nature allows it to assume Figure 35: Cement Concrete
myriad forms, from the grandeur of skyscrapers
to the subtlety of decorative facades. Beyond its structural prowess, concrete evolves with technological
advancements, yielding innovations like self-healing properties and sustainable compositions. As
architects, engineers, and designers harness the potential of concrete, they shape the urban landscape,
creating a fusion of aesthetics and engineering prowess that defines the modern built environment.

Composition of Concrete

Concrete is essentially a blend of four main components:

cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures. Each of these
elements plays a crucial role in determining the final
characteristics of the concrete.

1. Cement: This binding material is responsible for

holding the concrete together. It's a fine powder
made primarily from limestone and clay that,
when mixed with water, undergoes a chemical Figure 36: Composition of Concrete
reaction known as hydration. This process results in the hardening of the concrete
over time.
2. Aggregates: Aggregates are granular materials, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or
recycled materials, that provide bulk and stability to the concrete mix. They occupy a
significant portion of the mix and influence properties like strength and durability.
3. Water: Water is the essential ingredient that initiates the hydration process in cement.
The right amount of water is crucial for achieving the desired workability and
strength of the concrete.
4. Admixtures: Admixtures are additional substances added to the concrete mix to
modify its properties. They can enhance workability, slow down or accelerate the
curing process, improve durability, and provide other specific benefits.

Properties of Concrete

Concrete possesses a range of properties that make it a valuable construction material:

1. Strength: Concrete's compressive strength is its ability to withstand loads or pressure.
This property is crucial for supporting the weight of structures and ensuring their
stability.

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 2. Durability: A durable concrete can resist weathering, chemical attacks, and other
environmental factors, extending the lifespan of structures.
3. Workability: Workability refers to how easily the concrete can be placed, compacted,
and finished. Proper workability ensures efficient construction processes.
4. Permeability: Concrete's permeability relates to its ability to allow liquids or gases to
pass through. Low permeability is important for preventing water infiltration and
reinforcing corrosion.
5. Density: The density of concrete affects its thermal and acoustic properties, making it
relevant for insulation and soundproofing.
Understanding these properties is vital for selecting the right type of concrete for specific
architectural designs and ensuring that structures meet safety, aesthetic, and functional
requirements. Concrete's composition and properties form the building blocks of its utility in
architecture. By grasping these fundamental aspects, architects can make informed decisions
when specifying and designing concrete elements, contributing to the creation of enduring
and remarkable structures.

Types of Concrete

Concrete is a versatile construction material that comes in various forms, each tailored to
meet specific architectural and structural needs. In this section of the report, we will delve
into the different types of concrete and their applications, highlighting the diverse range of
possibilities they offer to architects and builders.

Plain Cement Concrete

Plain concrete, also known as normal concrete, is the
simplest form of concrete. It consists of cement,
aggregates, water, and sometimes admixtures. While
it lacks additional reinforcements, it finds use in non-
structural elements like pavements and sidewalks.

Figure 37: Plain Cement Concrete

Reinforced Cement Concrete

Reinforced concrete is a fundamental innovation in
construction. It combines concrete's compressive strength
with steel reinforcement's tensile strength, creating a material
capable of handling both compression and tension forces.
This type of concrete is commonly used in beams, columns, and
foundations.
Figure 38: Rainforced Cement Concrete

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Prestressed Cement Concrete

Prestressed Concrete is a specialized construction technique that enhances the structural

performance of concrete elements by introducing intentional internal stresses before the
application of external loads. This is achieved by embedding
high-strength steel strands, known as tendons, within the
concrete. These tendons are tensioned, generating compressive
forces in the concrete that counteract external loads, such as
dead loads and live loads. The concept aims to minimize tensile
stresses within the concrete, which are typically its weakest
aspect. This results in improved load-carrying capacity,
reduced cracking, and enhanced durability. Two common
methods of prestressing are "pre-tensioning" and "post- Figure 39: Prestressed Cement Concrete
tensioning." In pre-tensioning, tendons are tensioned before the concrete is poured around them, while in
post-tensioning, the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has set. This technique is extensively used in
various structures, including bridges, parking structures, and high-rise buildings, where the need for long
spans and high load-bearing capacities is crucial. Prestressed Concrete offers significant advantages, such
as increased strength-to-weight ratio, extended service life, and enhanced resistance to seismic forces.
However, its design and implementation require specialized knowledge and expertise due to the
complexity of managing internal stresses and ensuring proper load distribution.

Pre-tensioning Concrete: Pre-tensioning is a technique in prestressed concrete construction where high-

strength steel tendons are tensioned before the concrete is cast around them. This process imparts
compressive forces into the concrete, enhancing its structural performance. The procedure involves
creating a temporary structure or casting bed where the tendons are first laid out according to the design
specifications. The tendons are then tensioned using hydraulic jacks, creating significant forces within
them. Once the tendons are tensioned, fresh concrete is poured around them, typically in the form of
precast elements like beams or slabs. As the concrete cures, it adheres to the tendons due to the
compression, creating a strong bond. Upon reaching the desired strength, the tensioning force is released
from the tendons. This results in the transfer of compressive stresses from the tendons to the concrete.
The concrete is now in a state of compression even without external loads. This pre-compression
counteracts the future tensile stresses that the concrete might experience when subjected to various loads.
Pre-tensioning offers benefits such as higher efficiency in material usage, better control over prestressing
forces, and the ability to create efficient and lightweight structural elements. It's commonly used in the
production of precast concrete members like beams and hollow core slabs, contributing to structures
with improved load-bearing capacity and durability.

a) Post-Tensioned Concrete: Post-Tensioned Concrete is an advanced construction

technique that involves applying high-strength steel tendons to a concrete structure
after it has been cast and partially cured. These tendons, commonly in the form of
steel cables or strands, are positioned in a pre-determined pattern and anchored to the
concrete on either end. The process begins with the installation of ducts or sleeves
within the concrete formwork before pouring. Once the concrete has set to a certain
strength, the tendons are fed through these ducts. The tendons are then tensioned
using hydraulic jacks, creating significant internal forces within the concrete. Once
the desired level of tension is achieved, the tendons are anchored at the ends, and the
ducts are grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion.

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The primary objective of post-tensioning is to enhance the structural performance of the
concrete by introducing compressive stresses to counteract anticipated external loads. This
technique is particularly useful for long-span structures, where conventional reinforcement
might lead to excessive dead weight. Post-tensioning allows for the creation of thinner and
more efficient concrete members, reducing material usage and enabling longer unsupported
spans. Post-Tensioned Concrete is commonly employed in various structures, including
bridges, floor slabs, parking garages, and even certain residential applications. Its advantages
include improved load-carrying capacity, reduced cracking, and greater flexibility in design.
However, the technique requires specialized expertise in design, installation, and quality
control due to the intricacies of tendon placement and tensioning.

Precast Cement Concrete:

Precast Cement Concrete is a construction method where concrete components are

manufactured off-site in controlled environments, then transported and assembled on-site.
This technique offers numerous benefits, including enhanced quality control, faster
construction, and reduced environmental impact due to minimized site disruption and waste.
Precast elements can include walls, beams, columns, and more, tailored to specific project
requirements. The process involves casting concrete into reusable molds, allowing for
consistent finishes and designs. Precast Cement Concrete finds applications in various
structures, from residential buildings to infrastructure projects, contributing to efficient,
durable, and aesthetically pleasing construction solutions.

a) Column-to-Foundation Connection: The column-to-foundation connection is a crucial

aspect of structural design in precast cement concrete construction. This connection
ensures the stable and safe transfer of loads from the columns to the foundation,
anchoring the entire structure securely. Several methods are employed to achieve this
connection:
i) Base Plate Connection: A steel base plate is embedded in the precast
column's base during casting. It's then anchored to the foundation using
anchor bolts. This method provides a simple yet effective connection,
distributing column loads evenly onto the foundation.
ii) Pocket Footing: A pocket or recess is created in the foundation to
accommodate the precast column's base. The column fits into the pocket, and
concrete is poured around it to secure it in place. This method enhances
stability and load transfer.
iii) Grouted Sleeve Connection: A steel sleeve is cast into the precast column's
base, leaving it slightly above the foundation level. Once the column is in
place, the sleeve is filled with grout or concrete, creating a strong bond
between the column and the foundation.
iv) Moment Resisting Connection: For taller or more complex structures,
moment-resisting connections are used. These connections provide rotational
and lateral support, ensuring the column remains stable under various loads
and forces.
v) Post-Tensioning: This advanced technique involves tensioning cables
within the column after it's installed. These cables are anchored to the
foundation, creating a tension that counteracts potential structural movement
and settling.
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The choice of column-to-foundation connection depends on factors such as building design,
load requirements, seismic considerations, and construction feasibility. Regardless of the
method, a robust and well-executed connection is vital for the structural integrity and overall
safety of the precast concrete building.

b) Column connections: Column connections in precast concrete structures refer to the

joints where columns meet other structural elements like beams or slabs. These
connections play a vital role in ensuring the stability and load-bearing capacity of the
overall structure. Effective column connections involve secure linking techniques,
such as welding or bolting, to transfer forces and moments between components.
Precise design and execution of these connections are essential to maintain structural
integrity, resist lateral forces, and distribute loads evenly. Properly designed column
connections contribute to the overall safety, performance, and longevity of precast
concrete buildings.

c) Beam connections: Beam connections in precast concrete construction involve

joining structural elements with intricate interfaces. These interfaces demand
meticulous attention due to the critical role connections play in load distribution and
structural integrity. Various methods, such as moment-resisting connections, shear
connectors, and mechanical fasteners, are employed to achieve seamless integration.
The geometry and material properties of these connections influence factors like
stress transfer, deflection, and joint performance. Robust connections are essential to
mitigate issues like differential movement and ensure the composite behavior of
precast members. Modern techniques, such as using advanced adhesives and high-
strength materials, further enhance the reliability of connections. Effective beam
connections optimize load-bearing capacities, accommodate dynamic loads, and
safeguard against potential failure modes, culminating in resilient and efficient
precast concrete structures.

Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight concrete is a specialized construction material designed to reduce overall

structural weight while maintaining adequate strength. It incorporates lightweight aggregates
like expanded clay, shale, or perlite, replacing some or all traditional aggregates. These
aggregates are porous and contribute to the concrete's lower density. The result is a concrete
that offers improved thermal and acoustic insulation, making it suitable for applications
where reduced dead load is essential, such as in high-rise buildings or precast elements.
Despite its reduced weight, lightweight concrete maintains structural integrity, making it
an effective choice for a variety of construction projects with specific load and insulation
requirements.

Specialty Concrete Types

High-Performance Concrete (HPC): High-performance concrete is engineered to exhibit

enhanced properties such as higher strength, durability, and resistance to environmental
factors. It finds application in demanding environments, like high-rise buildings and bridges.

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Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC): Self-compacting concrete is known for its ability to flow
and fill complex forms without the need for mechanical vibration. It ensures efficient
placement in congested reinforcement areas and intricate architectural details.

Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC):

Fiber-reinforced concrete incorporates fibers,
such as steel, glass, or synthetic fibers, to
enhance properties like crack resistance,
impact resistance, and ductility. It's used in
industrial floors, overlays, and precast
products.

Figure 40: Fiber reinforced concrete

Emerging Concrete Innovations

Sustainable Concrete: Researchers are exploring ways to reduce concrete's environmental

impact. Green concrete incorporates recycled materials and alternative cementitious
materials, aiming to decrease carbon emissions.

3D-Printed Concrete: Advances in

technology have enabled the 3D printing
of concrete structures. This method offers
design flexibility and can potentially
revolutionize architectural construction.

Figure 41: 3D printed concrete

Bio-Concrete: Bio-concrete incorporates bacteria that can self-heal cracks, enhancing
durability and reducing maintenance requirements.

Figure 42: Bio concrete

Admixtures and Benefits

Admixtures are additives used in

concrete to modify its properties
during mixing, pouring, and
curing. They offer a range of
benefits that enhance the
performance, workability, and
durability of concrete. Several
types of admixtures are
74

Figure 43: Admixtures

available, each serving specific
purposes.

1. Accelerating Admixtures: These additives expedite the initial setting and hardening of
concrete. They are particularly useful in cold weather conditions or when rapid
construction is required. Accelerators contain compounds like calcium chloride or
non-chloride accelerators. They enable quicker formwork removal, reduce waiting
times, and enhance early strength development.

2. Retarding Admixtures: Retarders slow down the setting time of concrete, which is
beneficial in hot weather or large projects where extended workability is necessary.
These additives are often used to prevent premature setting during transportation or
placement. Common ingredients include lignosulfonates or gluconates.

3. Water-Reducing Admixtures: Water reducers, also known as plasticizers, decrease

the water content required for concrete mixtures while maintaining workability. This
leads to higher strength, reduced permeability, and improved durability.
Polycarboxylate-based superplasticizers are modern versions that allow significant
water reduction without compromising workability.

4. Superplasticizers: Superplasticizers are a subset of water-reducing admixtures that

enable remarkable reduction in water content while maintaining high workability.
They are particularly useful in achieving self-consolidating concrete (SCC), which
flows easily without segregation. Superplasticizers are crucial for high-strength and
high-performance concrete.

Benefits: The benefits of using admixtures encompass enhanced workability, improved

strength, better durability, and reduced water demand. They enable architects and engineers
to achieve specific performance goals, tailor concrete mixtures to unique project
requirements, and optimize the overall construction process. By selecting the appropriate
admixtures, construction professionals can manage the concrete's setting time, consistency,
strength, and resistance to adverse environmental conditions. It's important to note that
proper dosage and compatibility testing are crucial to ensure optimal performance and avoid
unwanted side effects. Admixtures play a pivotal role in shaping the characteristics of
concrete, contributing to the evolution of innovative and sustainable construction practices.

Grades of Concrete

Concrete grades are essential in determining the compressive strength and durability of
concrete mixes used in construction projects. Here are some common concrete grades:

1. M5 Grade Concrete: This grade represents a very low-strength concrete mix, often
used for non-structural purposes like leveling beds, pathways, etc. It has a
characteristic compressive strength of 5 MPa (Mega Pascal).
2. M10 Grade Concrete: With a characteristic strength of 10 MPa, this grade is also low
in strength and is used for non-structural elements like plastering.
3. M15 Grade Concrete: Suitable for use in foundations and basement walls, M15
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 concrete has a characteristic strength of 15 MPa.
4. M20 Grade Concrete: This is commonly used in residential construction for columns,
beams, and slabs. It has a characteristic strength of 20 MPa.

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 5. M25 Grade Concrete: With a characteristic strength of 25 MPa, this grade finds
applications in pavements, driveways, and lightly loaded structures.
6. M30 Grade Concrete: Used in reinforced concrete structures, M30 has a characteristic
strength of 30 MPa and is suitable for moderate structural requirements.
7. M40 Grade Concrete: With a characteristic strength of 40 MPa, M40 is employed in
heavy-duty structures like bridges and high-rise buildings.
8. M50 Grade Concrete: This high-strength concrete with a characteristic strength of 50
MPa is used in specialized structures like high-rise buildings subjected to heavy loads
and extreme conditions.
9. M60 and Above: These are ultra-high-strength concrete grades used in advanced
applications like precast concrete elements, where exceptional strength and durability
are required.
These grades provide a framework for selecting the appropriate concrete mix for various
types of construction projects, ensuring that the material's performance aligns with the
structural demands and longevity of the structure.

Manufacturing of Concrete

The process of producing concrete is a crucial step in construction, as it determines the

quality and performance of the final structure. In this section of the report, we will explore
the stages involved in concrete production, including batching, mixing, transporting, and
placing, and understand the significance of each phase.

Batching of Ingredients

Concrete production begins with batching, where precise quantities of the primary
ingredients—cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures—are measured and combined.
Batching accuracy is essential to achieve the desired properties of the concrete mix. Modern
batching plants use automated systems to ensure consistency and minimize errors in
proportioning.

Mixing Process

The mixing process is where the ingredients are

blended to form a homogeneous mixture. The
primary goal is to evenly distribute cement
particles throughout the aggregates while
activating the chemical reaction that leads to
hydration.
Figure 44: Mixing Process
Batch Mixing and Continuous Mixing

Small quantities of concrete are mixed in a batch mixer. This method is suitable for smaller
projects and provides better control over the mix. Large quantities of concrete are produced
continuously in a drum mixer. This method is efficient for larger construction projects.

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Workability and Consistency

Workability refers to the ease with which concrete can be placed, compacted, and finished. It
is influenced by factors such as water content, aggregate properties, and admixtures.
Achieving the right workability is crucial for ensuring proper placement and reducing the risk
of defects in the finished structure.

Transporting and Placing

Once the concrete mix is ready, it must be transported to the construction site and placed in
the desired formwork. Transport methods include trucks with rotating drums (ready-mix
concrete) or on-site mixers. Proper handling during transportation is essential to maintain the
mix's uniformity and prevent segregation of ingredients. Placing involves pouring the
concrete into formwork, where it takes the shape of the intended structure.

Compacting

Compacting is a critical step in the

concrete manufacturing process that
involves reducing the volume of fresh
concrete to eliminate air voids and
ensure proper consolidation. The
primary goal of compacting is to
improve the density and strength of
the concrete by eliminating trapped
air and achieving uniform distribution
of the cement paste, aggregates, and
admixtures.
Figure 45: Compacting

Methods of compacting include:

Vibration: Vibrators are commonly used to agitate the concrete mix, causing it to settle and
release trapped air bubbles. Internal and external vibrators are applied to achieve optimal
compaction, especially in complex or reinforced sections.
1. Rolling and Tamping: For thin concrete sections, rollers or tamping equipment can be
used to compact the mixture.
2. Formwork Agitation: Shaking or jolting the formwork during pouring helps the
concrete settle and compact within the mold.
3. Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC): A high-performance concrete that is specifically
designed to flow and fill the formwork under its own weight, effectively self-
compacting without the need for external compaction methods.

Proper compaction enhances the concrete's strength, durability, and resistance to cracking. It
ensures consistent quality throughout the structure, reduces porosity, and improves its ability
to withstand load-bearing and environmental stresses.

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Finishing

Finishing is the process following compaction and preceding curing in concrete construction.
It encompasses techniques to refine surface appearance, texture, and flatness. After leveling
with a screed, floating is used to smooth the surface and compact the concrete. Edging shapes
edges, while troweling creates a polished finish. Brooming offers textured exteriors, and
stippling or stamping imparts patterns. Coloring and sealing enhance aesthetics and
protection. Proper timing and skill are essential, preventing issues like delamination or
uneven color. Finishing not only achieves visual appeal but also lays the foundation for
subsequent curing and ensures both the architectural and functional quality of the concrete
surface.

Quality Control and Testing

Throughout the production process, quality control measures are implemented to ensure that
the concrete meets specified standards. Samples are tested for properties like compressive
strength, workability, and consistency. Adjustments can be made to the mix design if needed
to achieve the desired results.

Sustainable Practices in Concrete Production

Modern concrete production is increasingly focused on sustainability. Efforts are being made
to reduce the carbon footprint of concrete by using alternative cementitious materials, such as
fly ash and slag, and incorporating recycled aggregates. Concrete production is a complex
and vital process in construction. Understanding the stages of batching, mixing, transporting,
and placing helps architects and engineers create structures that are not only structurally
sound but also durable and sustainable. By mastering these aspects, architects can contribute
to the successful realization of their design visions.

Concrete Curing and Strength Development:

Concrete, as a construction material,

undergoes a fascinating transformation
from a malleable mixture to a durable and
robust substance. This transformation is
heavily influenced by the process of
curing and the subsequent development
of strength. In this section, we will
explore the significance of curing, the
methods employed, and the factors that
contribute to the strength evolution of Figure 46: Curing
concrete.

Importance of Curing: Curing is a critical phase in the life of concrete that takes place
immediately after placement and finishing. Its primary purpose is to maintain adequate
moisture, temperature, and time conditions to facilitate optimal cement hydration. Proper
curing ensures that the chemical reactions within the concrete proceed as intended, leading to
the development of desired properties.
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 Curing is essential for the following reasons:

1. Strength Gain: Adequate curing contributes significantly to the eventual strength of

the concrete. Without proper curing, the concrete may not achieve its intended design
strength.
2. Durability: Effective curing enhances the durability of concrete by minimizing the
formation of cracks and reducing permeability. This helps to prevent moisture
intrusion and reinforcement corrosion.
3. Surface Quality: Curing prevents the premature drying of the concrete's surface,
which can lead to defects such as cracking and dusting. A well-cured surface is
smoother, more resistant to abrasion, and visually appealing.

Curing Methods:
1. Water Curing: This involves continuously wetting the concrete surface with water. It
can be done by ponding, sprinkling, or using wet burlap. Water curing is effective but
requires consistent monitoring.
2. Curing Compounds: These are liquid membranes that are applied to the surface of the
concrete to retain moisture. Curing compounds are particularly useful when
continuous water curing is impractical.
3. Steam Curing: Steam curing accelerates the hydration process by raising the
concrete's temperature. It is often used for precast concrete elements and in situations
where early strength gain is crucial.
4. Sealing and Insulating: Covering the concrete with plastic sheets or insulating
blankets helps to trap heat and moisture, promoting curing. This method is suitable
for colder climates.

Factors Affecting Strength Development:

The strength of concrete evolves over time, and several factors influence this development:
1. Cement Type and Composition: Different types of cement have varying hydration
rates, which affect the rate of strength gain.
2. Water-Cement Ratio: A lower water-cement ratio generally leads to higher strength,
as it ensures a more complete hydration process.
3. Curing Conditions: The temperature and moisture levels during curing profoundly
impact the rate and extent of strength development.
4. Admixtures: Some admixtures can influence the rate of hydration and strength gain,
offering control over the concrete's properties.

The curing process is a pivotal stage in the life of concrete, directly influencing its strength,
durability, and overall performance. By carefully selecting and implementing appropriate

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curing methods, architects and engineers can ensure that the concrete achieves its design
intent and contributes to the longevity of the structures they create.

Removal of Framework

After the concrete has been poured and allowed to cure to a certain strength, the formwork
(also known as molds or frameworks) can be removed to reveal the hardened concrete shape.
The timing of formwork removal is crucial and depends on the concrete's strength
development, environmental conditions, and design requirements.

Key points about formwork removal:

1. Early Removal: Some formwork can be removed shortly after pouring, especially for
vertical elements like walls. However, this must be done carefully to avoid damaging
the fresh concrete.
2. Stripping Time: The time at which formwork can be removed varies based on factors
such as concrete mix design, ambient temperature, humidity, and the presence of
reinforcing materials. Consulting concrete design standards and conducting
compressive strength tests on test samples can guide the decision for formwork
removal.
3. Curing after Removal: Even after formwork removal, it's essential to continue proper
curing practices to ensure the concrete develops the desired strength and durability.
4. Careful Handling: Removing formwork requires care to prevent structural damage.
Special attention must be given to ensure that the newly exposed concrete surfaces are
not marred or disrupted.
The removal of formwork marks a significant milestone in the construction process, as it
unveils the final shape of the concrete element and paves the way for subsequent stages of
construction and finishing.

Advantages of Concrete

1. Strength and Durability: Concrete is known for its high compressive strength,
making it suitable for supporting heavy loads and resisting structural stresses. When
properly designed and cured, concrete structures can have a long lifespan.
2. Versatility: Concrete can be molded into various shapes and sizes, allowing for a
wide range of architectural and design possibilities. It can be cast on-site or
prefabricated off-site.
3. Fire Resistance: Concrete has inherent fire-resistant properties, making it a suitable
choice for fire-resistant construction. It does not combust, melt, or release toxic fumes
under high temperatures.
4. Thermal Mass: Concrete's high thermal mass helps regulate indoor temperatures by
absorbing and slowly releasing heat, contributing to energy efficiency in buildings.
5. Sound Insulation: Concrete's density provides effective sound insulation, reducing
the transmission of noise between spaces.
6. Low Maintenance: When well-maintained, concrete structures require minimal
maintenance over their lifespan, resulting in cost savings.
7. Sustainability: Concrete can be produced with locally available materials, and
advancements in sustainable concrete mixes (e.g., using supplementary cementitious
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 materials) can reduce its environmental impact.
8. Aesthetic Possibilities: Concrete surfaces can be finished in various ways, such as
polishing, staining, stamping, or exposing aggregates, allowing for diverse
architectural aesthetics.

Disadvantages of Concrete:

1. High Initial Embodied Energy: The production of cement, a key ingredient in

concrete, involves significant energy consumption and carbon emissions. This
contributes to its relatively high initial embodied energy.
2. Cracking: Concrete is prone to cracking, especially if not properly cured, due to
factors like temperature changes, shrinkage, and drying. Cracks can compromise
structural integrity and aesthetics.
3. Limited Tensile Strength: While concrete has excellent compressive strength, it has
limited tensile strength. To address this, reinforcement is often added, but careful
design and construction are essential to prevent cracking.
4. Weight: Concrete is heavy, which can lead to increased foundation and structural
requirements. It may not be suitable for all types of construction, especially in seismic
zones.
5. Time-Consuming Installation: The process of mixing, placing, and curing concrete
can be time-consuming, affecting project schedules, especially for large-scale
projects.
6. Aesthetic Limitations: While concrete can be finished in various ways, it might not
offer the same aesthetic possibilities as other materials like wood or metal.
7. Environmental Impact: Concrete production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions,
and extraction of raw materials can lead to habitat disruption. Proper waste
management and sustainable practices are essential.
8. Maintenance Challenges: Although concrete structures generally require low
maintenance, repairs can be complex and costly, especially for significant issues like
reinforcement corrosion.

New Type of Concrete

The scientists behind the invention used simulated Martian soil mixed with potato starch
and a pinch of salt to create the material that is twice as strong as ordinary concrete and is
perfectly suited for construction work in extra-terrestrial environments.
Polymer concrete

Polymer concrete, also known as Epoxy Granite, is a type of concrete that uses a polymer to
replace lime-type cements as a binder. In some cases the polymer is used in addition
to Portland cement to form Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC) or Polymer Modified Concrete
(PMC). Polymers in concrete have been overseen by Committee 548 of the American
Concrete Institute since 1971.

Composition: In polymer concrete, thermoplastic polymers are often used, but more
typically thermosetting resins are used as the principal polymer component due to their high
thermal stability and resistance to a wide variety of chemicals. Polymer concrete is also
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composed of aggregates that include silica, quartz, granite, limestone, and other high quality
material. The aggregate should be of good quality, free of dust and other debris, and dry.
Failure to fulfill these criteria can reduce the bond strength between the polymer binder and
the aggregate. Polymer concretes commonly known as Epoxy granite are distinct in
composition only in that the polymer used is exclusively Epoxy.

User: Polymer concrete may be used for new construction or repairing of old concrete.
The adhesive properties of polymer concrete allow repair of both polymer and conventional
cement-based concretes. The corrosion resistance and low permeability of polymer concrete
allows it to be used in swimming pools, sewer structure applications, drainage
channels, electrolytic cells for base metal recovery, and other structures that contain liquids
or corrosive chemicals. It is especially suited to the construction and rehabilitation of
manholes due to their ability to withstand toxic and corrosive sewer gases and bacteria
commonly found in sewer systems. Unlike traditional concrete structures, polymer concrete
requires no coating or welding of PVC-protected seams. It can also be used as a bonded
wearing course for asphalt pavement, for higher durability and higher strength upon a
concrete substrate, and in skate parks, as it is a very smooth surface. Polymer concrete has
historically not been widely adopted due to the high costs and difficulty associated with
traditional manufacturing techniques. However, recent progress has led to significant
reductions in cost, meaning that the use of polymer concrete is gradually becoming more
widespread. Polymer concrete in the form of Epoxy granite is becoming more widely
used in the construction of machine tool bases (such as Milling (machining) and Metal
lathes) in place of Cast Iron due to its bsuperior mechanical properties and a high chemical
resistance.

Properties:
The exact properties depend on the mixture, polymer and aggregate used etc. Generally
speaking with mixtures used:
1. The binder is more expensive than cement.
2. Significantly greater tensile strength than unreinforced Portland concrete .Similar or
greater compressive strength to Portland concrete.
3. Faster curing.
4. Good adhesion to most surfaces, including to reinforcements
5. Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles. Low permeability
to water and aggressive solutions
6. Improved chemical resistance
7. Good resistance against corrosion
8. Lighter weight (slightly less dense than traditional concrete, depending on the resin
content of the mix)
9. May be vibrated to fill voids in forms.
10. Allows use of regular form-release agents.
11. Product hard to manipulate with conventional tools such as drills and presses due to its
density. Recommend getting pre-modified product from the manufacturer.
12. Small boxes are more costly when compared to its precast counterpart however pre cast
concretes induction of stacking or steel covers quickly bridge the gap.
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Super plasticizer

Super plasticizers, also known as high range water reducers, are additives used for making
high-strength concrete or to place self-compacting concrete. Plasticizers are chemical
compounds enabling the production of concrete with approximately 15% less water content.
Super plasticizers allow reduction in water content by 30% or more. These additives are
employed at the level of a few weight percent. Plasticizers and super plasticizers also retard
the setting and hardening of concrete. Super plasticizers are used when well-
dispersed cement particle suspensions are required to improve the flow characteristics
(rheology) of concrete. Their addition allows decreasing the water-to-cement ratio of
concrete or mortar without negatively affecting the workability of the mixture. It enables
the production of self-consolidating concrete and high-performance concrete. The water–
cement ratio is the main factor determining the concrete strength and its durability. Super
plasticizers greatly improve the fluidity and the rheology of fresh concrete. The concrete
strength increases when the water-to-cement ratio decreases because avoiding to add water in
excess only for maintaining a better workability of fresh concrete results in a lower porosity
of the hardened concrete, and so to a better resistance to compression.
The addition of SP in the truck during transit is a fairly modern development within the
industry. Admixtures added in transit through automated slump management system, allow
maintaining fresh concrete slump until discharge without reducing concrete quality.

Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of

cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers.
Fiber reinforced concrete is of different types and properties with many advantages.
Continuous meshes, woven fabrics, and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete
fibers. Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristics
properties. They can be circular or flat. The fiber is often described by a convenient
parameter called "aspect ratio". The aspect ratio of the fiber is the ratio of its length to its
diameter. The typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to 150. Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is
concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short
discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel
fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers, and natural fibers. Within these different fibers, the
character of fiber reinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials,
geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities. Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shot
crete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-reinforced normal concrete is mostly
used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be considered for a wide range of
construction parts (beams, pliers, foundations, etc) either alone or with hand-tied rebars
concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass or "plastic" fibers) is less
expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. The
shape, dimension, and length of fiber are important.

The necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

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 1. It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.
2. It reduces the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
3. It increases the durability of the concrete.
4. Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep, while the same is
not true for most resins. Therefore, the orientation and volume of fibres have a
significant influence on the creep performance of rebars/tendons.
5. Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts as the
strengthening fibre and the concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative that the
behavior under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar so that the differential
deformations of concrete and the reinforcement are minimized.
6. It has been recognized that the addition of small, closely spaced and uniformly
dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would substantially
improve its static and dynamic properties.

Roller Compacted Concrete

Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) or rolled concrete (roll Crete) is a special blend
of concrete that has essentially the same ingredients as conventional concrete but in different
ratios, and increasingly with partial substitution of fly ash for Portland cement. The partial
substitution of fly ash for Portland cement is an important aspect of RCC dam construction
because the heat generated by fly ash hydration is significantly less than the heat generated
by Portland cement hydration. This in turn reduces the thermal loads on the dam and reduces
the potential for thermal cracking to occur. RCC is a mix of cement/fly ash, water,
sand, aggregate and common additives, but contains much less water. The produced mix is
drier and essentially has no slump. RCC is placed in a manner similar to paving; the material
is delivered by dump trucks or conveyors, spread by small bulldozers or specially
modified asphalt pavers, and then compacted by vibratory rollers.
In dam construction, roller-compacted concrete began its initial development with the
construction of the Alpe Gera Dam near Sondrio in North Italy between 1961 and 1964.
Concrete was laid in a similar form and method but not rolled. [3] RCC had been touted in
engineering journals during the 1970s as a revolutionary material suitable for, among other
things, dam construction.[4] Initially and generally, RCC was used for backfill, sub-base and
concrete pavement construction, but increasingly it has been used to build concrete gravity
dams because the low cement content and use of fly ash cause less heat to be generated while
curing than do conventional mass concrete placements. Roller-compacted concrete has many
time and cost benefits over conventional mass concrete dams; these include higher rates of
concrete placement, lower material costs and lower costs associated with post-cooling
and formwork.

Ultra-High Performance Concrete

Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is cementations, concrete material that has a

minimum specified compressive strength of 17,000 pounds per square inch (120 MPa) with
specified durability, tensile ductility and toughness requirements; fibers are generally
included in the mixture to achieve specified requirements.
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is also known as reactive powder concrete (RPC).
The material is typically formulated by combining Portland cement, supplementary
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cementations materials, reactive powders, limestone and or quartz flour, fine sand, high-
range water reducers, and water. The material can be formulated to provide compressive
strengths in excess of 29,000 pounds per square inch (psi) (200 MPa). The use of fine
materials for the matrix also provides a dense, smooth surface valued for its aesthetics and
ability to closely transfer form details to the hardened surface. When combined with metal,
synthetic or organic fibers it can achieve flexural strengths up to 7,000 psi (48 MPa) or
greater.

Fiber types often used in UHPC include high carbon steel, PVA, Glass, Carbon or a
combination of these types or others. The ductile behavior of this material is a first for
concrete, with the capacity to deform and support flexural and tensile loads, even after initial
cracking. The high compressive and tensile properties of UHPC also facilitate a high bond
strength allowing shorter length of rebar embedment in applications such as closure pours
between precast elements.

UHPC construction is simplified by eliminating the need for reinforcing steel in some
applications and the materials high flow characteristics that make it self-compacting. The
UHPC matrix is very dense and has a minimal disconnected pore structure resulting in low
permeability (Chloride ion diffusion less than 0.02 x 10-12 m2/s. The material’s low
permeability prevents the ingress of harmful materials such as chlorides which yields
superior durability characteristics.
Some manufacturers have created just-add-water UHPC pre-mixed products that are making
UHPC products more accessible. The American Society for Testing and Materials has
established ASTM C1856/1856M Standard Practice for Fabricating and Testing Specimens
of Ultra High Performance Concrete that relies on current ASTM test methods with
modifications to make it suitable for UHPC.

The following is an example of the range of material characteristics for UHPC:

Strength
Compressive: 17,000 to 22,000 psi, (120 to 150 MPa)
Flexural: 2200 to 3600 psi, (15 to 25 MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity: 6500 to 7300 ksi, (45 to 50 GPa)

Durability
Freeze/thaw (after 300 cycles): 100%
Salt-scaling (loss of residue): < 0.013 lb/ft3, (< 60 g/m2)
Abrasion (relative volume loss index): 1.7
Oxygen permeability: < 10-19 ft2, (<10-20 m2)
https://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/concrete-design-production/ultra-high-per
formance-concrete

Cracks in Concrete

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When we see a crack in our concrete slab or wall, our first assumption is typically that
something has been done wrong, but that is not always the case. Actually, concrete cracks are
very common and some are even inevitable.
We explain 6 of the most common types of concrete cracks below.

Plastic Shrinkage Concrete Cracks

When concrete is still in its plastic state, it is full of water. When

that water eventually leaves the slab, it leaves behind large voids
between the solid particles. These empty spaces make the
concrete weaker and more prone to cracking. This type of
cracking happens frequently and is referred to as “plastic
shrinkage cracking”. While plastic shrinkage cracks can happen
anywhere in a slab or wall, they almost always happen at corners
or with circular objects in the middle of a slab (pipes, plumbing
fixtures, drains, and manholes). Since concrete cannot shrink
around a corner, stress will cause the concrete to crack from the
point of that corner. Plastic shrinkage cracks are typically very
narrow in width and barely visible. While nearly invisible, it is
important to remember that plastic shrinkage cracks don’t just Figure 47: Plastic Shrinkage:
exist on the surface, they extend throughout the entire thickness of the slab. An excessively
wet mix is a contributing factor to shrinkage in concrete. While water is an essential
ingredient in every concrete mix, there is such a thing as too much water. When the mix
contains too much water, the slab will shrink more than if the correct amount of water was
used. Hot weather is another big reason for plastic shrinkage cracks.

Expansion concrete cracks

Just like a balloon, heat causes concrete to
expand. When concrete expands, it pushes
against anything in its way, for example, a
brick wall or adjacent slab for. When
neither the ability to flex, the expanding
force has can be enough to cause concrete
to crack. Expansion joints are used as a
point of separation, between other static
surfaces. Typically made of a
compressible
material like asphalt, rubber, or lumber,
expansion joints must act as shock Figure 48: Expansion Concrete Cracks
absorbers to relieve the stress that
expansion puts on concrete and prevent cracking.

Heaving concrete cracks

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When the ground freezes, it can
sometimes lift many inches before
thawing and settling back down. This
ground movement brought on by the
freezing and thawing cycle is a huge
factor contributing to concrete cracking. If
the slab is not free to move with the
ground, the slab will crack. Large tree
roots can have the same effect on a slab. If
a tree is located too close to a slab, the
growing roots can lift and crack the Figure 49: Heaving concrete cracks 86
concrete surface. Always consider this
when laying a slab.

Settling concrete cracks

On the other hand, ground settling below a concrete

slab can also cause cracking. Settling cracks typically
occur in situations where a void is created in the
ground below the concrete surface. Think about when
a large tree is removed from nearby and the roots
begin to decompose or when a utility company digs
a trench for their lines, pipes, etc. and don’t compact
the soil when they refill it–these are examples of
instances where settling cracks are likely to happen.
Figure 50: Settling concrete cracks

Concrete cracks caused by overloading the slab

Although concrete is a very strong building material, it does have its limits. Placing excessive
amounts of weight on top of a concrete slab can cause cracking. When you hear a concrete
mix has strength of 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000+ PSI, it is referring to the pounds per square
inch it would take to crush that concrete slab. When it comes to residential concrete slabs,
overload of the actual slab isn’t all that common.
Instead, what is more likely to occur is excess overload on the ground below the slab.
After a heavy rain or snowmelt when the ground below is soft and wet, excessive weight on
the slab can press the concrete down and result in cracks. Residential homeowners who place
large recreational vehicles or dumpsters on their driveways are more likely to see this type of
cracking.
Concrete cracks caused by premature drying
There are two common types of cracks brought on by
premature drying. Crazing cracks are very fine, surface
cracks that resemble spider webs or shattered glass. When
the top of a concrete slab loses moisture too quickly, crazing
cracks will likely appear. While unsightly, crazing cracks are
not a structural concern. Crusting cracks typically happen
88
Figure 51: Concrete cracks caused by
Premature drying
during the concrete stamping process, which is a way of adding texture or pattern to concrete
surfaces. On sunny or windy days where the top of the slab dries out quicker than the bottom,
the top of the concrete surface can become crusty. When the stamp is embedded, it pulls the
surface apart near the stamped joints and causes small cracks around the outside edges of the
“stones”. Again, while they don’t look great, crusting cracks are not a structural issue to be
considered about.

Non-destructive tests of concrete

Non-destructive tests of concrete are a method to obtain the compressive strength and other
properties of concrete from the existing structures. This test provides immediate results and
actual strength and properties of concrete structure. The standard method of evaluating the
quality of concrete in buildings or structures is to test specimens cast simultaneously for
compressive, flexural and tensile strengths.

Following are different methods of non-destructive tests on concrete:

1. Penetration method
2. Rebound hammer method
3. Pull out test method
4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method
5. Radioactive methods

Penetration Tests on Concrete

The Winds or probe is generally considered to

be the best means of testing penetration.
Equipment consists of a powder-actuated gun or
driver, hardened alloy probes, loaded cartridges,
a depth gauge for measuring penetration of
probes and other related equipment.
A probe, diameter 0.25 in. (6.5 mm) and length
3.125 in. (8.0 cm), is driven into the concrete by
means of a precision powder charge. Depth of
penetration provides an indication of the
compressive strength of the concrete. Although
Figure 52: Penetration test
calibration charts are provided by the
manufacturer, the instrument should be calibrated for type of concrete and type and size of
aggregate used.

Benefits and Limitations:The probe test produces quite variable results and should not be
expected to give accurate values of concrete strength. It has, however, the potential for
providing a quick means of checking quality and maturity of in situ concrete. It also provides
a means of assessing strength development with curing. The test is essentially non-
destructive, since concrete and structural members can be tested in situ, with only minor

89
patching of holes on exposed faces.

Rebound Hammer Method

The rebound hammer is a surface hardness

tester for which an empirical correlation has
been established between strength and rebound
number. The only known instrument to make
use of the rebound principle for concrete testing
is the Schmidt hammer, which weighs about 4
lb (1.8 kg) and is suitable for both laboratory Figure 53: Rebound Hammer method
and field work. It consists of a spring-controlled
hammer mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. The hammer is forced against
the surface of the concrete by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a
scale. The test surface can be horizontal, vertical or at any angle but the instrument must be
calibrated in this position.
Calibration can be done with cylinders (6 by 12 in., 15 by 30 cm) of the same cement and
aggregate as will be used on the job. The cylinders are capped and firmly held in a
compression machine. Several readings are taken, well distributed and reproducible, the
average representing the rebound number for the cylinder. This procedure is repeated with
several cylinders, after which compressive strengths are obtained.

Limitations and Advantages: The Schmidt hammer provides an inexpensive, simple and
quick method of obtaining an indication of concrete strength, but accuracy of ±15 to ±20 per
cent is possible only for specimens cast cured and tested under conditions for which
calibration curves have been established. The results are affected by factors such as
smoothness of surface, size and shape of specimen, moisture condition of the concrete, type
of cement and coarse aggregate, and extent of carbonation of surface.

Pull-Out Tests on Concrete

A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull
from the concrete a specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has
been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3 in. (7.6 cm). The concrete is
simultaneously in tension and in shear, but the force required to pull the
concrete out can be related to its compressive strength.
The pull-out technique can thus measure quantitatively the in-situ
strength of concrete when proper correlations have been made. It has
been found, over a wide range of strengths, that pull-out strengths have
a coefficient of variation comparable to that of compressive strength.
Figure 54: Pullout test on
concrete
Limitations and Advantages: Although pullout tests do not measure the
interior strength of mass concrete, they do give information on the maturity and development
of strength of a representative part of it. Such tests have the advantage of measuring
quantitatively the strength of concrete in place. Their main disadvantage is that they have to
be planned in advance and pull-out assemblies set into the formwork before the concrete is
placed. The pull-out, of course, creates some minor damage.
The test can be non-destructive, however, if a minimum pullout force is applied that stops

90
short of failure but makes certain that a minimum strength has been reached. This is
information of distinct value in determining when forms can be removed safely.

Ultrasonic pulse velocity method

At present the ultrasonic pulse velocity method is the only one

of this type that shows potential for testing concrete strength in
situ. It measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing
through the concrete. The fundamental design features of all
commercially available units are very similar, consisting of a
pulse generator and a pulse receiver. Pulses are generated by
shock-exciting piezoelectric crystals, with similar crystals used Figure 55: Ultrasonic pulse
velocity method
in the receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through the
concrete is measured by electronic measuring circuits.

Applications and Limitations: The pulse velocity method is an ideal tool for establishing
whether concrete is uniform. It can be used on both existing structures and those under
construction. Usually, if large differences in pulse velocity are found within a structure for no
apparent reason, there is strong reason to presume that defective or deteriorated concrete is
present. High pulse velocity readings are generally indicative of good quality concrete. A
general relation between concrete quality and pulse velocity is given in Table.

Radioactive Methods of NDT

Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the location of reinforcement,
measure density and perhaps establish whether honeycombing has occurred in structural
concrete units. Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe.
The equipment is quite simple and running costs are small, although the initial price can be
high. Concrete up to 18 in. (45 cm) thick can be examined without difficulty.

Test For Fresh Concrete

You should take concrete testing seriously and start off on the right foot by securing the
services of a certified testing laboratory employing field and lab technicians that are ACI-
certified. This will give you the greatest assurance that proper sampling and proper field and
laboratory tests are conducted.

Slump Test

A concrete slump test is conducted in-field on fresh concrete mix. It helps to determine if the,
soon to be poured; concrete will meet its specified standard. It is a simple test that can
confirm, over multiple batches, that the concrete is consistent - providing a chance to amend
the mix before it is poured on site.
By measuring the overall ‘slump’ of the concrete, you can tell whether the water-cement
ratio is too high and whether a mix will have high workability or not.
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 Figure 56: Slump cone apparatus

How it works: A cone is placed firmly on a flat, smooth surface. In three layers, the cone is
filled with the fresh concrete sample in a uniform manner. Each layer is tamped with a steel
rod to compact the concrete. Once filled, any overflow is removed, and the concrete is
leveled.
The cone is then slowly and steadily lifted and placed upside down beside the slump. The
slump is then measured against the upturned cone. The concrete should largely retain its cone
shape, demonstrating that the mix is cohesive, and its workability isn’t too high.

Test By Vee-Bee Consist Meter

The workability of fresh concrete is a

composite property, which includes the
diverse requirements of stability,
mobility, compact ability, place ability
and finish ability. There are different
92
methods for measuring the workability. Each of them measures only a particular aspect of it
and there is really no unique test, which measures workability of concrete in its totality. This
test gives an indication of the mobility and to some extent of the compatibility of freshly
mixed concrete. The test measures the relative effort required to change a mass of concrete
from one definite shape to another (i.e., from conical to cylindrical) by means of vibration.
The amount of effort (called remolding effort) is taken as the time in seconds, required to
complete the change. The results of this test are of value when studying the mobility of the
masses of concrete made with varying amounts of water, cement and with various types of
grading of aggregate. The time required for complete remoulding in seconds is considered as
a measure of workability and is expressed as the number of Vee-Bee seconds. The method is
suitable for dry concrete. For concrete of slump in excess of 50mm, the remoulding is so
quick that the time cannot measure.

Compaction Factor Test For Concrete Workability

Compaction factor test is the workability test for concrete conducted in laboratory. The
compaction factor is the ratio of weights of partially compacted to fully compacted concrete.
It was developed by Road Research Laboratory in United Kingdom and is used to determine
the workability of concrete. The compaction factor test is used for concrete which have low
workability for which slump test is not suitable.
1. Apparatus: Compaction factor apparatus consists of trowels, hand scoop (15.2 cm
long), a rod of steel or other suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm long rounded
at one end ) and a balance.
2. Sampling: Concrete mix is prepared as per mix design in the laboratory.

Figure 58: Compaction factor test

3. Procedure of Compaction Factor Test on Concrete: Place the concrete sample gently
in the upper hopper to its brim using the hand scoop and level it.
a) Cover the cylinder.
b) Open the trapdoor at the bottom of the upper hopper so that concrete falls
into the lower hopper. Push the concrete sticking on its sides gently with the
road.
c) Open the trapdoor of the lower hopper and allow the concrete to fall into the
93
 cylinder below.
d) Cut of the excess of concrete above the top level of cylinder using trowels
and level it.
e) Clean the outside of the cylinder.
f) Weight the cylinder with concrete to the nearest 10 g. This weight is known as
the weight of partially compacted concrete (W1).
g) Empty the cylinder and then refill it with the same concrete mix in layers
approximately 5 cm deep, each layer being heavily rammed to obtain full
compaction.
h) Level the top surface.
i) Weigh the cylinder with fully compacted. This weight is known as the weight
of fully compacted concrete (W2).
j) Find the weight of empty cylinder (W).

Flow Table Test

The flow test is performed to measure the workability of

concrete. In this test the workability of concrete is measured by
examining the flowing property or fluidity of concrete. The flow
test is a simple laboratory test. This test works on the principle
of a jolting of the standard mass of concrete and measured
by the flow of concrete. The flow of concrete indicates the
workability of concrete.
The flow test is used to measure the workability of high or very
high workable concrete, which eventually collapses a slump. It
gives an idea about the quality of the concrete concerning consistency and cohesiveness. This
workability test is quite simple to perform and is the best for the concrete which has a
nominal maximum size of aggregate less than 38 mm.

1. Relevant is code Figure 59: Flow table test

a) IS 1199 – 1959
b) ASTM C 124 –
39 (Re-approved
1966)
c) BS 1881 :105: 1984
The procedure describe is as per IS 1-1959
2. Apparatus Used
a) Flow table,
b) Mould,
c) Scale, Figure 60: Flow table apparatus

d) Hand scoop,
e) Trowel anda
f) Tamping rod
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 The shape of the mould for the flow table test is a cone frustum. The base diameter of the
mould is 25 cm and the upper diameter is 17 cm. It has a height of 12 cm. A handle is also
present on the sides of the mould.

Flow table Test procedure:

1. Before starting the test, wet and clean the tabletop and the mould from gritty
materials.
2. Keep the mould firmly at the center of the table.
3. Now fill two-layer, each layer should be one half of the volume of the mould.
4. Tamp each layer 25 times using a tamping rod uniformly.
5. After tamping the top layer, struck off the excess concrete using the trowel.
6. Also, clean the area of the table outside the mould.
7. Then remove the mould immediately by steady upward pull.
8. Raise the table and drop at 12.5 mm, 15 times in 15 seconds.
9. Measure the diameter of the concrete spread about its 6 direction and compute its
mean value.

Kelly Ball Test Of Concrete

Kelly ball test is a simple test also known as a ball

penetration test. This test determines the workability of fresh
concrete. It is an alternative to the slump cone test and is an
effortless field test of concrete.
Concrete is designed for a particular strength. The total
structural stability is dependent on good quality concrete.
Therefore quality control is one of the most important aspects
to be taken into account during the production of concrete.
Marginal variations in water to cement ratio, ingredient
proportioning, and increase in a slump, etc impacts the
desired concrete strength which in turn affects the strength
and stability of structures.
Figure 61: Keyball test of concrete

1. Quality tests performed on concrete are:

a) Production stage quality tests ( On fresh concrete before placing)
b) Hardened stage quality tests ( hardened concrete specimens)
c) On structures ( tests done on the structures )

95
 2. Kelly ball test Apparatus:
The Kelly ball apparatus for measuring
the workability of concrete consist of.
a) Meta hemisphere (Ball)
b) Graduated scale
c) Frame
d) Handle

The workability of concrete is decided by the

depth of the penetration of metal hemisphere
(ball) which will descend under its own weight
into the fresh concrete. The Metal hemisphere or
ball has 152 mm diameter and 13.6 kg weight.
J.W. Kelly (Professor, University of California)
had devised the plan of the Kelly ball test
apparatus. Hence, later on it also came to be
known as a ball penetration test. On the top of the
apparatus, there is a handle. The graduated scale
measures the penetration reading.
Figure 62: Keyball test apparatus

3. Test Procedure
a) Firstly, pour the fresh concrete into the wide container.
b) The concrete depth should be a minimum of 20 cm.
c) Then level and place the apparatus on the surface of the concrete in the container.
d) Now slowly release the handle of the apparatus and allow it to penetrate the
concrete.
e) Then observe and note down the penetration value on the graduated scale.
f) Repeat the procedure at least three times and record the values.
g) Finally, calculate the average values of the penetration to determine the
workability of concrete.

4. Results: The workability of the concrete is the average value of the readings from
the penetration.

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 5. Advantages of Kelly ball test: Some advantages of this test are
a) Compared to other workability tests Kelly ball test is very fast.
b) Precise and Accurate results.
6. Disadvantages of Kelly Ball Test: The disadvantages of this test include
a) This test requires a large amount of fresh concrete.
b) The result should not be precise if the size of the aggregate is large.
c) The concrete should be leveled before starting the test.

Test for Hardened Concrete

The suitability of the hardened concrete structure is determined by conducting suitable tests.
It is preferred to have such testing without any destruction or damage to the concrete
structure. Non-destructive tests are tests that will undergo no damage to the structure and take
the results. In Destructive tests, the results can be only taken by slightly damaging the
concrete surface. Once the surface is tested, the surface has to be repaired. We will
discuss the destructive and non-destructive tests in the concrete one by one in detail.

Compressive strength test

The compressive strength of concrete a common performance measure used by engineers to

design building and other structures. Compressive strength is defined as the ability of the
concrete to withstand specific compressive forces. The test will help to determine whether the
concrete performs to the appropriate standards.
In a laboratory, you can measure the compressive strength of the concrete using highly
controlled cylindrical moulds.

How it works: Concrete samples are placed into the cylinders

measuring 200mm high and 100mm in diameter (AS 1012.9) on-
site. Once dried, say the next day, they are then transported to the
laboratory, de-moulded and placed into a curing tank. At test
intervals (7, 14 and 28 days) the samples are placed between
compressions plates under an increasing force at a set pace rate.
The force applied for the sample to fail (crack/break) is recorded.

Figure 63: Compressive strenghth

test

97
Further calculations are performed to ascertain the strength compression and whether it has
passed or failed the test.

Flexural test

Flexural test on concrete based on the ASTM

standards are explained. Differences if
present in specification or any other aspects
of flexural test on concrete between ASTM
standard, Indian standard, and British Figure 64: Flexural Test
standard are specified.

Flexural test evaluates the tensile strength of concrete indirectly. It tests the ability of
unreinforced concrete beam or slab to withstand failure in bending. The results of flexural
test on concrete expressed as a modulus of rupture which denotes as (MR) in MPa or psi. The
flexural test on concrete can be conducted using either three point load test (ASTM C78) or
center point load test (ASTM C293). The configuration of each test is shown in Figure-2 and
Figure-3, respectively. Test method described in this article is according to ASTM C78.
It should be noticed that, the modulus of rupture value obtained by center point load test
arrangement is smaller than three-point load test configuration by around 15 percent.
Moreover, it is observed that low modulus of rupture is achieved when larger size concrete
specimen is considered. Furthermore, modulus of rupture is about 10 to 15 percent of
compressive strength of concrete. It is influenced by mixture proportions, size and coarse
aggregate volume used for specimen construction.

Split tensile test

One of the important properties of concrete is “tensile strength” as structural loads

make concrete vulnerable to tensile cracking. Tensile strength of concrete is much lower than
its compressive strength (that’s why steel is used to carry the tension forces). It has been
estimated that tensile strength of concrete equals roughly about 10% of compressive strength.
To determine the tensile strength, indirect methods are applied due to the difficulty of the
direct method. Noting that the values obtained of these methods are higher than those got
from the uniaxial tensile test. These indirect techniques are:

1. Split cylinder test

2. Flexural test

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Figure 65: Flexural Test

Preparation of Samples
1. The sample size is cylinder of diameter 15 cm and height of 30 cm. The mould used is
metal with mean internal diameter of the mould is 15 cm ± 0.2 mm and the height is
30 +/- 0.1 cm. The mould should be coated with a thin film of mould oil before use to
prevent adhesion of concrete.
2. Concrete is placed into the mould in layers of approximately 5 cm thickness. Each
layer is compacted either by hand or by vibration. When compacting by hand, the
tamping bar is utilized and the stroke of the bar shall be distributed in a uniform way.
The number of strokes for each layer should not at least 30. The stroke should
penetrate in to the underlying layer and the bottom layer should be rodded throughout
its depth.
3. After compacting the top layer, the surface of the concrete should be finished level
with the top of the mould, using a trowel and covered with a glass or metal plate to
prevent evaporation of water.
4. Curing: The test specimen should be stored in a place at a temperature of 27° +/- 2°C
for 24 hrs. After this period, specimens are removed from the moulds to be
submerged in clean fresh water or saturated lime solution for the specified curing
period (such as 7 or 28 days). The water or solution should be renewed every 7 days.

FRAME STRUCTURE

A framed structure in any material is one that is

made stable by a skeleton that is able to stand by
itself as a rigid structure without depending on
floors or walls to resist deformation. The heavy
timber frame, in which large posts, spaced
relatively far apart, support thick floor and roof
beams, was the commonest type of construction in
eastern Asia and northern Europe from prehistoric
times to the mid-19th century. Posts must rest on a Figure 66: Frame Structure
level, waterproof foundation, usually composed of masonry or concrete, on which the sill
(base member) is attached. Each upper story is laid on crossbeams that are supported on the
exterior wall by horizontal members. In the heavy-timber system, the beams are strong
enough to allow the upper story and roof to project beyond the plane of the ground-floor
posts, increasing the space and weather protection. In China, Korea, and Japan, spaces
between are enclosed by light screen walls and in northern Europe partly by thinner bracing
members and partly by boards, panels, or (in half-timbered construction) bricks or earth. The
light frame, however, is sheathed with vertical or horizontal boarding or shingling, which is
jointed or overlapped for weather protection.

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Column

Columns are basically rigid vertical structural members designed primarily to support axial
compressive loads coming from beams and slabs and then transfer it to ground through
footing.

Types of column are as follows:

Tied column

This type of column is commonly construction from

reinforced concrete. Longitudinal reinforcement are
confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It is
estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings are
tied.

Figure 68: Tied Colum

Spiral, Round Column

Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete.
In this type of column, longitudinal bars are confined within
closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement.
Spiral reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s
effect) and delays axial load failure (ductile).

Short Column Figure 69: Spiral or Round Column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the

least lateral dimension is less than 12, the
column is called as the short column. A short
column fails by crushing (pure compression
failure).
Length < 12
Least lateral
dimension

Long Column
If the ratio effective length of the
column to the least lateral dimension
exceeds 12, it is called as long
column. A long column fails by
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bending or buckling.
Length > 12
Least lateral dimension

Square or Rectangular Column

They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to construct and
cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of

shuttering and to support it from collapsing due to pressure while the concrete is still in
flowable form.

T-Shape column
It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-Shaped column is widely used in
the construction of bridges.

Figure 71: T-shaoe Column

Beam
A beam is a structural element that
primarily resists loads applied
laterally to the beam's axis (an
element designed to carry primarily
axial load would be a strut or
column). Its mode of deflection is
primarily by bending. The loads
applied to the beam result in reaction Figure 72: Beam

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 forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the
forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beams that in turn induce internal stresses,
strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of
cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, where the beams
are horizontal and carry vertical loads. However, any structure may contain beams, for instance
automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems.

In these structures, any structural element, in any orientation, that primarily resists loads applied laterally
to the element's axis would be a beam element.

There are different types of Beam some of them are as given bellow:

Simply Supported Beam

It is one of the simplest structural elements

that both ends rest on supports but is free to
rotate. It contains pinned support at one end
and a roller support at the other end. Based
on the assigned load, it sustains shearing and
bending.
Figure 73: Simply Supported Beam

Fixed Beam
It is supported at both ends and fixed to resist rotation. It
is also called a built-in beam. The fixed ends produce
moments other than the
reactions.
Figure 74: Fixed Beam

Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end and set to be free at the
other end, it is termed as a cantilever beam. The beam
distributes the load back to the support where it is
forced against a moment and shear stress. Cantilever
beams allow the creation of a bay window, balconies, and
some bridges.
Figure 75: Cantilever Beam

Continuous Beam

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A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed
along its entire length.

Timber beams:
The timber beam is constructed from timber and used in
the past. However, The application of such a beam in the
construction industry is significantly declined now.

Figure 76: Timber Beam

Rectangular beam:
This type of beam is widely used in the
construction of reinforced concrete
buildings and other structures.
Rectangular Reinforced concrete beam

Figure 77: Rectangular Beam

Cast In-situ Concrete Beam:

This type of beam is constructed on the project
site.
So, forms are initially fixed, then fresh concrete is
poured and allowed to hardened.
Then, loads would be imposed.

Figure 78: Cast In-Situ Beam

Precast Concrete Beam:

This type of beam is manufactured in factories.
So, the constructioncondition is more controllable
compare with on-site construction. Consequently, the
quality of the concrete of the beam would be greater.
Various cross-sectional shapes can be manufactures such as
T- beam, Double T-beam, Inverted T-beam, and many
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Figure 79: Precast Beam
more.

Deep Beam
A deep beam has considerable depth, and its clear span to depth ratio is less than four, as per
ACI Code. A substantial load is carried to the supports by a compression force combining the
load and the reaction. Consequently, the strain distribution is no longer considered linear, as
in the case of conventional beams.

Floor Slab
A floor slab is a flat plane horizontal structural element within
a building that forms the foundation of the floor or provides
the upper surface of a story in a multi-story structure.
Floor slabs are essential components of buildings, and their
design and construction must meet structural and safety
requirements to ensure the safety and stability of the entire
structure. Different types of floor slabs may be
used depending on the specific needs of the building, such as
flat slabs, ribbed slabs, waffle slabs, and more, each with its
own advantages and applications.
There are different types of floor slab which are commonly
Figure 80: Floor Slab
used for construction of floor are as given below:

Flat Slab:
Flat slab is an RCC slab built monolithically with supporting columns and reinforced in two
or more directions. Beams are not provided to support the slab. The loads are directly
transferred to the columns. In flat slabs, the columns are provided with enlarged heads
called capitals or column heads. The thickness of slab over columns is also increased to
support heavy loads and the thickened part of the slab is called drop panel. For lighter loads
the column heads and drop panels are eliminated, such flat slab with constant thickness
supported on prismatic columns are called flat plate.

Conventional Slab

A slab supported by beams and columns is

called a conventional slab or regular slab. In
these types, the thickness of the slab is small,
while the depth of the beam is large and it is
transferred to the load-bearing beams and
then to the columns. This requires more
formwork compared to the flat slab. It is not
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Figure 81: One and Two way slab

necessary to provide column caps on the regular type slab.
Types of conventional slab.
1. One Way Slab
2. Two Way Slab

Hollow Core Slab

A hollow core slab, also known as a voided
slab, hollow core plank or simply a concrete
plank is a precast slab of prestressed concrete
typically used in the construction of floors in
multi-story apartment buildings. The precast
concrete slab has tubular voids extending the
full length of the slab, typically with a
diameter equal to the 2/3–3/4 the thickness
of
the slab. This makes the slab much lighter
than a massive solid concrete floor slab of
Figure 82: Hollow core slab
equal thickness or strength. The reduced
weight also lowers material and transportation costs. The slabs are typically 120 cm wide with
standard thicknesses normally between 15 cm and 50 cm. Reinforcing steel wire rope provides
bending resistance.

Hardy Block Slab

This type of slab is built with hardy bricks
which is made of hollow bricks and
concrete. These bricks are used to fill thick
slab areas, which saves the amount of
concrete, thus reducing the slab's weight.
These types of the slab are commonly found
in Dubai and China. This slab is used in areas
where the temperature is very high. The
thickness of the
slab is increased to withstand the temperature Figure 83: Hardy Block Slab
from above the slab. The heat coming from the
walls is counteracted by using special bricks that contain thermocol.

Waffle Slab
A waffle slab is a type of slab with holes
underneath, giving the appearance of waffles. It is
usually used where large spans are required (e.g
auditorium) to avoid many columns interfering
with space. Hence thick slabs spanning between
wide beams (to avoid the beams protruding below
for aesthetic reasons) are required.Since the
tensile strength of concrete is mainly satisfied by
the steel
bar reinforcement, only the “ribs” containing the Figure 84: Waddle Slab
105
reinforcement are kept where the remaining ‘unused’ concrete portion below the neutral axis is
removed, to reduce the self-weight of the slab. This is achieved by placing clay pots or other shapes
on the formwork before casting the concrete.

Dome Slab:
A dome slab, also known as a domed roof or dome structure,
refers to a type of architectural or structural element that is
characterized by its curved or spherical shape resembling a
dome. Domes can be constructed using various materials and
methods, and they have been used in architectural design for
centuries.

Figure 85: Dome Slab

Roof Slab

It is topmost layer of a building as a covering

provided over the top of a building with a view
to keep out rain, snow, sun and wind to protect
the building from adverse effects element. A
roof basically consists of cover covering
materials supported on structural element
installed on the building top.
There are different types of roof covering (slab)
1. Pitched Roof
2. Flat Roof

Pitched Roof:
It is the most common from roof and is
generally regarded as the cheapest
alternative for covering a structure. Pitched
roof are almost always constructed in wood
or steel pitched roofs have been described
in the “structural steel work.” Wooden
pitched roof consists of a system of joints,
rafters and purlins arranged in the form of a
triangular shaped support known as truss.
106

Figure 86: Bitched Roof

Types of pitched roof:
a. Lean To roof
b. Couple Roof

107
 c. Couple-Close Roof
d. Collar Roof
e. Scissor Roof
f. King Post Roof Truss
g. Queen Post Roof
h. Mansard Roof Truss
i. Composite Roof

Flat Roof:
A flat roof is a roof which is almost level in contrast to
the many types of sloped roofs. The slope of a roof is
properly known as its pitch and flat roofs have up to
approximately 10°. [1] Flat roofs are an ancient form
mostly used in arid climates and allow the roof space to
be used as a living space or a living roof.

Figure 87: Flat roof

108
Conclusion

In conclusion, this comprehensive report on concrete and steel provides a thorough

understanding of the fundamental materials and their applications in construction.
Cement, the primary component of concrete, has been extensively discussed, covering its
composition, properties, types, manufacturing processes, and laboratory tests. Similarly,
aggregates and steel, crucial elements in concrete and structural frameworks, have been
explored in detail, including their types, properties, manufacturing processes, and treatment
methods. Moving on to concrete, we have delved into its composition, properties, types, and
manufacturing processes, highlighting the importance of quality control and sustainable
practices in production. Various types of concrete, including specialty innovations like
polymer concrete and ultra-high performance concrete, were presented, emphasizing their
advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, the report addresses common issues such as
cracks in concrete and provides insights into non-destructive testing methods. It also covers
fresh and hardened concrete tests, ensuring a robust understanding of concrete quality
assessment. Lastly, the report briefly touches upon frame structures and their components,
outlining the crucial roles played by foundations, columns, beams, floor slabs, and roof slabs
in constructing sturdy buildings.

In summary, this report serves as a valuable resource for professionals and enthusiasts in the
construction industry, offering comprehensive knowledge about concrete, steel, and their
applications in building infrastructure while emphasizing quality, sustainability, and
structural integrity.

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References

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