Feedback and Control System Page 1 of 5

Introduction to Feedback and Control System

INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK AND CONTROL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Have you heard about this quotation by Terence McKenna? He said:

“Chaos is what we've lost touch with. This is why it is given a bad name. It is feared by the
dominant archetype of our world, which is Ego, which clenches because its existence is
defined in terms of control.”

Control is used to modify the behavior of a system so it behaves in a specific desirable way
over time. For example, we may want the speed of a car on the highway to remain as close as
possible to 60 miles per hour in spite of possible hills or adverse wind; or we may want an
aircraft to follow a desired altitude, heading, and velocity profile independent of wind gusts; or
we may want the temperature and pressure in a reactor vessel in a chemical process plant to
be maintained at desired levels.

This module provides an introduction to control system design methods.

IV. LESSON PROPER

.
Control systems engineering consists of analysis and design of
control systems configurations.

 Analysis is the investigation of the properties of an existing

system.

 Design problem is the choice and arrangement of system

components to perform a specific task.
 Feedback and Control System Page 2 of 5
Introduction to Feedback and Control System
Two methods exist for design:

1. Design by analysis is accomplished by modifying the characteristics of an existing or

standard system configuration

2. Design by synthesis by defining the form of the system directly from its specifications.

Control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or
regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired results.
In other words, the definition of a control system can be simplified as a system,
which controls other systems

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output.
The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal
is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some
duration of time.

Control System Terminology

To discuss control systems, we must first define several key terms.

 Input -. Stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external source,

usually in order to produce a specified response from the system.
 Output - The actual response obtained from the system.
 Feedback - That portion of the output of a system that is returned to modify the input
and thus serve as a performance monitor for the system.
 Error - The difference between the input stimulus and the output response. Specifically,
it is the difference between the input and the feedback.
 Feedback and Control System Page 3 of 5
Introduction to Feedback and Control System

A very simple example of a feedback control system is the thermostat. The input is the
temperature that is initially set into the device. Comparison is then made between the input and
the temperature of the outside world.

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems based on the feedback path.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1: Identify the organ-system components, and the input and output, and describe the
operation of the biological control system consisting of a human being reaching for an object.

Answer:
The basic components of this intentionally oversimplified
control system description are the brain, arm and hand, and
eyes.

The brain sends the required nervous system signal to

the arm and hand to reach for the object. This signal is amplified in the muscles of the arm and
hand, which serve as power actuators for the system. The eyes are employed as a sensing
device, continuously “feeding back” the position of the hand to the brain.

Hand position is the output for the system. The input is object position.

The objective of the control system is to reduce the distance between hand position and object
position to zero. Figure 1-3 is a schematic diagram. The
dashed lines and arrows represent the direction of information
flow

Open Loop Control Systems

In Open Loop Control Systems, output is not fed-back to the

input. So, the control action is independent of the desired
output.
 Feedback and Control System Page 4 of 5
Introduction to Feedback and Control System
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal.
This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant
produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed
earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. How is the open-loop systems calibrated for an automatic toaster?

Answer:
Although the timer dial for most automatic toasters is calibrated by the manufacturer (e.g., light
medium - dark), the amount of heat produced by the heating element may vary over a wide
range.

In addition, the efficiency of the heating element normally deteriorates with age. Hence the
amount of time required for “good toast” must be estimated by the user, and this setting usually
must be periodically readjusted.
At first, the toast is usually too light or too dark. After
several successively different estimates, the required
toasting time for a desired quality of toast is obtained.

In Closed Loop Control Systems, output is fed back to the

input. So, the control action is dependent on the desired
output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.
 Feedback and Control System Page 5 of 5
Introduction to Feedback and Control System

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the following table.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. Explain how a closed-loop automatic washing machine might operate.

Answer:
Assume all quantities namely cycle-time, water volume, water temperature, amount of
detergent, and amount of bleach, can be adjusted by devices such as valves and heaters.

A closed-loop automatic washer might continuously or periodically measure the

percentage of cleanliness (output) of the items being washing, adjust the input quantities
accordingly, and turn itself off when 100% cleanliness has been achieved.
 Feedback and Control System Page 1 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

CONTROL SYSTEMS TERMINOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Process Control Technicians are in high demand in industry. As automation continues to advance our capabilities, it
also increases the difficulty of maintaining the system. Understanding the complex systems in automation begins
with the basics, such as print reading.

This module provides an introduction to the terminology used in control system.

LESSON PROPER

BLOCK DIAGRAM

A block diagram is a shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause-

and-effect relationship between the input and output of a physical
system.

It provides a convenient and useful method for characterizing the

‘functional relationships among the various components of a control
system. System components are alternatively called elements of the
system.
The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one input and one output, as shown in Fig. 2-1.

The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains a description of or the name of the element, or
the symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the output. The arrows represent
the direction of information or signal flow
 Feedback and Control System Page 2 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off point.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

 Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and single output.

The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function G(s).

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

 Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more inputs and single
output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the summation or subtraction or combination of
summation and subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one
by one.
1. Sum of A and B. (Y = A + B )

2. Difference of A and B. (Y = A + (-B) = A – B)

3. Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
 Feedback and Control System Page 3 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

 Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one branch. That
means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks, summing points.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. Consider the following equations in which , are variables, and

are general coefficients or mathematical operators:

Draw a block diagram for each equation, identifying all blocks, inputs, and outputs.

Answer:

The term is represented in the same manner.

The block diagram for the equation is therefore shown in figure 2.20
 Feedback and Control System Page 4 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

Below are several terms associated with the closed-loop block diagram.

 Plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is controlled. This is also
called the controlled system.

 Control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
These elements are also called the “controller.”

 Feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship between the feedback
signal and the controlled output.

 Reference point is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control system to cause the plant
to produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired value of a controlled variable and is also
called the “setpoint.”

 controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled. This signal represents the
controlled variable.

 feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point and algebraically added to
the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.

 Actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is equal to the algebraic sum of the
reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also called the “error signal.”

 Manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the plant output (controlled
variable) at the desired value.

 Disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the value of the controlled output of the plant.
 Forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled
Output.

 Feedforward (control) elements , are the components of the forward path that
 Feedback and Control System Page 5 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

generate the control signal U or m applied to the plant.

Note: Feedforward elements typically include controller(s), compensator( s) (or equalization elements),
and/or amplifier.

 Feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output back to the
summing point.

 Feedback elements establish the functional relationship between the controlled output and the primary
feedback signal . Note: Feedback elements typically include sensors of the controlled output c,
compensators, and/or controller
element .

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. Draw a block diagram for the water-filling system described in Problem 1.15. Which component or
components comprise the plant? The controller? The feedback?

Answer:
The container is the plant because the water level of the container is being controlled.
The stopper valve may be chosen as the control element; and the ball-float, cord, and associated linkage as the
feedback elements. The block diagram is given in Fig. 2-36.

The feedback is negative because the water flow rate to the container must decrease as the water level rises in the
container.

A discrete-time (sampled-data or digital) control system as one having a discrete-time signals or components at
one or more points in the system.
 Feedback and Control System Page 6 of 6
Control Systems Terminology

We introduce several common discrete-time system components first, and then illustrate some of the ways they are
interconnected in digital control systems. We remind the reader here that discrete-time is often abbreviated as
discrete in this module, and continuous-time as continuous, wherever the meaning is unambiguous

Many digital control systems contain both continuous and discrete components. One or more
devices known as samplers, and others known as holds, are usually included in such systems

An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is a device that converts an analog or continuous signal into a discrete or
digital signal.

A computer-controlled system includes a computer as the primary control element.

Block Diagram of a Computer-Controlled System with A/D Converter

A servomechanism is a power-amplifying feedback control system in which the controlled variable is mechanical
position, or a time derivative of position such as velocity or acceleration.
 Feedback and Control System Page 1 of 1
Control Systems - Feedback

CONTROL SYSTEMS - FEEDBACK

INTRODUCTION

Feedback Systems process signals and as such are signal processors. The processing part of a feedback system
may be electrical or electronic, ranging from a very simple to a highly complex circuits.

Simple analogue feedback control circuits can be constructed using individual or discrete components, such as
transistors, resistors and capacitors, etc, or by using microprocessor-based and integrated circuits (IC’s) to form
more complex digital feedback systems.

As we have seen, open-loop systems are just that, open ended, and no attempt is made to compensate for changes
in circuit conditions or changes in load conditions due to variations in circuit parameters, such as gain and stability,
temperature, supply voltage variations and/or external disturbances. But the effects of these “open-loop” variations
can be eliminated or at least considerably reduced by the introduction of Feedback.

LESSON PROPER

A feedback control system is a system whose output is controlled using its measurement as a feedback signal.

This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to generate an error signal which is filtered by
a controller to produce the system's control input.

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to

the input side and utilized as part of the system input, then
it is known as feedback.
Feedback plays an important role in order to improve the
performance of the control systems. In this module, let us
discuss the types of feedback & effects of feedback.
 Feedback and Control System Page 2 of 2
Control Systems - Feedback

Nowadays, feedback control is an enabling technology in most industries. For example:

 Aerospace
 autopilots
 open-loop unstable jet fighters
 rockets

 Process control
 electric arc furnaces
 continuous blending processes
 nuclear reactors
 chemical reactors

 Electronics
 Op-amp circuits
 Phase-lock loops
 hard disk drives

 Manufacturing Automation
 Robotics
 CNC mills

Two (2) Types of Feedback

 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback

Positive Feedback

The positive feedback adds the reference input R(s) and feedback output. The following figure shows the block
diagram of positive feedback control system.

The concept of transfer function will be discussed in later chapters. For the time being, consider the transfer function
of positive feedback control system is,
T = G / (1 – GH) --- (Equation 1)
Where,
 Feedback and Control System Page 3 of 3
Control Systems - Feedback

 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input R(s) and system output. The following figure
shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

T = G / (1 + GH) --- (Equation 2)

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1.
The feedback is negative because the water flow rate to the container must decrease as the water level rises in the
container.

Effects of Feedback

Let us now understand the effects of feedback.

 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain

 Feedback and Control System Page 4 of 4
Control Systems - Feedback

 From Equation 2, we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is
the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(1+GH).

 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative
because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is
positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, the feedback will increase the overall gain of the system in one
frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range.

Effect of Feedback on Sensitivity

Sensitivity of the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system (T) to the variation in open loop
gain (G) is defined as

(Equation 3)

Where, ∂T is the incremental change in T due to incremental change in G.

We can rewrite Equation 3 as

(Equation 4)

Do partial differentiation with respect to G on both sides of Equation 2.

(Equation 5)

From Equation 2, you will get

(Equation 6)
 Feedback and Control System Page 5 of 5
Control Systems - Feedback

Substitute Equation 5 and Equation 6 in Equation 4.

So, we got the sensitivity of the overall gain of closed loop control system as the reciprocal of (1 + GH). So,
Sensitivity may increase or decrease depending on the value of (1 + GH).

 If the value of (1 + GH) is less than 1, then sensitivity increases. In this case, 'GH' value is negative
because the gain of feedback path is negative.

 If the value of (1 + GH) is greater than 1, then sensitivity decreases. In this case, 'GH' value is positive
because the gain of feedback path is positive.

In general, 'G' and 'H' are functions of frequency. So, feedback will increase the sensitivity of the system gain in one
frequency range and decrease in the other frequency range. Therefore, we have to choose the values of 'GH' in
such a way that the system is insensitive or less sensitive to parameter variations.

Effect of Feedback on Stability

 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

 In Equation 2, if the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system will
be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.

Therefore, we have to properly choose the feedback in order to make the control system stable.

Effect of Feedback on Noise

To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with and without feedback
due to noise signal alone.

Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.
 Feedback and Control System Page 6 of 6
Control Systems - Feedback

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

(Equation 7)

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Consider a closed loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal alone is

(Equation 8)

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero.

Compare Equation 7 and Equation 8,

In the closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of (1 + GaGbH)
provided that the term (1 + GaGbH) is greater than one.
 Feedback and Control System Page 1 of 4
Mathematical Models

MATHEMATICAL MODELS

INTRODUCTION:

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as mathematical model.
These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.

Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and mathematical model. Design of
control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the input and the output.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model
 State space model

Let us discuss the first two models in this module.

LESSON PROPER

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of

control systems. Follow these steps for differential equation model.

 Apply basic laws to the given control system.

 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by
eliminating the intermediate variable(s).
 Feedback and Control System Page 2 of 4
Mathematical Models

Differential Equation is an equation with a function and one or more of its derivatives.

 Function, in mathematics, an expression, rule, or law that defines a relationship between one variable (the
independent variable) and another variable (the dependent variable).

 The derivative, in mathematics is a way to show rate of change: that is, the amount by which a function is
changing at one given point.

A differential equation is any equation which contains derivatives, either ordinary derivatives or partial derivatives.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1: Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of resistor,
inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit

is and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage .

Mesh equation for this circuit is

 Feedback and Control System Page 3 of 4
Mathematical Models

The above equation is a second order differential equation.

Transfer Function Model

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems.

A transfer function represents the relationship between the output signal of a control system and the input signal, for
all possible input values.

The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output
and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero.

If x(t)) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace transforms
are X(s) and Y(s).

Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s).

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this block has an
input X(s) & output Y(s).

Laplace Transform and Z Transforms

In mathematics, the Laplace transform, named after its inventor Pierre - Simon Laplace (/ləˈplɑːs/), is an
integral transform that converts a function of a real variable (often time) to a function of a complex variable.
(complex frequency).

Z – Transforms is a powerful mathematical tool to convert differential equations into algebraic equations.
 Feedback and Control System Page 4 of 4
Mathematical Models

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as

Apply Laplace transform on both sides.

Where,

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer function model of this
system is shown below.

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function inside it. And this block has
an input Vi(s) & an output Vo(s).
 Feedback and Control System Page 1 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

MODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

I. INTRODUCTION:

Dynamic simulation of systems, where the differential equations of the system are solved numerically, is a very
important tool for analysis of the detailed behavior of a system. The main problem when dealing with large complex
systems is that most simulation packages rely on centralized integration algorithms.

For large scale systems, however, it is an advantage if the system can be partitioned in such a way that the parts
can be evaluated with only a minimum of interaction. Using transmission line models, with distributed parameters,
physically motivated pure time delays are introduced in the communication between components. These models
can be used to represent both lines in a hydraulic system and springs in mechanical systems

In this module, let us discuss the differential equation modeling of mechanical systems.

There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.

 Translational mechanical systems

 Rotational mechanical systems

IV. LESSON PROPER

Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.

If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing forces due to mass,
elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite directions, the
algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the force opposed by these three
elements individually.
 Feedback and Control System Page 2 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

 Mass
 Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. Mass is usually measured in grams (g) or
kilograms (kg).
 Mass measures the quantity of matter regardless of both its location in the universe and the
gravitational force applied to it.
 An object's mass is constant in all circumstances; contrast this with its weight, a force that depends on
gravity.
 Your mass on the earth and the moon are identical. Your weight on the moon is about one-sixth of your
weight on the earth.
Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy. If a force is applied on a body having mass M,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to the acceleration of
the body. Assume elasticity and friction is negligible.

 Spring

In classical physics, a spring can be seen as a device that

stores potential energy, specifically elastic potential energy, by straining
the bonds between the atoms of an elastic material. Many materials
have no clearly defined elastic limit, and Hooke's law cannot be
meaningfully applied to these materials.

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by an
opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to the displacement of the spring.
Assume mass and friction is negligible.
 Feedback and Control System Page 3 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

 Dashpot

A dashpot is a mechanical device, a damper which resists motion via viscous

friction. The resulting force is proportional to the velocity, but acts in the opposite
direction, slowing the motion and absorbing energy. It is commonly used in
conjunction with a spring (which acts to resist displacement).

If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the dashpot. This
opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity is negligible.

EXERCISE / ACTIVITY

Exercise 1. Spring-mass-damper system mounted on a cart.

Consider the spring-mass-damper system mounted on a mass less cart, u(t) is the displacement of the cart and is
the input to the system.

The displacement y(t) of the mass is the output. In this system, m denotes the mass, b denotes the viscous-friction
coefficient, and k denotes the spring constant

Taking the Laplace transform of this last equation, assuming zero initial condition:
 Feedback and Control System Page 4 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

The transfer function:

To obtain a state-space model of this system:

Write the system differential equation.

To obtain a state-space model of this system:

Put the output highest derivative at one side:

Define two states:

Differentiate the two states:

 Feedback and Control System Page 5 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Write the equations in state-space form:

MODELING OF ROTATIONAL MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment of
inertia, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero. Let us now see the torque opposed by these
three elements individually.

 Moment of Inertia

In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, moment
of inertia stores kinetic energy.

If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the
moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and
friction is negligible.
 Feedback and Control System Page 6 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems

 Torsional Spring

In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical system,
torsional spring stores potential energy.

If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of torsional
spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement of the torsional spring. Assume that the
moment of inertia and friction are negligible.

 Dashpot

If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the
dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and
elasticity are negligible.
Feedback and Control System Page 7 of 7
Modeling of Mechanical Systems