CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Covalent Bond: The atomic number of Carbon is 6. Its electronic configuration is 2, 4. It requires, 4
electrons to achieve the inert gas electronic configuration. But carbon cannot form an ionic bond
It could gain four electrons forming C4- cation. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons.
It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cations. But it requires a large amount of energy to remove
four electrons.
Thus, carbon overcomes this problem by sharing of its valence electrons with other carbon atoms or
with atoms of other elements.
The bond formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs between two atoms in a molecule is known as
Covalent Bond.

Types of Covalent Bond:

 Single Covalent Bond: When a single pair of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; F2, Cl2, H2 etc.
 Double Covalent Bond: When two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; O2, CO2 etc.
 Triple Covalent Bond: When three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; N2 etc.

Electron Dot Structure: The electron dot structures provide a picture of bonding in molecules in
terms of the shared pairs of electrons and octet rule. It is also known as Lewis dot structure.

Formation of Hydrogen Molecule

Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1

Formation of CH4 Molecule

Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1
Formation of CO2 Molecule
Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6]
Number of valence electrons = 6

Formation of H2S Molecule

Atomic number of Sulphur = 16 [2, 8, 6]
Number of valence electrons = 6

Physical Properties of Organic Compounds

Most of the organic compounds have low boiling and melting point, due to the weak force of
attraction (i.e., the inter-molecular force of attraction) between these molecules.
Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity, due to the absence of free electrons and
free ions.

Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy: The phenomenon in which the element exists in two or more different physical states
with similar chemical properties are called Allotropy.

Carbon has Three Main Allotropes

 Diamond: In this, carbon, an atom is bonded to four other atoms of carbon forming three-
dimensional structures. It is the hardest substance and an insulator. It is used for drilling
rocks and cutting. It is also used for making jewellery.
 Graphite: In this, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. It is a good
conductor of electricity and used as a lubricant.
 Buckminster Fullerene: It is an allotrope of the carbon-containing cluster of 60 carbon
atoms joined together to form spherical molecules. It is dark solid at room temperature.

Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to
the following nature of carbon,
 Catenation
 Tetravalent nature.
 Multiple bonding

(i) Catenation: The self-linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through covalent bonds
to form long straight, branched and rings of different sizes are called Catenation.
This property is due to
 The small size of the carbon atom.
 The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms of other
elements.

Straight Chain

Branched Chain

Rings

(ii) Tetravalent Nature: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or some other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple bond.
(iii) Multiple Bond Formation: Small size of carbon also enables it to form multiple bonds, (i.e.,
double bonds or triple bonds) with other elements as well as with its own atoms. This increases the
number of carbon compounds.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.

For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Ethyne (C2H2) etc.

Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2.

n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected by only a single bond.
For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6) etc.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are connected by double bond.

Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two carbon
atoms are connected by triple bond.
Electron Dot Structure of Hydrocarbons

Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formula and
properties are known as Isomers and this phenomenon is known as Isomerism.
Structural Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are
called Structural isomers. Example: Isomers of butane (C4H10)

Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and chemical
properties and successive members differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are known as Homologous
series.
Homologous series of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes

Characteristic of Homologous Series

 The successive members in homologous series differ by CH2 unit or 14 mass unit.
 Members of given homologous series have the same functional group.
 All the members of homologous series show similar chemical properties.

Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely determines its
chemical properties are called Functional Group.

Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: It is difficult to remember millions of compounds by their

individual common name. Thus, to systematize the nomenclature of organic compounds IUPAC
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has given certain rule which is as follows:
1. Identify the Number of Carbon Atoms in the Compound
2. Identify the functional group
3. Name the Compounds by Following Order
Prefix + Word Root + Suffix

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: The important chemical properties are as follows:
1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon dioxide
water, heat and light.

CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light

Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or
oxygen.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light

In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow smoky flame.

The gas and kerosene stove used at home has inlet for air so that, burnt to given clean blue flame.
Due to presence of small amount of nitrogen and sulphur, coal and petroleum produces carbon
dioxide with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are major pollutant.

2. Oxidation: Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known as Oxidising
Agent.
Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH)
Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4)
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate

3. Addition Reaction: Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of

catalysts such as nickel or platinum or palladium are known as Hydrogenation (addition) reaction.

Catalyst: Substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceeds to different rate without consuming
in it are called a catalyst. For example; Ni, Pt, Pd, etc.

Process of converting vegetable oil into solid fat (vegetable ghee) is called Hydrogenation of Oil.
Vegetable oil + H2 ---------------- Vegetable ghee
Vegetable fats are saturated fats which are harmful for health.
Vegetable oil containing unsaturated fatty acids are good for health.

4. Substitution Reaction: Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic molecule by

another atom or group of the atom is known as Substitution Reaction.

Some Important Carbon Compounds:

Ethanol (CH3CH2—OH): Commonly known as Ethyl Alcohol.
Physical Properties
 It is colourless, inflammable liquid.
 It is miscible with water in all proportions.
 It has no effect on the litmus paper.

Chemical Properties
 Reaction with sodium

 Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 (Dehydration Reaction)

Dehydrating agent: Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is known as
Dehydrating agent. For example; Cone. H2SO4.
Uses: As solvent, as antiseptic (tincture iodine), as anti-freeze in automobiles.

Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH): Commonly known as Acetic acid. 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is called
Vinegar. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often freezes in cold climate
so named as glacial acetic acid.
Physical Properties
 It is a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid.
 Miscible with water in all proportions.
 Turns blue litmus to red.

Chemical Properties
(i) Esterification Reaction: Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a few drops
of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst gives a sweet-smelling substance known as Esters, called Esterification
reaction.

Esters are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.

Saponification Reaction: Reaction of esters with sodium hydroxide, gives alcohol and sodium salt of
carboxylic acid (soap). This reaction is known as Saponification Reaction.
(ii) Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
carbonates and sodium hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

 Used as vinegar.
 Used as raw material for the preparation of acetyl chloride and esters.

Soap: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is called Soap.
General formula: RCOO–Na+

Detergent: Ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids are called Detergent.
Example: CH3—(CH2)11—C6H4—SO3Na.

Hard and Soft Water: Water that does not produce lather with soap readily is called Hard water and
which produces lather with soap is called Soft Water.
Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate salt of calcium and
magnesium.

Difference between soaps and detergents

Soaps Detergents
(i) These are sodium or potassium salts of long (i) These are ammonium and sulphonate salts of
chain fatty acids. long chain fatty acids.
(ii) Ionic part of the soap is —COO–Na+ (ii) Ionic part of detergent is —OSO3-Na+.
(iii) Their efficiency decreases in hard water (iii) Their efficiency is unaffected in hard water.
(iv) Soaps are biodegradable. (iv) Detergents are non-biodegradable.

Advantage of Detergents: The main advantage of detergent over soaps is that soaps cannot be used
in hard water for washing because hard water reacts with soap to form curdy white precipitate
called Scum.

Thus, in hard water, soap does not give lather while detergent does.

Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: Both soaps and detergents contain two parts. A long
hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature and a short ionic part which is
hydrophillic (water attracting) in nature.

The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic end orients
itself towards water and forms a spherical structure called micelles. The soap micelles help in
dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes. The dirt is generally held to the surface of a dirty
cloth by a thin film of oil or grease.
When a dirty cloth is treated with soap or detergent solution, the non- polar tail of the soap or the
detergent dissolve in oil or grease while the polar heads are held by the surrounding water. Soap or
detergent micelle is formed with the oily or greasy dirt lying at their Centre (Soap or detergent is
attracted both by the greasy dirt and water. When the surface of the cloth is mechanically scrubbed
or beaten on a stone or with a wooden paddle or agitated in a washing machine, the loosened oily
particle is removed from the dirty surface and the cloth is cleaned. Detergents lower the surface
tension of water to a greater extent than soap, therefore the cleansing action of detergent is much
higher than those of soaps.

Scum: The insoluble precipitates formed by soap molecule when they react with calcium and
magnesium ions present in hard water. Due to this, a lot of soap gets wasted and cleansing action
gets reduced to a larger extent.