INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
✓ Explain the functions of the three main parts of an
electronic communication system.
✓ Describe the system used to classify different types of
electronic communication
✓ Discuss the role of modulation and multiplexing in
facilitating signal transmission.
✓ Define the electromagnetic spectrum, its segments and
their applications
Significance of Human
Communication
 The Significance of Human Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging information.

People communicate to convey their thoughts, ideas, and
feelings to others.
The process of communication is inherent to all human life
and includes verbal, nonverbal (body language), print, and
electronic processes.
 The Significance of Human Communication

Two of the main barriers to human communication are

language and distance.

Language barriers arise between persons of different

cultures or nationalities. Communicating over long
distances is another problem. Communication between
early human beings was limited to face-to-face encounters.
Communication
Systems
 Communication Systems

All electronic communication systems have a transmitter, a

communication channel or medium, and a receiver.
 Communication Systems

In electronic communication systems, the message is

referred to as information, or an intelligence signal. This
message, in the form of an electronic signal, is fed to the
transmitter, which then transmits the message over the
communication channel. The message is picked up by the
receiver and relayed to another human.

Along the way, noise is added in the communication

channel and in the receiver.
 Communication Systems

The transmitter itself is a collection of electronic

components and circuits designed to convert the electrical
signal to a signal suitable for transmission over a given
communication medium.
Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned
circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers, and other circuits.
 Communication Systems

The communication channel is the medium by which the

electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Many
different types of media are used in communication
systems, including wire conductors, fiber-optic cable, and
free space.
 Communication Systems

Free Space. When free space is the medium, the resulting

system is known as radio. Also known as wireless, radio is
the broad general term applied to any form of wireless
communication from one point to another. Radio makes
use of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Communication Systems

A receiver is a collection of electronic components and

circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the
channel and converts it back to a form understandable by
humans.
Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned
circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that
recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated
carrier.
 Communication Systems

Most electronic communication is two-way, and so both

parties must have both a transmitter and a receiver. As a
result, most communication equipment incorporates
circuits that both send and receive. These units are
commonly referred to as transceivers.
All the transmitter and receiver circuits are packaged within
a single housing and usually share some common circuits
such as the power supply.
 Type of Electronic Communication

Electronic communications are classified according to

(1) mode of transmission and (2) type of signal.

The different modes of transmission in an electronic

communication are: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.

The different types of signal in an electronic communication

are: analog and digital.
 Type of Electronic Communication

The simplest way in which electronic communication is

conducted is one-way communications, normally referred to
as simplex communication
The form of two-way communication in which only one
party transmits at a time is known as half duplex
communication. The communication is two-way,
but the direction alternates: the communicating parties take
turns transmitting and receiving.
 Type of Electronic Communication

The bulk of electronic communication is two-way and full-

duplex communication.
 Type of Electronic Communication

An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying

voltage or current. Voice and video voltages are analog
signals that vary in accordance with the sound or light
variations that are analogous to the information being
transmitted
 Type of Electronic Communication

Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary

continuously, but change in steps or in discrete increments.
Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for

transmitting information efficiently from one place to
another. Modulation makes the information signal more
compatible with the medium, and multiplexing allows
more than one signal to be transmitted concurrently over a
single medium.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

In a communication system, baseband information signals

can be sent directly and unmodified over the medium or
can be used to modulate a carrier for transmission over
the medium. Putting the original voice, video, or digital
signals directly into the medium is referred to as baseband
transmission.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

In many instances, baseband signals are incompatible with

the medium. As a result, the baseband information signal,
be it audio, video, or data, is normally used to modulate a
high-frequency signal called a carrier.

The higher-frequency carriers radiate into space more

efficiently than the baseband signals themselves.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation is the process of having a baseband voice,

video, or digital signal modify another, higher-frequency
signal, the carrier.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

The intelligence signal changes the carrier in a unique way.

The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to the antenna
for transmission. This process is called broadband
transmission.
Modulation and Multiplexing
 Modulation and Multiplexing

At the receiver, the carrier with the intelligence signal is

amplified and then demodulated to extract the original
baseband signal. Another name for the demodulation
process is detection.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals

to share the same medium or channel. A multiplexer
converts the individual baseband signals to a composite
signal that is used to modulate a carrier in the transmitter.
Multiplexing is a method used by networks to consolidate
multiple signals -- digital or analog -- into a single
composite signal that is transported over a common
medium, such as a fiber optic cable or radio wave.
Modulation and Multiplexing
 Modulation and Multiplexing

At the receiver, the composite signal is recovered at the

demodulator, then sent to a demultiplexer where the
individual baseband signals are regenerated
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Frequency-division multiplexing -the intelligence signals
modulate subcarriers on different frequencies that are
then added together, and the composite signal is used to
modulate the carrier.
• Time-division multiplexing - the multiple intelligence
signals are sequentially sampled, and a small piece of
each is used to modulate the carrier.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Code-division multiplexing - the signals to be transmitted
are converted to digital data that is then uniquely coded
with a faster binary code. The signals modulate a carrier
on the same frequency. All use the same communications
channel simultaneously. The unique coding is used at the
receiver to select the desired signal.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Wavelength-division multiplexing - multiple
communications channels are consolidated and then
transmitted on light waves with different wavelengths.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Space-division multiplexing - signal paths are spatially
separated through the use of multiple conductors, such
as optical fibers or electrical wires. The conductors are
bundled into a single transport medium but are
physically separated, with each conductor handling a
transmitted channel. SDM is often used in submarine
cable systems to help increase capacity, but it can also be
used for wireless communications.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Space-division multiplexing - signal paths are spatially
separated through the use of multiple conductors, such
as optical fibers or electrical wires. The conductors are
bundled into a single transport medium but are
physically separated, with each conductor handling a
transmitted channel. SDM is often used in submarine
cable systems to help increase capacity, but it can also be
used for wireless communications.
 Modulation and Multiplexing

Types of Multiplexing
• Polarization-division multiplexing - incoming
electromagnetic signals are polarized into orthogonal
channels that are transmitted through a common
medium. PDM is frequently used in fiber optics
communications, as well as radio and microwave
transmissions.
 Heat Check!

1. Explain the functions of the three main parts of an

electronic communication system

2. Describe the system used to classify different types of

electronic communication.

3. Explain the role of modulation and multiplexing in

facilitating signal transmission?
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate; i.e., the

amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields vary at a
specific rate. The field intensities fluctuate up and down,
and the polarity reverses a given number of times per
second. The electromagnetic waves vary sinusoidally.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

These oscillations may occur at a very low frequency or at

an extremely high frequency. The range of electromagnetic
signals encompassing all frequencies is referred to as the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free

space fall into the electromagnetic spectrum. Not included
are signals carried by cables. Signals carried by cable
may share the same frequencies of similar signals in the
spectrum, but they are not radio signals.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

For the purpose of classification, the electromagnetic

frequency spectrum is divided into segments.

Extremely Low Frequencies. ELFs are in the 30 to 300-Hz

range. These include ac power line frequencies (50 and 60
Hz are common), as well as those frequencies in the low
end of the human audio range.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Voice Frequencies. VFs are in the range of 300 to 3000 Hz.

This is the normal range of human speech. Although human
hearing extends from approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz, most
intelligible sound occurs in the VF range.
Very Low Frequencies. VLFs extend from 9 kHz to 30 kHz
and include the higher end of the human hearing range up
to about 15 or 20 kHz. The VLF range is used in some
government and military communication.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Low Frequencies. LFs are in the 30- to 300-kHz range. The

primary communication services using this range are in
aeronautical and marine navigation. Frequencies in this
range are also used as subcarriers, signals that are
modulated by the baseband information.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Medium Frequencies. MFs are in the 300- to 3000-kHz

range. The major application of frequencies in this range is
AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Other
applications in this range are various marine and
amateur radio communication.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

High Frequencies. HFs are in the 3- to 30-MHz range.

These are the frequencies generally known as short waves.
All kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-way
radio communication take place in this range. Amateur
radio and CB communication also occur in this part of the
spectrum.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Very High Frequencies. VHFs encompass the 30 to 300

MHz range. This popular frequency range is used by many
services, including mobile radio, marine and aeronautical
communication, FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz),
and television channels 2 through 13. Radio amateurs also
have numerous bands in this frequency range.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultrahigh Frequencies. UHFs encompass the 300 to 3000

MHz range. This, too, is a widely used portion of the
frequency spectrum. It includes the UHF TV channels 14
through 51, and it is used for land mobile communication
and services such as cellular telephones as well as for
military communication. Some radar and navigation
services occupy this portion of the frequency spectrum.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Microwaves and SHFs. Frequencies between the 1000-

MHz (1-GHz) and 30-GHz range are called microwaves.
Microwave ovens usually operate at 2.45 GHz. Superhigh
frequencies (SHFs) are in the 3- to 30-GHz range. These
microwave frequencies are widely used for satellite
communication and radar. Wireless local-area networks
(LANs) and many cellular telephone systems also occupy
this region.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Extremely High Frequencies. EHFs extend from 30 to 300

GHz. Electromagnetic signals with frequencies higher than
30 GHz are referred to as millimeter waves. Equipment
used to generate and receive signals in this range is
extremely complex and expensive, but there is growing use
of this range for satellite communication telephony,
computer data, short-haul cellular networks, and some
specialized radar.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Optical Spectrum. Right above the millimeter wave

region is what is called the optical spectrum, the region
occupied by light waves.

There are three different types of light waves: infrared,

visible, and ultraviolet.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Infrared. Infrared occupies the range between

approximately 0.1 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers
(nm), or 100 to 0.7 micrometer (μm). One micrometer is
one-millionth of a meter.

Infrared wavelengths are often given in micrometers or

nanometers. Infrared is the basis for all fiber optic
communication.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The Visible Spectrum. Just above the infrared region is the

visible spectrum we ordinarily refer to as light. Light is a
special type of electromagnetic radiation that has a
wavelength in the 0.4- to 0.8-μm range (400 to 800 nm).

Light wavelengths are usually expressed in terms of

angstroms (Å). An angstrom is one ten-thousandth of a
micrometer. The visible range is approximately 8000 Å (red)
to 4000 Å (violet).
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultraviolet. Ultraviolet light (UV) covers the range from

about 4 to 400 nm. Ultraviolet generated by the sun is what
causes sunburn. Ultraviolet is also generated by mercury
vapor lights and some other types of lights such as
fluorescent lamps and sun lamps.

Ultraviolet is not used for communication; its primary use is

medical.
 The Bandwidth

Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum occupied by a signal. It is also the frequency
range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit
operates. More specifically, bandwidth is the difference
between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal
or the equipment operation range. The bandwidth, then, is

𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏
 The Bandwidth

Channel Bandwidth. When information is modulated onto

a carrier somewhere in the electromagnetic spectrum,
the resulting signal occupies a small portion of the
spectrum surrounding the carrier frequency.

The modulation process causes other signals, called

sidebands, to be generated at frequencies above and
below the carrier frequency by an amount equal to the
modulating frequency.
 The Bandwidth

In other words, the modulation process generates other

signals that take up spectrum space. It is not just the carrier
that is transmitted.

Thus the term bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies

that contain the information. The term channel bandwidth
refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the
desired information.
 Test Yourself

1. A signal with a wavelength of 1.5 m has a frequency of?

2. A signal travels a distance of 75 ft in the time it takes to

complete 1 cycle. What is its frequency?

3. The maximum peaks of an electromagnetic wave are

separated by a distance of 8 in. What is the frequency in
megahertz? In gigahertz?
 Test Yourself

4. A commonly used frequency range is 902 to 928 MHz.

What is the width of this band?

5. A television signal occupies a 6-MHz bandwidth. If the

low-frequency limit of channel 2 is 54 MHz, what is the
upper-frequency limit?
 Heat Check!

1. What is an electromagnetic wave?

2. What is electromagnetic spectrum?

3. Give at least one segment of the electromagnetic

spectrum and its application.
Rules are not necessarily sacred,
principles are.

— Franklin D. Roosevelt