Lect 3 - Speech Acts

Speech Acts
LANGUAGE AS ACTION
Speech Acts
u To speak is to act.
u Which is kind of obvious.
u But Austin (1962) noticed a less obvious way in which to
speak is to act.
Performatives
Certain sentences perform the action they describe:

1. I now pronounce you married.
2. I christen this ship the Santa Maria.
3. I thank you for your support.
4. I apologize for embezzling company funds.
5. I bet you $5 this horse will win the Triple Crown.
These are called performatives (with performative verbs).
Performatives
Non-performatives do not perform the action they describe:

1. I had a bagel for breakfast.
2. I love teaching linguistics.
3. I regret missing the first two weeks of the Institute.
4. Alice apologized for acting awful.
Performatives must be in the present tense and first person.
Performatives
Performatives allow the addition of hereby:

1. I hereby christen this ship the Santa Maria.
2. I hereby thank you for your support.
3. #I hereby love teaching linguistics.
4. #Alice hereby apologized for acting awful.
Speech Acts
And yet, non-performatives also perform an action; e.g.,

these sentences describe a situation:
1. I love teaching linguistics.
2. Alice hereby apologized for acting awful.
And these ask a question:
1. What time is it?
2. Where is the bookstore?
Speech Acts
So Austin realized that while not every utterance performs

the act it describes, every utterance performs SOME act.
u It might, e.g., describe a situation: Bertha built a boat.
u Or it might ask a question: Is Danny dating a dentist?
u Or it might make a request: Please pass the potatoes.
But wait – there’s more!
Some non-performatives perform an act that matches their

form, but some do not. The latter are indirect speech acts.
u For example, declaratives generally make a statement:
Bertha built a boat.
u But they can also be an indirect way of asking a question
or making a request:
I’m curious whether Danny is dating a dentist.
I’d appreciate it if you passed the potatoes.
Indirect speech acts
u Interrogatives generally ask a question:

Is Danny dating a dentist?
u But they can also be an indirect way of making a
statement or a request:
Did you hear that Bertha’s building a boat?
Could you pass the potatoes?
Indirect speech acts
u And imperatives generally make a request:

Please pass the potatoes.
u But they can also be an indirect way of making a
statement or asking a question:
Be advised that Bertha is building a boat.
Tell me whether Danny is dating a dentist.
Types of speech act
u So we’ve got performatives, which perform the act they

describe:
I promise to pickle the peaches.
u We’ve got direct speech acts, which perform an act that
corresponds to their form:
Has Harriet held the hamster?
u And we’ve got indirect speech acts, which do neither:
Could you carry the coconuts?
Types of speech act
u And a given intention can often be phrased in any of

these three ways:
v I command you to carry the coconuts!
v Carry the coconuts!
v It would be cool if you could carry the coconuts.
(performative, direct, and indirect, respectively)
Types of speech act
u It’s clear enough when an utterance is performative

u (for example, we’ve got the handy hereby test)
u …but how do you tell when an utterance constitutes an
indirect speech act
u …and how do you tell what speech act is intended?
Locutionary acts
u The locutionary act a speaker performs (aka an

utterance’s locutionary force) is simply the conventional
meaning of the utterance.
u The illocutionary act (or illocutionary force) is what the
speaker intends to do by means of the utterance: assert,
ask, request, promise, threaten, etc.
u The perlocutionary act (or perlocutionary force or
perlocutionary effect) is the effect on the hearer.
Locutionary acts
u These can differ. The locutionary act of stating I’m cold

can have different illocutionary forces:
v Hand me a blanket
v Cuddle up
v Turn down the A/C
u Likewise, the perlocutionary effect can be any of these –
and it may not match the illocutionary force.
Locutionary acts
u So how can the hearer determine the illocutionary intent?

u Grice to the rescue!
Speech acts and Grice
u If I’ve said I’m cold, the context and the Cooperative

Principle are your allies in determining my intent.
u For example, Can you move your arm? has different
relevance in a doctor’s office vs. a movie theater.
u Similarly, I have a car and I could pick you up at the
airport violates both Relation and Quantity unless you’re
actually making an offer.
Felicity conditions
u Another aid in determining illocutionary force:

Felicity conditions.
u Many utterances can’t successfully perform their intended
act unless certain conditions are met – conditions on the
felicity of the act.
Felicity conditions
u Example: I apologize for stepping on your toe.

u Some of the felicity conditions on this apology:
1. I stepped on your toe.
2. You did not like it that I stepped on your toe.
3. I am sorry that I stepped on your toe.
Felicity conditions
u Or:
I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office
of President of the United States, and will to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of
the United States.
Felicity conditions
u Some of the felicity conditions:

1. I’ve been elected President of the U.S.
2. I agree to be President of the U.S.
3. It is Inauguration Day, at the appointed time and place.
4. I’m being sworn into office by the Chief Justice of the U.S.
5. I utter precisely these words in this order.
Felicity conditions
u If one or more of the felicity conditions are not met, either

the performative will be a misfire and not take effect (for
example, if I haven’t been elected President)…
u …or it will be an abuse and will take effect, but insincerely
(for example, if I take the oath of office with no intention of
upholding the Constitution).
Felicity conditions
Searle observes that we often indirectly perform an act by

either asserting or questioning one of its felicity conditions:
v Do you need a ride to the airport?
v Would you like a ride to the airport?
v I’ve got a car.
v I could drive you to the airport.
Felicity conditions
E.g., felicity conditions on a request that the hearer do X:

a. X would be helpful.
(It would be really helpful if you did the dishes.)
b. Speaker would like for hearer to do X.
(I’d appreciate it if you did the dishes.)
c. Hearer is able to do X.
(Could you do the dishes?)
d. Hearer is willing to do X.
(Are you willing to do the dishes?)
Felicity conditions
u Ambiguity may result; e.g., I’m sorry is a felicity condition on

apologizing, but it can also be a direct speech act:
I’m very sorry you missed your flight.
u This can be either:
v a direct speech act (statement that I am sorry about it)
v an apology (statement of felicity condition)
u The latter depends on another felicity condition: Is it my
fault that you missed your flight?
Felicity conditions
u And of course we’re all familiar with the fake apology,

designed to look like it’s satisfying the felicity condition on
apologizing but is actually just making a statement:
I’m very sorry you missed your flight

[…but I take absolutely no responsibility for it]
Felicity conditions
u Or worse yet:
I’m sorry you’re angry with me.

or
I’m sorry you feel that way.
u Don’t try these at home!

Felicity conditions
u Boy Scout official apologizing for Trump’s speech:

“I want to extend my sincere apologies to those in our
Scouting family who were offended by the political rhetoric
that was inserted into the jamboree," said Chief Scout
Executive Michael Surbaugh. "That was never our intent….
We sincerely regret that politics were inserted into the
Scouting program.”
u Is this a felicitous apology? Does it meet the felicity
conditions on an apology?

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Speech Acts

Certain sentences perform the action they describe:

Non-performatives do not perform the action they describe:

Performatives allow the addition of hereby:

And yet, non-performatives also perform an action; e.g.,

So Austin realized that while not every utterance performs

Some non-performatives perform an act that matches their

u Interrogatives generally ask a question:

u And imperatives generally make a request:

u So we’ve got performatives, which perform the act they

u And a given intention can often be phrased in any of

u It’s clear enough when an utterance is performative

u The locutionary act a speaker performs (aka an

u These can differ. The locutionary act of stating I’m cold

u So how can the hearer determine the illocutionary intent?

u If I’ve said I’m cold, the context and the Cooperative

u Another aid in determining illocutionary force:

u Example: I apologize for stepping on your toe.

u Some of the felicity conditions:

u If one or more of the felicity conditions are not met, either

Searle observes that we often indirectly perform an act by

E.g., felicity conditions on a request that the hearer do X:

u Ambiguity may result; e.g., I’m sorry is a felicity condition on

u And of course we’re all familiar with the fake apology,

I’m very sorry you missed your flight

I’m sorry you’re angry with me.

u Don’t try these at home!

u Boy Scout official apologizing for Trump’s speech:

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