Heat Transfer

–
Practical Lecture 13 (Solved Problems)

120. A long, hemicylindrical (1 m radius) shaped furnace used to heat treat sheet metal products is
comprised of three zones. The heating zone (1) is constructed from a ceramic plate of emissivity
0.85 and is operated at 1600 K by gas burners. The load zone (2) consists of sheet metal prod-
ucts, assumed to be black surfaces maintained at 500 K. The refractory zone (3) is fabricated
from insulating bricks having an emissivity of 0.6. Assume steady-state conditions, diffuse, gray
surfaces, and negligible convection.

(a) What is the heat rate per unit length of the furnace that must be supplied by the gas burners
for the prescribed conditions?
Solution:
The heat transfer that must be supplied by the gas burners corresponds to the net radiative
heat transfer rate from Surface 1 – heat transfer by convection and conduction is not
relevant. There are two equivalent procedures to obtain the corresponding net radiative
heat transfer rate per unit furnace length: (a) the radiation network approach; and (b) the
direct approach.
The direct approach will be herein considered. The objective of this approach is to obtain
for each surface the corresponding radiosity Ji . For each surface whose radiosity is unknown
Equation (1) (Equation (2)) should be considered if the temperature (net radiative heat
transfer rate) is known. The denominator of the LHS of Equation (11) corresponds to the
surface radiative resistance and the denominator of the RHS of the same equation is the
space (or geometric resistance)

N
Ebi − Ji X Ji − Jj
= (1)
(1 − εi ) / (εi Ai ) j=1
(Ai Fij )−1

N
X Ji − Jj
qi = (2)
j=1
(Ai Fij )−1

The current enclosure for radiative heat exchange analysis is comprised by 3 (N ) indepen-
dent opaque, diffusive and gray surfaces, which one with a uniform temperature, irradiation

Page 1 of 9
and radiosity. In the present problem, since Surface 3 is a reradiating surface – surface
insulated at one side and exchanging heat by radiation exclusively by the opposite side –
the net radiative heat transfer rate is zero, i.e., q3 = 0. Since Surface 2 is a black surface
(ε2 = 1), J2 = Eb2 – Surface 2 has a negligible surface radiative resistance. Therefore,
only two equations developed for Surface 1 and 3 have to be considered to obtain the
corresponding radiosities (J1 and J3 ).
Since Surface 1 (Surface 3) has a known temperature (net radiative heat transfer rate)
Equation (3) (Equation (4)) is applied.

Eb1 − J1 J1 − J2 J1 − J3
q1 ≡ = −1 + (3)
(1 − ε1 ) / (ε1 A1 ) (A1 F12 ) (A1 F13 )−1

J3 − J1 J3 − J2
0 = q3 ≡ −1 + (4)
(A3 F31 ) (A3 F32 )−1

Since F31 = F32 (due to the furnace geometry – symmetry rule), Equation (4) can be
written as shown in Equation (5).

J1 + J2
J3 = (5)
2

Substituting Equation (5) in Equation (3) and considering F12 = 0 and F13 = 1 and
J2 = Eb2 , Equation (6) is obtained.

Eb2 /2 + (ε1 Eb,1 ) / (1 − ε1 )

J1 = (6)
1/2 + ε1 / (1 − ε1 )

Replacing in Equation (6) Eb1 and Eb2 by σT14 (= 5.67 × 10−8 × 16004 W m−2 ) and σT24
(= 5.67 × 10−8 × 5004 W m−2 ), respectively and ε1 by 0.85, J1 is calculated and then
considering Equation (5) J3 is obtained – see the corresponding values in Equations (7)
and (8) .

J1 ≈ 341747.604 W m−2 (7)

J3 ≈ 172645.678 W m−2 (8)

Finally, the heat transfer rate per unit length of the furnace that must be supplied by the
gas burner – equal to the net radiative heat transfer rate from Surface 1 – is calculated in
Equation (9).

Page 2 of 9
 q1 ε1 A1 (Eb1 − J1 ) ε1 (W1 L) (Eb1 − J1 ) ε1 W1 (Eb1 − J1 )
q10 = ≡ ⇔ q10 = ⇔ q10 = ⇔
L L (1 − ε1 ) L (1 − ε1 ) (1 − ε1 )
0.85 × 1 × [(5.67 × 10−8 × 16004 ) − 341747.604]
⇔ q10 = ⇔ (9)
(1 − 0.85)
⇔ q10 ≈ 169101.924 W m−1 169 kW m−1

(Note that only the calculation of J1 – through Equation (6) – would be enough to answer
this question. However, J3 was also evaluated because this value will be required in the
following question.)

In alternative to the direct method, the radiation network approach can also be applied to
obtain the net radiative heat transfer from Surface 1 as follows. The resistance network
representation is presented in the following figure.

The net radiative heat transfer rate per unit length is computed through Equation (10)
considering the difference between the emissive powers of Surfaces 1 and 2 and the surface
and space resistances in between the nodes that represent such emissive powers in the
radiation network representation. (Note that the equivalent resistance is developed as a
combination of series and parallel resistance schemes.)

q1 1 Eb1 − Eb2
q10 = ≡ 1−ε1 1 ⇔
L L ε 1 A1 + −1 −1 −1
A1 F12 +[(A1 F13 ) +(A3 F32 ) ]
σ (T14 − T24 )
⇔ q10 = 1−ε1 1 ⇔
ε1 W1
+ −1
(10)
W1 F12 +[(W1 F13 )−1 +(W2 F23 )−1 ]

5.67 × 10−8 × (16004 − 5004 )

⇔ q10 = 1−0.85 1 ⇔
0.85×1
+ −1 −1 −1
1×0+[(1×1) +(1×1) ]

⇔ q10 = 169101.927 W m−1

(b) What is the temperature of the insulating brick surface for the prescribed conditions?
Solution:
Since Surface 3 is a reradiating surface, q3 = 0 and, consequently, G3 = J3 = Eb3 . There-
fore, the equilibrium temperature of Surface 3 is calculated in Equation (11) taking into
consideration Equation (8).

Page 3 of 9
 r r
4 J3 172645.678
J3 = Eb3 ⇔ J3 = σT34 ⇔ T3 = ⇔ T3 = 4 ⇔
σ 5.67 × 10−8 (11)
⇔ T3 ≈ 1320.971 K

Page 4 of 9
122. A row of regularly spaced, cylindrical heating elements (1) is used to cure a surface coating that
is applied to a large panel (2) positioned below the elements. A second large panel (3), whose
top surface is well insulated, is positioned above the elements. The elements are blackbodies
maintained at T1 = 600 K, while the panel has an emissivity of 0.5 and is maintained at T2 =
400 K. The cavity is filled with a nonparticipating gas and convection heat transfer occurs at
surfaces 1 and 2, with 10 W m−2 K−1 e 2 W m−2 K−1 , respectively. (Convection at the insulated
panel (3) may be neglected.)

(a) Evaluate the mean gas temperature Tm .

Solution:
The mean gas temperature can be evaluated based on an overall energy balance applied to
a gas representative control volume – see the dashed lines in the figure which represent the
control volume boundaries. (The control volume length is equal to the pitch of the heating
elements (s = 50 mm).)
Assuming steady-state conditions (Ėst = 0), no internal generation of thermal energy – no
gas-phase reactions and nonparticipating gas – (Ėg = 0), and heat transfer rates to/from
the control volume given by the Newton’s law of cooling, the mean gas temperature can
be evaluated as follows – see Equation (12).

Ėin − Ėout + 
Ė st ⇔ h1 A1 (T1 − Tm ) − h2 A2 (Tm − T2 ) ⇔
g = 
Ė
h1 πDT1 + h2 sT2
⇔ h1 πDL (T1 − Tm ) − h2 sL (Tm − T2 ) ⇔ Tm = ⇔
h1 πD + h2 s (12)
10 × π × 0.025 × 600 + 2 × 0.050 × 400
⇔ Tm = ⇔
10 × π × 0.025 + 2 × 0.050
⇔ Tm ≈ 577.411 K

(b) What is the rate per unit axial length at which electrical energy must be supplied to each
element to maintain its prescribed temperature?
Solution:
The required electrical power per unit length is calculated as the sum of the convective
heat transfer rate per unit length and the net radiative heat transfer rate per unit length
once all the electrical energy is converted into thermal energy – see Equation (13).

0 0 0 0
q1,elec = q1,total ≡ q1,conv + q1,rad (13)

The convective contribution to the total heat transfer rate from each heating element per
unit axial length is calculated in Equation (14) considering the gas temperature calculated

Page 5 of 9
previously (see Equation (12)).
0 0
q1,conv = h1 πD (T1 − Tm ) ⇔ q1,conv = 10 × π × 0.025 × (600 − 577.411) ⇔
0
(14)
⇔ q1,conv ≈ 17.741 W m−1

The radiative contribution is herein calculated considering the radiation network approach.
The radiative heat exchange between the three surfaces that comprise the enclosure can
be represented through the network illustrated in the following figure. The surfaces are as-
sumed as opaque, diffusive, and gray with uniform temperature, irradiation, and radiosity.
Since the surface of the heating elements (Surface 1) is black the corresponding radiative
resistance is negligible and J1 = Eb1 . Surface 2 has a finite surface radiative resistance
(since ε2 6= 1) and consequentely, J2 6= Eb2 – note the presence of this resistance in the net-
work representation ((1 − ε2 ) / (ε2 A2 )). Surface 3 is a reradiating surface since this surface
is insulated at the outer side and has a negligible convection heat transfer rate with the
gas – consequently, the corresponding net radiative heat transfer rate is zero and J3 = Eb3 .

The net radiative heat transfer rate from Surface 1 can be calculated according to Equation
(15). Note that the denominator of RHS of Equation (15) corresponds to the summation
of all (surface radiative and geometric) resistances between the nodes considered at the
numerator – nodes for which the blackbody emissive power are equal to Eb1 and Eb2 .

0 Eb1 − Eb2
q1,rad ≡ q1,rad L= 1 1−ε2 (15)
−1 + ε2 A2
A1 F12 +[(A1 F13 )−1 +(A2 F23 )−1 ]

The view factors F12 , F13 , and F23 must be evaluated. Equations (16) and (17) can be
applied due to the reciprocity relations. In Equation (17), F31 is equal to F21 (symmetry
rule).

A1 F12 = A2 F21 (16)

A1 F13 = A3 F31 ⇔ A1 F13 = A3 F21 (17)

The view factor F21 can be calculated with Equation (18) that was developed for the an
infinite plane and row of cylinders – see the figure below and find this equation in Table
13.1 of the textbook “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”, Sixth Edition (Seventh
Edition).

Page 6 of 9
 " 2 #1/2 " 1/2 #
s2 − D 2

D D
Fij = 1 − 1 − + tan−1 (18)
s s D2

Therefore, the view factor F21 is calculated in Equation (19).

" 2 #1/2
 "
2
 #
2 1/2
D D s − D
F21 = 1 − 1 − + tan−1 ⇔
s s D2
"  2 #1/2 "
2
 #
2 1/2 (19)
25 25 50 − 25
⇔ F21 = 1 − 1 − + tan−1 ⇔
50 50 252
⇔ F21 ≈ 0.658

The view factor F23 can be computed based on the summation rule applied for Surface 2
– see Equation (20). Note that F22 is equal to zero because Surface 2 is a planar surface.

F21 + F22 + F23 = 1 ⇔ F23 = 1 − F21 (20)

The following equation (Equation (21)) is obtained by substituting Equations (16), (17)
and (20) in Equation (15).

0 (Eb1 − Eb2 ) /L
q1,rad = 1 1−ε2 ⇔
−1 −1 −1
+ ε 2 A2
A1 F12 +[(A1 F13 ) +(A2 F23 ) ]
0 (Eb1 − Eb2 ) /L
⇔ q1,rad = 1 1−ε2 ⇔
−1 −1 + ε 2 A2
A2 F21 +[(A3 F21 ) +(A2 (1−F21 ))−1 ]
(21)
0 Eb1 − Eb2
⇔ q1,rad = 1 1−ε2 ⇔

−1 −1
−1 + ε2 s
sF21 + (sF21 ) +[s(1−F21 )]

0 sσ (T14 − T24 )
⇔ q1,rad = 1 1−ε2
−1 + ε2
F21 +[(F21 )−1 +(1−F21 )−1 ]

Replacing the parameters of Equation (21) by the corresponding values, the net radiative
heat transfer rate per unit length of Surface 1 (heating element) is obtained – see Equation

Page 7 of 9
 (22).

0 sσ (T14 − T24 )
q1,rad = 1 1−ε2 ⇔
−1 −1 + ε2
F21 +[(F21 ) +(1−F21 )−1 ]

0 0.050 × 5.67 × 10−8 × (6004 − 4004 ) (22)

⇔ q1,rad = 1 ⇔
−1 −1 −1
+ 1−0.5
0.5
0.658+[(0.658) +(1−0.658) ]
0
⇔ q1,rad ≈ 138.263 W m−1

Finally, replacing the results obtained in Equations (14) and (22) in Equation (13), the
total heat transfer rate per unit axial length (equal to the total rate of electrical energy
per unit axial length required) is computed – see Equation (23).

0 0 0 0 0
q1,total = q1,conv + q1,rad ⇔ q1,total = 17.741 + 138.263 ⇔ q1,total = 156.004 W m−1 (23)

(c) What is the heat flux to the coated panel (2)?

Solution:
The total heat flux to the coated panel (Surface 2) has two contributions – due to convection
and radiation heat transfer modes – as shown in Equation (24).

00 00 00
q2,total = q2,conv + q2,rad (24)

The convective contribution is computed in Equation (25) taking into account the mean
gas temperature calculated in Equation (12).
00 00 00
q2,conv = h2 (Tm − T2 ) ⇔ q2,conv = 2 × (577.411 − 400) ⇔ q2,conv = 354.822 W m−2 (25)

The radiative contribution is calculated as follows. Since Surface 3 is a reradiating surface

0
(q3 = 0), the net radiative heat transfer rate to Surface 2 per unit length (−q2,rad ) is equal
0
to the net radiative heat transfer rate from Surface 1 per unit length (q1,rad ). The net
radiative heat transfer rate to Surface 2 (coated panel) per unit length is calculated in
Equation (26).
0 0 0
q1,rad = −q2,rad ⇔ q2,rad = 138.263 W m−1 (26)

The net radiative heat flux to Surface 2 is evaluated in Equation (27) taking into account
the net radiative heat transfer rate to Surface 2 per unit length (Equation (26)) and the
pitch of the heating elements (s).
0
00
q2,rad 00 138.263 00
q2,rad = ⇔ q2,rad = ⇔ q2,rad = 2765.260 W m−2 (27)
s 0.050
Finally, the heat flux to the coated panel is calculated by replacing the values obtained in

Page 8 of 9
Equation (25) and (27) in Equation (24) – see Equation (28).

00 00 00 00
q2,total = q2,conv + q2,rad ⇔ q2,total = 354.822 + 2765.26 ⇔
00
(28)
⇔ q2,total = 3120.082 W m−2

Since the hydrothermal conditions are time-independent (steady-state problem) the heat
flux to the coated surface must be absorbed by the coating (for instance to promote species
vaporization (latent heat) or converted into chemical bonding energy by curing reactions).

Page 9 of 9