Introduction to Electronics Communication: The Elements of a Communication System

Prepared by: Ceejay B. Lumbao 1. Transmitter - a collection of electronic

components and circuits designed to convert
Accepting Donations: This is VOLUNTARY
the information into a signal suitable for
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transmission over a given communications
Field of Electronics: medium.
1. Computer Field - The largest field in terms of 2. Communications channel - is the medium
the sales of equipment and services and by which the electronic signal is sent from one
number of employees. Concerned with the place to another. The communications medium
development of computer hardware and may simply be a pair of wires, a fiber optic cable,
software used by business, industry, and or radio.
government for the processing, storage, and
3. Radio - is the broad general term applied to
retrieval of data.
any form of wireless communication from one
2. Communications Field - The second largest point to another. Make use of electromagnetic
in size and is most certainly the oldest since spectrum.
electronics really started with radio
4. Receiver - Another collection of electronic
communications. Concerned with electronic
components and circuits that accept the
equipment used for the transfer of information
transmitted message from the channel and
between two or more points.
convert it back into a form understandable by
3. Control Field - It is concerned with electric humans.
power as well as various kinds of electronic
5. Noise - random, undesirable electric energy
components and circuits used to operate lights,
that enters the communications system via the
heating elements, electric motors, and other
communicating medium and interferes with the
devices.
transmitted message.
Communication - is the basic process of
exchanging information.
Note: Aside from spoken word way of
communication body movements, facial
expressions and written communication are also
effective communication tools.
Two Main Barriers to Human
Communication
1. Language - When humans of different tribes,
nations, or races come together, they often find
that they do not speak the same language.
Three classifications of electronic
2. Distance - Most human communication in the communications:
beginning was limited to face-to-face
conversations. • one-way or two-way transmissions
• analog or digital signals
• baseband or modulated signals.
Two Basic Types of Electronic
Communications
1. Simplex – simplest, one-way
communications. The information travels in one
direction only. (e.g. AM, FM, TV broadcasting,
facsimile, telemetry.)
2. Duplex – A two–way communications, the
bulk of electronic communications.
Two Types of Duplex Communications Phase Modulation (PM) – Occurs when shifting
the phase of the carrier in accordance with the
1. Full Duplex – two-way simultaneous
intelligence signal. PM produces FM.
communication (e.g. telephones).
Multiplexing - It is the term in communications
2. Half-Duplex – two-way communications
to refer to the combining of two or more
where only one party transmits at a time (e.g. e-
information signals. It is the process of allowing
mails, text messages, radar, sonar).
two or more signals to share the same medium
Two Types of Signal or channel.

1. Analog Signal – a continuously varying Three Basic Types of Multiplexing:

voltage or current. (e.g. sine-wave tone, voice
1. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) -
and video signals)
the intelligence signals modulate subcarriers on
2. Digital Signal – changes in step or discrete different frequencies that are then added
increments, it also uses binary or two-state together, and the composite signal is used to
codes (e.g. Morse code, Serial Binary Code, modulate the carrier.
Continuous Wave Code)
2. Time-division multiplexing (TDM) - the
multiple intelligence signals are sequentially
sampled, and a small piece of each is used to
Baseband signals – refer to the original modulate the carrier. If the information signals
information signal regardless of whether it is an are sampled fast enough, sufficient details are
analog or digital signal. transmitted that at the receiving end the signal
Baseband Transmission – the process of can be reconstructed with great accuracy.
putting the original voice, video, or digital signals 3. Code-division multiplexing (CDM) - the
directly into the communications medium. signals to be transmitted are converted to digital
Modulation - the process of having a baseband data that is then uniquely coded with a faster
voice, video or digital signal modify another, binary code. The signals modulate a carrier on
higher-frequency signal called the carrier. The the same frequency. All use the same
carrier is usually a sine wave that is higher in communications channel simultaneously. The
frequency. unique coding is used at the receiver to select
the desired signal.
Two most common methods of modulation:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM) - the baseband
signal varies the amplitude of the higher Electromagnetic Waves – It is also referred to
frequency carrier signal. as radio frequency (RF) waves. Signals that
oscillate; that is, the amplitudes of the electric
and magnetic fields vary at a specific rate.,
frequency is measured in cycles per second or
hertz.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum - refers to the
entire range of frequencies. Divided into
segments for the purpose of classifying the
various portions and how they are used.
Extremely Low Frequencies - range of
frequencies from 30 to 300 Hz. These include ac
2. Frequency Modulation (FM) - the baseband power line frequencies (60 Hz) and those
signal varies the frequency of the carrier. frequencies in the low end of the human hearing
range.
Voice Frequencies - frequencies in the range
of 300 to 3000 Hz. Normal range of human
speech. The human hearing extends from
approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz, most intelligible
sound occurs in the VF range.
Very Low Frequencies - include the higher end
of human hearing range up to 15 or 20 KHz.
Many musical instruments also make sounds in communications and radar. Some specialized
this range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges. forms of two-way radio communications also
It is also used in some government and military occupy this region.
communications.
Extremely High Frequencies - It extend from
Low Frequencies - frequencies in the 30 – 300 30 to 300 GHz. Equipment used to generate and
KHz range. Primary communications services receive signals in this range is extremely
are those used in aeronautical and marine complex and expensive. Presently there is only
navigation. Frequencies in this range are also a limited amount of activity in this range, but it
used as subcarriers, the signals which carry does not include satellite communications and
the baseband modulating information but which, specialized radar.
in turn, modulate another HF carrier.
Light Waves Divided into 3 Segments:
Medium Frequencies - MFs are in the 300 to
1. Infrared - sandwiched between the highest
3000 KHz. Major application is AM radio
radio frequencies and the visible portion of the
broadcasting (535 to 1605 KHz). Other services
electromagnetic spectrum.
include various marine and aeronautical
communications applications. 2 Areas of Infrared
High Frequencies - frequencies in the 3 to 30 • long infrared (0.01 mm to 1000 nm)
MHz range, generally known as short waves. • short infrared (1000 to 700 nm).
Include all kinds of two-way radio
communications as well as some shortwave Note: (0.01 mm to 700nm) is the range for
radio broadcasting. Voice of America and Radio infrared as one.
Free Europe broadcasts occur in this range. 2. The Visible Spectrum - ordinarily referred to
used by government & military services for two- as light. The visible range is approximately 8000
way communications. angstroms (red) to 4000 angstroms (violet).
Very High Frequencies - covers the 30 to 300 Light - a special type of electromagnetic
MHz range. An extremely popular frequency radiation that has a wavelength in the 0.4 to 0.8
range used by many services including: mobile m range. Expressed in angstrom which is one
radio, marine & aeronautical communications, ten-thousandth of a micron.
FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz),
Television channels 2 to 13. 3. Ultra Violet Rays - invisible solar radiation
that lies just beyond the violet end of the visible
spectrum that ranges from 10 to 400
Note: TV channel frequencies are assigned in nanometers (just below the x-ray range) and can
54 to 806 MHz frequency band divided into 68 harm living tissue. Much of it is absorbed by the
TV channels with each occupying 6MHz ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere. Can
bandwidth. cause cataracts, skin cancer, and reduced yield
in crops.
To calculate picture carrier value, add 1.25MHz to
the lower frequency range. To derive sound carrier
value, add 4.5 MHz to the picture carrier obtained. Uses for Ultra Violet (UV):
Example: channel 6 which has band from 82 to 88
1. Our skin and UV - skin exposed to UVB
MHz: Picture carrier = 82 + 1.25 = 83.25 MHz stimulates the production of vitamin D, which our
bodies need.
Sound carrier = 83.25 + 4.5 = 87.75 MHz
2. Sterilization and Disinfection - Exposure to
UVB inactivates bacteria present in washed
Ultra High Frequencies - covers the 300 to clothes.
3000 MHz range. Includes the UHF TV channels
14 to 83. Also widely used for land mobile 3. Astronomy - observing and recording the UV
communications and services such as cellular from astronomical objects such as planets in our
telephones. Radar and navigation services solar system, stars, nebulae and galaxies
occupy this portion of the frequency spectrum. enables us to gain extra information such as the
temperature and chemical composition of these
Super High Frequencies - are those in the 3 to objects.
30 GHz range. These are microwave
frequencies that are widely used for satellite
4. Fluorescence and Lighting - A number of • Static - It is caused by lightning
substances are able to absorb the energy in UV discharges in thunderstorms and
light and immediately convert it into visible light. other natural electric disturbances
This effect is called fluorescence. occurring in the atmosphere. The
usual increase in its level takes place
5. X-rays - A very energetic form of
at night, at both broadcast &
electromagnetic radiation that can be used to
shortwave frequencies.
take images of the human body It is roughly
classified into soft X-rays (about 10nm in Note: Atmospheric noise becomes less severe
wavelength) and hard X-rays (100 picometers). at frequencies above about 30 MHz because of
two separate factors.
6. X-ray Imaging - Used for several
nondestructive evaluation and testing First, the higher frequencies are limited to line-of-
applications, particularly for identifying flaws or sight propagation, i.e. less than 80 km or so.
cracks in structural components. Second, the nature of the mechanism generating
7. X-ray Therapy - Radiation Therapy uses this noise is such that very little of it is created in the
high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells by VHF range & above.
damaging their DNA By directing X-rays at 2. Extraterrestrial Noise – Noise at space.
cancerous tumors, it can demolish those • Solar Noise:
abnormal cells. a. Under normal “quiet”
8. X-ray Astronomy - Supermassive black conditions, there is a
holes in spiral galaxies emit X-rays, focusing constant noise radiation from
high-energy photons through low-angle the sun, a large body at a
reflections in X-ray telescopes. very high temperature (over
6000C).
9. Bandwidth - the portion of the b. The solar cycle disturbances
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal. repeat themselves
approximately every 11
years.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) • Solar Cycle - Sunspots are dark
- a regulatory body whose sole purpose is splotches that sometimes erupt into
allocating spectrum space, issuing licenses, powerful solar storms that shoot
setting standards, and policing airwaves in the streams of charged particles into
US. Controls all telephone and radio in US. space, occasionally in the direction of
National Telecommunications Commission Earth.
(NTC) - primarily responsible for the regulation • Cosmic Noise - they radiate RF
and quasi- judicial functions relative to the noise in the same manner as our sun.
supervision, adjudication, and control of radio The noise received is called thermal
communications, telecommunications, and or (black-body) noise & is distributed
broadcast, including cable television (CATV) uniformly over the entire sky.
facilities and services in the Philippines. Receiving noise from point sources
such as “quasars” & “pulsars”. Two of
International Telecommunications Union the strongest sources are:
(ITU) - an international organization which all Cassiopeia A & Cygnus A.
countries belong, an agency of the United
Nations. It brings together the various countries Industrial Noise - It occurs between the
to discuss how the frequency spectrum is to be frequencies of 1 to 600 MHz with intensity that
divided up and shared. easily outstrips that created by any other source,
internal or external to the receiver. Examples of
sources are: (automobile & aircraft ignition,
External Noise - (Atmospheric Noise, electric motors & switching equipment, leakage
Extraterrestrial Noise, and Industrial Noise). from HV lines, multitude of other heavy electric
machines).
1. Atmospheric Noise - It is generally called
static. It is the result of spurious radio waves
which induce voltages in the antenna.
Majority of these radio waves come from
natural sources of disturbances.
Internal Noise Miscellaneous Noise
1. Thermal Agitation Noise - It is the noise 1. Flicker Noise - It is found in transistors at low
generated in a resistance or the resistive audio frequencies It is proportional to emitter
component that is random & is referred to as current & junction temperature, but since it is
thermal, agitation, white or Johnson noise. It is inversely proportional to frequency it may be
due to the rapid & random motion of the completely ignored above about 500 Hz.
molecules (atoms & electrons) inside the
2. Resistance Noise - Sometimes called
component itself.
thermal noise, also present in transistors. It is
due to the base, emitter, & collector internal
resistances, & in most circumstances the base
resistance makes the largest contribution. From
above about 500 Hz, it remains relatively
constant, so that an equivalent input resistance
for shot & thermal noise may be freely used.
3. Noise in Mixers - It is caused by two
separate effects. First, conversion
transconductance of mixers is much lower than
the transconductance of amplifiers. Second, if
image frequency rejection is inadequate, as
often happens at shortwave frequencies, noise
2. Shot Noise - It is caused by random associated w/ the image freq will also be
variations in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at accepted.
the output electrode of an amplifying & appears
as a randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output. When amplified, it
Addition of Noise from Different Sources
is supposed to sound as though a shower of
Voltages & currents do not add directly, but the
lead shot were falling on a metal sheet.
total voltage (of series circuits) or current (of
parallel circuits) can be found by taking the
square root of the sum of squares of the
individual voltages or currents.

3. Transit – time Noise - It is due to the transit

time effect when the time taken by an electron
to travel from the emitter to the collector of a Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) - It is one of the
transistor becomes significant to the period of most important specifications of any
the signal being amplified, & the noise communication system. Its typical values range
admittance of the transistor increases Once this from about 10 dB for barely intelligible speech to
HF noise makes its presence felt, it goes on 90 dB or more for CD audio system. There are
increasing w/ frequency at a rate that soon other variations of the S/N, (S+N)/N is often
approaches 6dB/octave. found in receiver specs which stands for the
ratio of signal-plus-noise power to noise power
alone.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) - SINAD stands for
(S+N+D)/(N+D), or signal-plus-noise and
distortion, divided by noise and distortion.
SINAD is usually used instead of S/N in specs
for FM receivers.
Noise Figure (NF) - It is a figure of merit Transmission Efficiency - It is the accuracy
indicating how much a component, stage, or and speed with which information, whether it is
series of stages degrades the signal-to-noise voice or video, analog or digital, is sent and
ratio of a system. It is occasionally called Noise received over communication media— is the
Factor. basic subject matter of a field known as
information theory. Information theorists seek
to determine mathematically the likelihood that
a given amount of data being transmitted under
a given set of circumstances (e.g., medium,
bandwidth, speed of transmission, noise, and
distortion) will be transmitted accurately.
Hartley’s Law - The amount of information that
can be sent in a given transmission is
dependent on the bandwidth of the
communication channel and the duration of
transmission.
:It is also assumed that there is a total absence
of noise in the channel.
Equivalent Noise Temperature
▪ It is another way of specifying the noise
performance of a device.
▪ It has nothing to do with the actual operating
temperature of the circuit.
▪ It is the absolute temperature of a resistor that,
connected to the input of a noiseless amplifier of
the same gain, would produce the same noise
at the output as the device under discussion.

Note: The greater the bandwidth of a channel, the

Cascaded Amplifiers - When two or more greater the amount of information that can be
stages are connected in cascade, as in a transmitted in a given time. It is possible to
receiver, the noise figure of the first stage is the transmit the same amount of information over a
most important in determining the noise narrower channel, but it must be done over a
performance of the entire system because noise longer time. This general concept is known as
generated in the first stage is amplified in all Hartley’s law, and the principles of Hartley’s law
succeeding stages. also apply to the transmission of binary data.

Note: Noise produced in later stages is The greater the number of bits transmitted in a
amplified less, and noise generated in the last given time, the greater the amount of information
stage is amplified least of all. that is conveyed. But the higher the bit rate, the
wider the bandwidth needed to pass the signal with
minimum distortion. Narrowing the bandwidth of
a channel causes the harmonics in the binary
pulses to be filtered out, degrading the quality of
the transmitted signal and making error-free
transmission more difficult.
Transmission Media and Bandwidth
▪The two most common types of media used in
data communication are wire cable and radio.
Two types of wire cable are used, coaxial and
twisted-pair.
▪The coaxial cable has a center conductor
surrounded by an insulator over which is a
braided shield. The entire cable is covered with
a plastic insulation. A twisted-pair cable is two
insulated wires twisted together.
▪ An unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable.
Coaxial cable and shielded twisted-pair cables
are usually preferred, as they provide some
protection from noise and cross talk.
Cross talk is the undesired transfer of signals
from one unshielded cable to another adjacent
one caused by inductive or capacitive coupling.
Multiple Coding Levels
▪Channel capacity can be modified by using
multiple-level encoding schemes that permit
more bits per symbol to be transmitted.
Remember that it is possible to transmit data
using symbols that represent more than just 1
bit.
▪ The implication is that for a given bandwidth,
the channel capacity, in bits per second, will be
greater if more than two encoding levels are
used per time interval.
Impact of Noise in the Channel
▪Increasing the bandwidth increases the rate of
transmission but also allows more noise to pass,
and so the choice of a bandwidth is a tradeoff.
The relationship between channel capacity,
bandwidth, and noise is summarized in what is
known as the Shannon-Hartley theorem.
Amplitude Modulation

Modulation - is the process of having the

information to be transmitted alter a higher-
frequency signal for the purpose of transmitting
the information somewhere in the
electromagnetic spectrum via radio, wire or
fiber-optic cable.
- the information signal, usually called the
modulating signal be it voice, video, binary
data or some other information, is normally used
to modify a higher-frequency signal known as
the carrier or modulated wave . High Level (Plate) Amplitude Modulation

3 Principal Types of Electronic

Communications
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)

1. Amplitude Modulation - The oldest and

simplest form of modulation. The information
signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine
wave. The instantaneous value of the carrier
amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
Amplitude Modulation Principles:
- the carrier frequency remains constant
during the modulation process but that its Overmodulation as seen at the receiver
amplitude varies in accordance with the
modulating signal.
- an increase in the modulating signal
amplitude causes the amplitude of the
carrier to increase.
- Time domain signals are the actual
variation of voltage over time. They are
what you would see displayed on the
screen of an oscilloscope.
- Frequency domain signals are the
actual variation of frequency over time.
They are what you would see on the
screen of a spectrum analyzer.
Envelope - the imaginary line on the carrier
waveform and is the same as the modulating
signal.

– The expression consists of 2 parts:

▪ 1st part is simply the carrier
waveform
Sine Wave Carrier
▪ 2nd part is the carrier waveform
𝒗 = 𝑽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒇 𝒕 multiplied by the modulating signal
c c c waveform.
– It is this second part of the expression
that is the characteristic of AM.
– In this expression, 𝑣c represents the
instantaneous value of the sine wave – A circuit must be able to produce
voltage at some specific time in the cycle. mathematical multiplication of analog
signals in order for AM to occur.
– The 𝑉c represents the peak value of the
sine wave as measured between zero Modulator - the circuit used for producing AM,
and the maximum amplitude of either the and computes the product of the carrier and
positive or negative-going alternations. modulating signals.
– The term 𝑓c is the frequency of the carrier
– 𝑡 represents some particular point in time
during the ac cycle.
Sine Wave Modulating Signal

𝒗m = 𝑽m𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒇m𝒕
– 𝒇m is the frequency of the modulating
signal. Modulation Index and Percentage of
– The modulating signal uses the peak Modulation
value of the carrier rather than zero as its – In order for proper AM to occur, the
reference point.
modulating signal voltage 𝑽𝒎 must be
– The envelope of the modulating signal less than the carrier voltage 𝑽𝒄.
varies above and below the peak carrier
Modulation index (m) – expresses the
amplitude, the zero reference line of the
relationship between the amplitudes of the
modulating signal coincides with the
modulating signal and the carrier
peak value of the unmodulated carrier.
- also called modulation factor,
– If the amplitude of the modulating signal modulation coefficient, or the degree of
is greater than the amplitude of the
modulation.
carrier, distortion will occur.
- ratio of the modulating signal voltage to
– Distortion causes incorrect information the carrier voltage.
to be transmitted.
– It is important in AM that the peak value
of the modulating signal be less than the
peak value of the carrier.
 𝑽m Sidebands and the Frequency Domain
m = 𝑽𝒄
– Whenever a carrier is modulated by an
– The modulation index should be a information signal, new signals at
number between 0 and 1. different frequencies called side
frequencies or sidebands are
– If the amplitude of the modulating voltage generated as part of the process
is higher than the carrier voltage, will
cause severe distortion of the modulated – It occur in the frequency spectrum
wave, a condition called directly above and below the carrier
overmodulation. frequency.

– if the signal is of such small amplitude – Sidebands occur at frequencies that are
that it cannot be picked up or adequately the sum and difference of the carrier and
amplified by the receiver (because of modulating frequencies.
background noise and/or the strength of
the carrier frequency), it is said to
f = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒇𝒎
usb
be undermodulated.
f = fc – fm
lsb

BW = f -f
usb lsb

– This sidebands take up spectrum space.

Amplitude Modulation Power Distribution
– To communicate by radio, the AM signal
is amplified by a power amplifier and fed
to the antenna with a characteristic R.
– The total transmitted power divides itself
between the carrier and the upper and
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 lower sidebands.
𝑽𝒎 =
𝟐 𝑷t = 𝑷c + 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 + 𝑷lsb

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 – The power in the sidebands depends

𝑽𝒄 = upon the value of the modulation index.
𝟐
– The power in each sideband is given by
𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 the expression.
m = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒄(𝒎𝟐 )
𝑷𝒔𝒃 = 𝑷lsb = 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒃 =
– The values for Vmax and Vmin can be 𝟒
read directly from an oscilloscope screen The carrier itself conveys no information. It can
and plugged into the formula to compute be transmitted and received, but unless
the modulation index. modulation occurs, no information will be
transmitted. When modulation occurs,
– Whenever the modulation index is
sidebands are produced.
multiplied by 100, the degree of
modulation is expressed as a Another way to calculate the Total AM Power:
percentage.
𝑷t = 𝑷𝒄(𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 /2)
– In practice, it is desirable to operate with
as close to 100% modulation as
possible, in this way, the maximum Pc – unmodulated carrier power
information signal amplitude is
transmitted.
To determine the total modulated current It: Frequency Deviation

𝑰t = 𝑰c√(𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 /2)
where:
Ic – unmodulated carrier current

3 Basic Ways to Calculate the Power

dissipated in the load:
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽
𝑷 = 𝑽𝟐 /R Frequency Deviation rate
P = 𝑰𝟐 R • The frequency of the modulating signal
determines how many times per second
– In an AM radio transmitting station, R is
the carrier frequency deviates above and
the load resistance, which is an antenna.
below its nominal center frequency.
– To a transmitter, the antenna looks like a • With no modulating signal applied, the
resistance referred to as the carrier frequency is a constant-amplitude
characteristic resistance of the sine wave at its normal constant center
antenna. frequency.
Modulation - It is the process of modifying a Phase Modulation - Another way of producing
carrier wave in accordance with an angle modulation by varying the amount of
information signal to be transmitted. phase shift of a constant - frequency carrier in
accordance with a modulating signal.
FM Principles
PM Principles
1. In FM, the carrier amplitude remains
constant, while the carrier frequency is A phase shift refers to a time separation
changed by the modulating signal. between two sine waves of the same frequency.

2. As the amplitude of the information Note: The greater the amplitude of the
signal varies, the carrier frequency will modulating signal, the greater the phase shift.
shift in proportion.
3. As the modulating signal amplitude
increases, the carrier frequency
increases.
Phase Modulation ➢ Although the higher modulating
frequencies produce a greater rate of
Maximum frequency deviation change and thus a greater frequency
produced by a phase modulator deviation, this is offset by the lower
occurs during the time that the amplitude of the modulating signal, which
modulating signal is changing at its produces less phase shift and thus less
most rapid rate. frequency deviation.
➢ The predistorter compensates for the
The maximum rate of change of excess frequency deviation caused by
modulating voltage occurs exactly higher modulating frequencies. The
at the zero crossing points. result is an output that is the same as an
FM signal. The FM produced by a phase
modulator is called indirect FM.
Sideband and the Modulation index

In FM and PM, a
theoretically infinite
Any modulation process
number of pairs of upper
produces sidebands.
and lower sidebands are
generated.

FM vs. PM
o In FM, maximum deviation occurs at the
peak positive and negative amplitudes of
the modulating signal.
o In PM, the maximum amount of leading
or lagging phase shift occurs at the peak
amplitudes of the modulating signal. o The number of sidebands produced, their
amplitude, and their spacing depend upon
the frequency deviation and modulating
frequency.
o Although the FM process produces an
infinite number of sidebands, only those with
the largest amplitudes are significant in
carrying the information.
o Typically, any sideband whose amplitude is
less than 1% of the unmodulated carrier is
considered insignificant.
Converting PM to FM Modulation index - It is the ratio of the
To make PM compatible with FM, the frequency deviation to the modulating
deviation produced by frequency variations frequency.
in the modulating signal must be
compensated for. This can be done by
passing the intelligence signal through a low-
pass RC network. o In most communications systems using FM,
➢ This low-pass filter called a frequency- maximum limits are put on both the
correcting network, predistorter, or frequency deviation and the modulating
1
filter, causes the higher modulating frequency.
𝑓 o In standard FM broadcasting, the max.
frequencies to be attenuated. permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz,
 while the max. permitted modulating o In commercial FM broadcasting, the
frequency is 15 kHz. maximum allowed deviation is 75kHz.
o When the maximum allowable frequency
o When maximum deviations are specified, it
deviation and the maximum modulating
is important that the percentage of
frequency are used in computing the
modulation be held less than 100%.
modulation index, m is known as the
deviation ratio. o If the deviation is allowed to exceed the
maximum, a greater number of pair of
Bessel functions – a complex mathematical
sidebands will be produced and the signal
process used to compute the number and
BW may be excessive causing undesirable
amplitudes of the significant sidebands.
adjacent channel interference.

Forms of (AM)
Where N is the number of significant sidebands.
In 1982, the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU) designated the various types of AM as
follows:

ITU Emission Designation

Carson’s rule - It gives a smaller bandwidth. It

is determined that if a circuit or system has that
BW, sufficient sideband power will be passed to
ensure full intelligibility of the information signal.

Note: that the fourth and fifth symbols are

optional that can be added to the basic
FM and PM principles characteristics for a more complete description
o Increasing the amplitude or the frequency of of an emission.
the modulating signal will not cause First Symbol- Type of modulation of the main
overmodulation or distortion. carrier
o Increasing the modulating signal amplitude
increases the frequency deviation which in
turn increases the modulation index and
produces more significant sidebands and a
wider bandwidth.
o In Television broadcasting, the maximum
deviation permitted is 25 kHz, and the
maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
The deviation ratio is 1.6666.
o In Standard two-way mobile radio
communications using FM, the maximum
permitted deviation is usually 5 kHz. The
upper modulating frequency is usually
limited to 2.5 kHz high enough for intelligible
voice transmission. The deviation ratio is 2.
First Symbol- Type of modulation of the main ▪ No power is wasted on the carrier and that
carrier the power saved can be put into the
sidebands
▪ A special case of AM with no carrier
▪ Generated by a circuit called a balanced
modulator
▪ Its purpose is to produce the sum and
difference frequency but to cancel or
balance out the carrier.

Second Symbol (Nature of Signal

Modulating the Carrier)

b.) SINGLE-SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED

CARRIER (SSSC OR SSB)

Third Symbol – Type of Information to be 4 MAJOR BENEFITS

Transmitted 1. The spectrum space occupied by the SSB
signal is only half that of AM and DSB
signals.
2. All the power previously devoted to the
carrier and other sideband can be channeled
into the single sideband.
3. There is less noise on the signal.
4. They experience less fading than an AM
signal.
Examples of Emission Designation It has some unusual characteristics when no
information or modulating signal is present, no
RF signal is transmitted.
▪ Only one sideband is used
▪ An SSB transmitter sends no carrier, so
the carrier power is zero.
▪ Its power advantage over AM is 3:1
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier

SINGLE-SIDEBAND COMMUNICATION
a.) Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier
Signal (DSSC/DSB)
▪ The carrier is suppressed and the resulting
signal is simply the upper and the lower
sidebands
Single Sideband Transmitter Vestigial Sideband Signal
▪ It is a portion of the lower sideband of the TV
signal suppressed, leaving only a small
vestige of the lower sideband.
▪ An unusual form of AM that is used in TV
broadcasting where the TV signal consists of
the picture (video) signal and the audio
signal which have different carrier
frequencies..
▪ The audio carrier is frequency-modulated,
but the video information amplitude
modulates the picture carrier.
▪ The picture carrier is transmitted but one
sideband is partially suppressed.

Peak Envelope Power (PEP) – the transmitter

output of SSB. It is the maximum power
produced on voice amplitude peaks
P = V2/R
V – rms output voltage
R – load resistance
The PEP input power is simply the direct current
(dc) input power of the transmitter final amplifier
stage at the instant of the voice envelope peak

PEP = 𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
Vs - Amplifier supply voltage
Imax – the current peak
Pavg - is typically only ¼ to 1/3 of the PEP value
with typical human speech Frequency Conversion

Pavg = PEP/3 or Pavg = PEP/4 o It is the process of translating a modulated

signal to a higher or lower frequency while
still retaining all the originally transmitted
information
Uses of SSB
o It is often used before or after transmission
1. Pure SSB signals are used in telephone or reception t provide some benefit
systems as well as in two-way radio. o A form of AM, carried out by a
2. Two-way SSB communication is used in mixer/converter circuit.
marine applications, in the military, and by
Heterodyning – the function performed by the
hobbyists known as radio amateurs.
mixer.
3. The SSB signals are used in FM and TV
broadcasting to transmit two-channel stereo
signals.
4. Used in some types of PSK which is used for
transmitting binary data.