ANALYSIS OF BLACKHOLE

THERMODYNAMICS
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT 2023-24
BY:

VAIDEHI DAVE | 12TH SCIENCE (25) | 31.10.2023

INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, we will be determining the effect of the universe’s temperature on the
Black Hole as the universe ages by analyzing thermodynamics of a Schwarzschild
blackhole.

AIM
To determine how the blackhole gets affected by the universe’s temperature.

THEORY
The cosmic microwave background (CMB or CMBR) is microwave radiation that fills
all space in the observable universe. It is a remnant that provides an important source of
data on the primordial universe. The CMB has a thermal black body spectrum at a
temperature of 2.72548±0.00057 K.

In Einstein's theory of general relativity, the Schwarzschild metric (also known as

the Schwarzschild solution) is an exact solution to the Einstein field equations that
describes the gravitational field outside a spherical mass, on the assumption that
the electric charge of the mass, angular momentum of the mass, and
universal cosmological constant are all zero.

According to Birkhoff's theorem, the Schwarzschild metric is the most general spherically
symmetric vacuum solution of the Einstein field equations. A Schwarzschild black
hole or static black hole is a black hole that has neither electric charge nor angular
momentum. A Schwarzschild black hole is described by the Schwarzschild metric, and
cannot be distinguished from any other Schwarzschild black hole except by its mass.

The Schwarzschild black hole is characterized by a surrounding spherical boundary, called

the event horizon, which is situated at the Schwarzschild radius, often called the radius of
a black hole. Schwarzschild radius, also called gravitational radius, is the radius below
which the gravitational attraction between the particles of a body must cause it to
undergo irreversible gravitational collapse.

The Schwarzschild radius is given as

where G is the gravitational constant, M is the object mass, and c is the speed of light.

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 In the vicinity of a Schwarzschild black hole, space curves so much that even light rays are
deflected, and very nearby light can be deflected so much that it travels several times
around the black hole.

A black hole can form when enough matter or energy is compressed into a volume small
enough that the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. Nothing can travel
that fast, so nothing within a certain distance, proportional to the mass of the black hole,
can escape beyond that distance. The region beyond which not even light can escape is
the event horizon; an observer outside it cannot observe, become aware of, or be affected
by events within the event horizon. The essence of a black hole is its event horizon, a
theoretical demarcation between events and their causal relationships. The boundary at
where the escape velocity equals the velocity of light is the event horizon, a
hypothetical sphere or an ellipsoid depending on whether the black hole is having an
angular momentum or not.

Hawking radiation is the theoretical thermal black-body radiation released outside

a black hole's event horizon. This is counterintuitive because once
ordinary electromagnetic radiation is inside the event horizon, it cannot escape.

THERMODYNAMICS OF A BLACK HOLE

There is a close relationship between the traditional thermodynamic parameters and black
hole parameters. That is, the internal energy E to mass m of the black hole,
temperature T to surface gravity  of the event horizon and the entropy S to the
area A of the event horizon. Having assigned black hole parameters correctly to the
analogous parameters in thermodynamics, the, zeroth, first and third laws of classical
thermodynamics can be re-interpreted for a black hole.

Relation between area (A) of event horizon, surface gravity of blackhole

(k), temperature, mass and energy
If area A of the event horizon plays the role of entropy, then surface gravity κ plays the
role of temperature (KdA~TdS). The surface gravity defined locally, is always constant
over the event horizon of a stationary black hole. This constancy is reminiscent of the
zeroth law of thermodynamics which states that the temperature is uniform everywhere
in a system in thermal equilibrium.

Considering a quasi-static process in which a small mass dm is added to a black hole, the
entropy term in the first law is (dm = Da/8ΠG). For a Schwarzschild black hole
(∂m/∂A=8ΠG). This is really just an expression of mass-energy conservation and
corresponds to the first law. Cosmic censorship implies the unattainability of absolute
zero,   0. Therefore, third law states that the surface gravity of the horizon cannot be
reduced to zero in a finite number of steps.

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About Entropy
Because gravity always attracts, there is a general tendency for self-gravitating systems
to grow rather than shrink. The inability for light to emerge from inside the event
horizon of a black hole precludes the escape of any material and the event horizon acts as
an asymmetric one-way surface. This indicates the second law of thermodynamics, in
which there is an asymmetric tendency for a one-way increase in entropy. The size of
the black hole is analogous to the entropy. It keeps on increasing. This analogy is almost
trivial for a spherical, electrically neutral Schwarzschild black hole. A given global, or
macro, state can be realized by an enormous number of internal microstates. This suggests
that black holes have very high entropy, representing in some sense the maximum
entropy, equilibrium end state of gravitational collapse. Hawking has shown in a theorem
that the event horizon area cannot decrease in any process, so long as locally negative
energy which gravitates repulsively is not involved. This strong analogy between the event
horizon area and the entropy led to the use of the name second law in connection with
Hawking’s area theorem, stating that the horizon area can never decrease assuming
cosmic censorship and a positive energy condition dA zero.

THERMODYNAMICS LAWS INTERPRETED FOR A SCHWARZSCHILD BLACK

HOLE
LAW IN THERMODYNAMICS FOR A BLACK HOLE

ZEROTH LAW Temperature is uniform in a Surface gravity throughout the

thermodynamic system in event horizon is uniform
equilibrium
FIRST LAW dE = TdS  work terms work dm = /8 G. dA + work terms
terms 8 d

SECOND LAW dA zero dA zero

THIRD LAW T  zero   zero

Cannot be achieved within a Cannot be achieved within a
finite number of cycles finite number of cycles

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A QUANTUM BLACK HOLE
A classical black hole is a non-quantum black hole which emits neither matter nor
radiation. But when the thermodynamic analogy is taken into account, a few oversights of
the black hole thermodynamics became apparent: the temperature of a black hole
vanishes; in natural units, the entropy is dimensionless whereas that of the event
horizon, the area is length squared; the event horizon area of each black hole
individually is nondecreasing whereas only the total entropy is non-decreasing in
thermodynamics. To overcome these, a quantum black hole was introduced.

THE CONCEPT OF HAWKING RADIATION

Due to the vacuum fluctuations and Heisenberg uncertainty principle of energy and time,
particles and anti-particles are constantly created and annihilated in the free space. At the
vicinity of the event horizon of a black hole, the anti-particle can fall into the black
hole leaving the particle free. The matter particles will not be subjected to annihilation
but tunneled through the universe and can be observed by an outside observer. The
particle will be identified as if it had been emitted by the black hole itself. This
radiation is known as the Hawking radiation. Therefore, in a quantum black hole, its
mass is lost through Hawking radiation.

The entropy of the black hole measured by its area diminishes, but the creation of high
entropy thermal radiation in the surrounding environment more than offsets this
decrease and saves the second law of thermodynamics. So long as the rate of
shrinkage of the hole is much less than the frequency of the Hawking radiation, the effect
of the back-reaction on the radiation spectrum can be ignored and the black hole still
behaves as if it is approximately in thermodynamic equilibrium.

The black hole radiation is thermal in nature; therefore, it generates a rise in entropy in
the surrounding region. The generalized entropy ‘S’ was introduced by Beken stein to
account for this sort of entropy. It is defined as the sum of the black hole's entropy Sbh and
the entropy of the surrounding matter Ss, i.e. S’ =Sbh + Ss. This statement is known as the
generalized second law S'  zero.

A quantum black hole has a non-zero temperature. A black hole has a Hawking
temperature proportional to the Planck constant. The entropy is one fourth the horizon
area divided by the plank length squared. The area and hence the entropy of an
individual black hole can be decreased through Hawking Radiation. Hawking
temperature TH for a Schwarzschild black hole is given by the expression:

where ħ is the reduced Planck constant, G is the universal constant

of gravity, m is the black hole mass and B k is the Boltzmann
constant.

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In order for the second law of thermodynamics not to be violated, a black hole should
possess non-zero entropy. The entropy of a black hole is sometimes called Beken stein-
Hawking entropy. It is proportional to the surface area A of its event horizon.

The present era of the universe is dark matter dominated. Hence the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) temperature decays in an exponential manner. The temperature
variation is given by the following expression:

T(t)=2.7 e-Ht
where H is the Hubble’s constant with a value H = 69.32 ± 0.80 km/s/Mpc and t is the
time measured from the present.

CRITICAL MASS
A black hole regardless of its type can be considered as a black body emitting a radiation
spectrum with a characteristic temperature, Hawking temperature TH. At the same time, it
is in the thermal bath of so-called cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. Hence
energy is simultaneously gained and lost by the black hole.

This situation can be mathematically modelled by the Stephan-Boltzmann law:

where E is the total energy of the black hole, A is the surface area of the black body and T S
is the surrounding temperature. The Hawking temperature can be written as

According to the special theory of relativity, the change in mass is related to change in
energy by,

The area of the event horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole is

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By substituting the values of constants from the previous equations we get,

Defining the mass of the black hole with respect to the solar mass Me, the parameter

  m/Me was introduced.

Hence, by further substitution,

THE UNIVERSE
As the universe expanded, this plasma cooled to the point where protons and electrons
combined to form neutral atoms of mostly hydrogen. Unlike the plasma, these atoms
could not scatter thermal radiation by Thomson scattering, and so the universe became
transparent. Known as the recombination epoch, this decoupling event
released photons to travel freely through space – sometimes referred to as relic radiation.
However, the photons have grown less energetic due to the cosmological
redshift associated with the expansion of the universe.

In cosmology, decoupling is a period in the development of the universe when different

types of particles fall out of thermal equilibrium with each other. This occurs as a result
of the expansion of the universe, as their interaction rates decrease (and mean free
paths increase) up to this critical point.

MASS OF THE BLACK HOLE

Accordingly, to the Einstein’s special theory of relativity there is a direct connection
between mass and energy while the thermodynamic counterpart for energy for a black
hole is mass. Hence in the thermodynamic point of view, the mass of a black hole is
identified as its internal energy. Mass variation with time can be obtained by
numerically solving the differential equation.

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Initially, the background radiation of the universe was assumed to be a constant
throughout the time. This constant cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
temperature was taken as 2.7K and is a good enough assumption, if the life time of the
black hole is appreciably less compared to the temperature variation time of the universe.

But according to the data, as mass is gained by the black hole, the surface area of its
event horizon expands increasing the area of the interface between the black hole
and the universe allowing the black hole to absorb more and more radiation.
Thereby the energy from the universe causes it to grow even faster and the mass increases
at an increasing rate. Meanwhile the increment of the mass reduces the Hawking
radiation, causing the black hole to lose mass at a lower and lower rate.

As the mass is lost by the black hole, it shrinks causing the surface area of its event
horizon to be reduced. And hence lesser radiation flux is absorbed by the black hole
causing its mass adding rate to be diminished. Meantime, the Hawking radiation
becomes more prominent and that causes the black hole to evaporate at an
increasing rate.

The critical mass of the stationary black hole is  = 2.297867 x 10-8 At this critical mass,
the rate of which the radiation or mass is received by the black body from the CMB
is equal to the rate at which it loses mass through the Hawking radiation.

The time taken by a ten solar mass black hole to get totally evaporated is extremely large
when compared to the present age of the universe but is still finite. Hence no black hole is
stable regardless how massive it is and finally will be completely evaporated.

ENTROPY OF BLACK HOLES

For a Schwarzschild black hole, the entropy is given by

As the entropy of a black hole is directly proportional to the square of its mass, the
entropy drops rapidly with the decreasing of mass. The black holes with a larger mass
initially possess a huge amount of entropy and with time as the mass decreases, their
entropy is also decreased. Even though during the evaporation process, the entropy
of the black hole Sbh is decreased, that entropy is carried away to the universe by
the Hawking radiation.

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Hence the total entropy of the universe is not decreased. That is the summation of the
entropies of a black hole and its surrounding Ss does not decrease with time i.e., Sbh + Ss
 zero.

CONCLUSION
− The mathematical model assuming that energy is simultaneously gained and lost
by the black hole according to the Stephan-Boltzmann law showed that, the mass
of a black hole is steadily reducing with an increasing rate.

− The time taken for a black hole to vanish increases rapidly with its initial mass.

− With the constant CMB temperature assumption, a critical mass for a black hole
was determined at which the black hole is in dynamic equilibrium with the
surrounding.

− However, in the dark matter dominant present era the CMB temperature drops
exponentially and no black hole can withstand the evaporation. The temperature
of a black hole grows rapidly as it is evaporated and finally tends to infinity
and vanishes in a very short period of time causing gamma ray bursts.

− The larger the blackhole, the longer it will take for the temperature of the
universe to reach equilibrium to the temperature of the blackhole. After
reaching equilibrium, a larger blackhole will take longer time to radiate its
mass away than the smaller one.

− The entropy is decreases rapidly with the black hole mass and through the
Hawking radiation, the entropy is added to the rest of the universe.

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