CARBON AND

ITS
COMPOUNDS
• Covalent Bond in Carbon
• The atomic number of carbon - 6
• Electronic configuration is 2, 4. To attain a noble gas configuration it requires
four more electrons in its valence shell.
• It is difficult for an atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons as it would
be difficult to hold extra electrons and would require a large amount of energy
to remove four electrons.
• Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons
with other atoms. Such mutual sharing of electrons between atoms to attain a
stable noble gas configuration is called Covalent bonding.
Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine also show sharing of valence
electrons.
Depending on the number of electron pairs shared, covalent bond is of three types :
SINGLE COVALENT BOND: Single covalent bond is formed because of sharing of two electrons,i.e
one pair .Example : F2, Cl2, H2,Methane etc..

FORMATION OF A SINGLE BOND IN A HYDROGEN MOLECULE

Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.
Formation of CH4 Molecule

• Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]

Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1
• DOUBLE COVALENT BOND: Double bond is formed by sharing of
four electrons, i.e two pairs of electrons. Example : O2, CO2 etc.

• Formation of CO2 Molecule • Formation of O2 Molecule

• Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4] • Atomic number of Oxygen= 8 [2,6]
Number of valence electrons = 4 Number of valence electrons =6
Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6] it requires 2 electrons hence shares 2 pairs
Number of valence electrons = 6 of electrons with another Oxygen

•
TRIPLE COVALENT
BOND:
• When three pairs of electrons are shared between
two atoms in a molecule. For example; N2
• Atomic number of Nitrogen = 7 [2,5]
Number of valence electrons =5
it requires 2 electrons hence shares 3 pairs of
electrons with another Nitrogen
 Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy: The phenomenon in which the element exists in two or
more different physical states with similar chemical properties are
called Allotropy.
• Carbon has Three Main Allotropes
• Diamond: In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other atoms of carbon forming
three-dimensional structures. Diamond has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is
because each carbon is connected to four neighbouring carbon atoms via single
covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a crystal. These crystal units lie in different
planes and are connected to each other, resulting in a rigid three-
dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.It is the hardest substance and an insulator.
It is used for drilling rocks and cutting. It is also used for making jewellery.
DIAMOND:

• In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other atoms of

carbon forming three-dimensional structures. Diamond
has a regular tetrahedral geometry. This is because each
carbon is connected to four neighbouring carbon atoms
via single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of a
crystal. These crystal units lie in different planes and are
connected to each other, resulting in a rigid three-
dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond. It is the
hardest substance and an insulator. It is used for
drilling rocks and cutting. It is also used for
making jewellery.
GRAPHITE:
• In graphite, each carbon atom is
bonded covalently to three other
carbon atoms, leaving each carbon atom
with one free valency. This arrangement
results in hexagonal rings in a single plane
and such rings are stacked over each other
through weak Van der Waals forces. Each
carbon atom with one free valency makes
it a good conductor of electricity and its
layered structure makes it a lubricant and
slippery.
 • BUCKMINSTER
FULLERENE C60
:
•C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the
very popular and stable form of the known
fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring fullerene
and can be found in small quantities in soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12
pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer ball.
• It is an allotrope of the carbon-containing cluster
of 60 carbon atoms joined together to form
spherical molecules. It is dark solid at room
temperature.
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON: •
• The existence of such a large number of organic
compounds is due to the following nature of carbon,
• Catenation
• Tetravalent nature.
• (i) Catenation: The self linking property of an element
mainly carbon atom through covalent bonds to form long
straight, branched and rings of different sizes are called
Catenation.
This property is due to
• The small size of the carbon atom.
• The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
• Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple)
with itself and with the atoms of other elements.
Straight Chain
(ii) Tetravalent Nature:

Having a valency of 4, carbon atom is

capable of bonding with atoms of oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and
other elements. Since it requires four
electrons, carbon is said to be tetravalent.
The smaller size of carbon atom enables
nucleus to hold the shared pair of electrons
strongly, thus carbon compounds are very
stable in general.
 • CLASSIFICATION
HYDROCARBONS: The
compounds which are
majorly made of hydrogen
and carbon atoms.
Hydrocarbons are further
classified as
SATURATED HYDROCARBON • ALKANES
Saturated Hydrocarbon
(Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2.
n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected
by only a single bond.
For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane
(C2H6) etc.
UNSATURATED
HYDROCARBONS
Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n,
where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are
connected by double bond.

Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2,

where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are
connected by triple bond.
DOT STRUCTURE• ETHANE ETHENE & ETHYNE

Electron dot
structure of
ethane,
ethene and
ethyne are as
follows--
 ISOMERISM: • ISOMERS OF BUTANE

Compounds having the same molecular

formula but different structural formula
and properties are known as Isomers and
this phenomenon is known as Isomerism.
Structural Isomerism: Compounds
having the same molecular formula but
different structures are called Structural
isomers. Example:
ISOMERS OF BUTANE (C4H10)
ISOMERS OF PENTANE (C5H10)
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
• Series of organic compounds having the same functional
group and chemical properties and successive members
differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are known as
Homologous series.
• Homologous series of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes.
• CHARACTERISTIC OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
• The successive members in homologous series differ by
CH2 unit or 14 mass unit.
• Members of given homologous series have the same
functional group.
• All the members of homologous series shows similar
chemical properties.
 FUNCTIONAL GROUP: • How to name carbon compounds :
An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely
determines its chemical properties are called Functional Group. NOMENCLATURE
Main Functional Groups: • 1. Identify the number of carbon atoms
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): -OH group are known as alcohols. For in the compound.
example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO):example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal
• 2. Functional group is indicated either
(CH3CHO), etc. by prefix or suffix.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): example, Propanone (CH3COCH3),
Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.
• Functional Group Suffix Prefix
(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): They are also called carboxylic acids. • Alkene- ene
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid Alkyn- yne
(CH3CH2COOH), etc.
Alcohol- ol
(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more
than one hydrogen atom is substituted by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known
Aldehyde- al
as haloalkanes. Ketone- one
For example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br), etc. Carboxylic acid- oic acid
chlorine –chloro
• 3. If a suffix is added, then final ‘e’ is
removed from the name e.g.methanol
(methane-e = methan + ol).
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: The important
chemical properties are as follows:
• 1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon dioxide water,
heat and light.
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light
• Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light
• Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or
oxygen.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light
• In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow smoky flame.
• The gas and kerosene stove used at home has inlet for air so that, burnt to given clean blue flame.
Due to presence of small amount of nitrogen and sulphur, coal and petroleum produces carbon dioxide
with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are major pollutant.

• Burning of coal and petroleum emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are responsible for acid rain.
•
 2. Oxidation 3. Addition Reaction:
• Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents • Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated
gives ethanoic acid. hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts such as
nickel or platinum or palladium are known as
• Hydrogenation (addition) reaction.

• Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of

adding oxygen to others, are known as Oxidising
Agent. • Catalyst: Substances that cause a reaction to
Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH) occur or proceeds to different rate without
Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4) consuming in it are called a catalyst. For example;
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate Ni, Pt, Pd, etc.
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate
• Process of converting vegetable oil into solid fat
(vegetable ghee) is called Hydrogenation of Oil.
Vegetable oil + H2 Undefined control sequence
\xrightarrow Vegetable ghee
• Vegetable fats are saturated fats which are
harmful for health.
4. SUBSTITUTION REACTION:
• Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic
molecule by another atom or group of the atom is known as
Substitution Reaction.
•
 ETHANOL (CH3CH2—OH)
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES-
• (i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless and inflammable liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.

• Uses:
• 1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.
• How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?
• (i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of
eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium
• Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This
reaction supports the acidic character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)
• Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene.
This reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water
molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.
• CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O
• Dehydrating agent: Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is
known as Dehydrating agent. For example; Cone. H2SO4.
ETHANOIC ACID (CH3COOH):
• Commonly known as Acetic acid. 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is called
Vinegar. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often
freezes in cold climate so named as glacial acetic acid.
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• It is a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid.
• Miscible with water in all proportions.
• Turns blue litmus to red.
• CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(i) Esterification Reaction: Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the
presence of a few drops of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst gives a sweet-smelling
substance known as Esters, called Esterification reaction.
SAPONIFICATION
• A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain
carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap molecule is
generally represented as RCOONa, where R =
non-ionic hydrocarbon group and −COO−Na+ ionic
group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin
is treated with a concentrated sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place;
soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline
hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as
saponification.
•
Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with
Carbonates and Bicarbonates
• Carboxylic acids react with carbonates
and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO2 gas.
For example, when ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
 SOAP:
Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is
called Soap.
General formula: RCOO–Na+
CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP
When soap is added to water, the soap molecules
uniquely orient themselves to form spherical shape
micelles.
The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap
molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric, while
the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains
attracted to water molecules.
The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles
to carry the oil or dirt particles and detach them from the
fibres of the fabric.
Scum : The magnesium and calcium salts present in
hard water reacts with soap molecule to form insoluble
products called scum, thus obstructing the cleansing
action. Use of detergents overcome this problem as the
detergent molecule prevents the formation of insoluble
product and thus clothes get cleaned.
Soaps and Detergents

• Soap is sodium and potassium salt of carboxylic

acids with long chain.
• Soaps are effective with soft water only and
ineffective with hard water.
• Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of
carboxylic acids with long chain. They are effective
with both soft as well as hard water.